Spinors in n Dimensions

Author(s): Richard Brauer and Hermann Weyl

Source: American Journal of Mathematics, Vol. 57, No. 2 (Apr., 1935), pp. 425-449
Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press
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 SPINORS IN n DIMENSIONS.

By RICHARD BRAUER AND HERMANN WEYL.

Introductionand Summary. Let by,be the group of orthogonaltrans-

formationso:
n
(I) xt~~X E o (ic) x,* (i I,1~2, .. n)
k=l

of the n-dimensionalspace, and b?n+ the subgroupof propertransformations,

having determinant+ 1 and not - 1. We shall firstoperate withiii the
contiiiuumof all complexnumbers,whereasthe particularconditionspre-
vailing under restrictionto real variableswill be studiedonly at the end of
the paper (?? 8 and 10). A givenrepresentation P: o -> G(o) of degreeN
definesa certainkind of "covariant quantities": a quantitycharacterized
by N numbersa1, , aN relativeto an arbitraryCartesiancoo6rdinate system
in the underlyingn-dimensionalEuclidean space will be called a quamntity of
k1ind r, providedthe components aK experiencethe lineartransformation G(o)
underthe influenceof the co,6rdinate transformation o. The quantityis called
primitiveif the representationis irreducible. The propositionthat every
representation breaksup into irreducibleparts, states that the most general
kind of quantitiesis obtainedby juxtapositionof severalindependentprimi-
tive quantities.
By a tensorof rcankf we shall mean here what usually is called a skew-
symmmetric tensor: a skew-symmetric functiona(i1 if) of f indicesranging
independently from1 to n whichtransforms accordingto the law
n
- Y o(i1k1) . . . o(ifkf) * a0i kr
if)--) )
kl,. . ., kf = 1

uncderthe influenceof the rotationo. The tensorsof rank f formthe sub-

stratumof a representationrf of degree ( ).
We oftenhave to distinguishbetweeneven and odd dimensionality, and
we shall accordinglyput n = 2v or n 2v+ 1. Let us use the notation
v <n> and in passing notice the congruence

In (n 1) <n> (mod 2).

E. Cartan developeda generalmethodof constructing irreduciblerepre-
sentationsof b.n (or anv other semi-simplegroup) by consideringthe in-
425
42 6 RICHARD BRAUER AND HERMANN WEYL.

finitesinmal alnd he foundlt as the building stolnesof the whole

operatiolns,
edificethe tenasor Pf togetherwith one furtherdouble-vallued
represenatationis
representation, A : o -> S(o) 2". The quanatitiesof kinadA are called
of dlegr-ee
spim,ors. In the four-dimenasionalworldthiskinidof quanltities has cometo its
due holnorsby Dirac's theoryof the spilnningelectroln.Cartani,accordling to
his stanadpoinit, law S(o) of spiniorsonalyfor the
states the tranisformationi
inafilnitesimal o. Here we shall give a simplefilnite
rotatiolns descriptionlof the
A alndshall derivefromit by the simplestalgebraicmealls the
represenitationi
mainipropertiesof the spilnors. Oniewill be able to judge by this theoryto
what extelntrecelntilnvestigationis
about spinaorcalculus reveal those essenatial
featuresthat stayunichanaged forhigherdimenisiolns.Onaeof the chiefresults
will be thatDirac's equatiolnsof the motiolnof alnelectrolnalndthe expression
forthe electriccurrenit are ulniquelydetermilned evelnin the case of arbitrary
dimelnsiolnality.
Our ilnvestigatiolnwill be arralngedas follows: we start (? 2) with a
certainiassociativealgebraII of order22v whichprovesto be a completematrix
algebrain.2Pcdimenisionas, of A (? 3). We
alndleads to the desireddefilnitioll
shall firstget A as a collineationa
representatiolnsuch that onllythe ratios of
the spinaorcomlponaelntshave a mealning. In the case of evelndimensionality
it 2vwe shall prove (? 3) thatthe productA X A of A bythe contragredient
representatiolnA splitsup accordingto the equivalelnce:

AX roF+Fr+Pr2 + *
rn.

whereasin the odd case

AXFro+r2?+F4+' + Eni

(? 5). The collineationa

representatiolnA can be normalizedso as to give an
orclilnary,
though double-valuedrepreselntation A satisfyinagthe equivalenace
A ~A (?? 4, 5). If olne restrictsolneselfto the proper orthogonial trans-
formationsin a space of evenidimensionaality,A splitsup into two representa-
tionisA+ and A- each of degree 2'-1 (? 6). The four productsof the type
A X :s will be determinied for A Al or A-, ancdso will the
incdividually =

equivalencesof type A .- A. The trlansitioln from our finiteto Cartan's

infilnitesimal
descriptioncan be easily performed(? 7). In considerinag real
transformations only,the differences of the inertialindex lhaveto be taken
into account(? 8); it will be provedthat A is equivalentto A again-but for
a sign the determiniationof whichis of peculiar interestalndcloselyrelated

t Bulletin Soci6te Math6matique de France, vol. 41 (1913), p. 53. Coim1parealso

Weyl, Mathematisehe Zeitschrift, vol. 24 (1926), p. 342.
 SPINORS IN It DIMIENSIONS. 42 7

to the inertial index. IrreducibilityTand equivalence of the occurriingrepre-

sentations will be ascertained in ? 9, and the relation to physics will be clis-
cussed in ? 10. In parts of the inavestigationa we must have recourse to the
law of dualityT of tenasorsanad tenasorrepresentations rf as formulated in the
preliminary ? 1. The last sectiona (? 11) is devoted to the clemonastrationiof a
well-knaowjifuinclanientalpropositioni conacerninigthe automorphisnis of the
coniplete matrix algebra, a propositioniinadispenisablefor the definitiollof A.

1. Duality of tensors. rP is the representation of degree 1 of the full

rotatiolngroup b,,associatilngthe signiaturea (o) withthe rotatiollo o (o) + 1
for the proper, o-(o) - 1 for the imiiproperrotatiolns. AnyTrepresentation
r : -> G (o) gives rise to another represelntationar : o (o) G (o), coil-
cidlingwith r ulnderrestrictiolnto b.1+.
The equation
(2) * (ill. ) = (l . . . if)

in which i1 ifi'1 . i'f denotes anyT eveni perniutation of the figures

from 1 to II, associates a telnsora* of rank ii - f with every telnsora of ralnkf.
This relatioln is ilnvarialntwith respect to proper orthogolnaltralnsformatiolls.
Thus the la,w of duality rF,f -rf prevails for the telnsorrepresentations rf
of b,,+. Whelntakilngthe improper orthogorialtranisformatiolns ilntocolnsidera-
tioln it is to be replaced by
rt,.f r--"rf.

Ina the case of alnevelnniumberof dimelnsiolns it 2v', the represelntation,

rF
cleserves particular attelntion. It satisfies the equivalelnce -rv, rv. (2) or
rather
. .
(3) a(il ilv) .l .( iv)

now establishesa transformationa -> , of the space of the tensorsof rank v

upo,nitself. We added the factoril in order to make this transforniation
invTolutorial: -* a; for if il iv i'l .
'v is an even perniutation,
i*l i'vil iv has the character (- 1)".
We may distinguish between
positiveandl negativetensorsof rank v accordingas a*- a or a - a.
Any tensorof rank v can be decomposedin a unique mannerinto a positive
ancda negativepart:
a, =-( + a,* + -2
t( t

Hence, as a representationof the group b+2v, rv splits up into two representa-

tions rv+ + rv- of half the degree.

2. The algebrcaH. Our procedureis exactlythe same as followedby

 428 RICHARD BRAUER AND HERMANN WEYL.

Dirac in his classicalpaper on the spinningelectron.t We introducen quanti-

ties pi which turn the fundamentalquadratic form into the square of a
lilnearform:
(4) X12 Xn. + 2 (plXl+ * + PnXn) 2.

For this purposewe must have

(5)) op2 aL, pkpi -Pipk (k 7+ i).

The quantitiespi engenderan algebra consistingof all linear combinations
of the 2n units

(6) ea,... =. p " p.. . (cal, , an integers mod 2).

The recipeformultiplicationof the units reads,accordingto (5):

ea,. . . an 'efil.. On ( ) eyl . ..Yn; 75 (Xi+ /3in I (a,k.

One easilyconvincesoneselfthatthis rule of multiplicationis associative.

One may writethe mostgeneralquantitya of our algebrain the form

(7) a= + (1/f!) , a,(il if)pi, p,f + (f==O, 1, ,n),

(il,. . if)
splittinga into parts accordingto the numberf of the different factorsp.
Since the productof f different p's like Pi, * pif is skew-symmetric with
respectto the indicesi1 .f, one will choosethe coefficientsac(i1 if) in
(7) also skew-symmetric; one is then allowed to extendthe sum > in (7)
over the indices i1,- , f independentlyfrom 1 to n. Consequentlythe
quantitya is equivalentto a "tensor set" consistingof m+ 1 tensors,one
of each of the ranks0, 1, , f,* *, n. The additionof two tensorsets and
the multiplicationof a set by a numberhas the trivialsignificance withinthe
algebra H. But how are we to expressthe multiplicationof two tensorsets
a and b ? It suffilces
to describethe case of an a containingmerelyone tensorac
of ralnkf, and a b containingmerelyone tensor8 of rankg (whereasthe other
parts vanish). The product splits into differentparts according to the
numberr of coincidencesamongthe indicesof ocand ,8. As
.
Pil Pf r- Pli i7 PIl PlrPk Pkg-r
n(e g s o)r(r-1)/2p the "cont tpio" Pk- Pkg_

one gets as part r- of the product essentially the " contraction"

tProceedings of the Royal Society (A), vol. 117 (1927), p. 610; vol. 118 (1928),
p. 351.
 SPINORS IN It DIMIENSIONS. 429
t-l k*kg-r ) a7) k,
(8) (i...ifr(t
*1. Ir) * 1* * *1? **g

This process,however,has to be followedby "alternation," i. e. alternating

summationover all permutationsof the f + g - 2r indicesin -y. Since -yis
already skew-symmetric with respectto the f - r indices i and the g - r
to extendan alternatingsum overall " mixtures" of
indicesk, it is sufficient
the indices i1 if-rwith the indices k.. 7g-r. This will be indicatedby
the symbolM. By takinginto considerationthe factor1/f! attachedto the
f-thtermin (7) and the severaldistributions of the r equal indices 11 Ir
amongthe indicesof acand /3,one gets finallythe result: The " product" of
thetwotensorsacand 83is a tensorset in whichonlytensorsof rankf + g -2
appear; the integerX is limitedby the bounds
X _O, 2r f +g-n, X f, xig.
The part r is givenby
( )<">(I/,-!) -My (ii .if-r471 kg-r)
wherey denotesthe contraction(8).-We are not so much interestedin the
exact descriptionof this process of multiplicationas in the fact that it is
orthogonally invariant.

3. Spinorsin a space of evendimenisionzality.

In thissectionwe suppose
=
n 2v to be even. The algebraH is knownto the quantumtheoristfromthe
processof " superquantizing"that allows the passage fromthe theoryof a
single particleto the theoryof an undeterminednumberof equal particles
subjectedto the Fermi statistics. This connectionat once yields a definite
representationpi -> PF by matricesPi of order2". Into its descriptionenter
the two-rowedmatrices

1= 10 1gI 0 01_ Q0o1i

I I p~_
01' 0 -1' 1 0'
The two rowsand columnswill be distinguishedfromeach otherby the signs
+ and -. 1', P, Q anticommutewith each other; their squares are- 1.
Besides pl,- p2V we sometimesuse the notationp1,
, , pl, q1, , qv.
The representation thenis givenby

pa3Pa, 1 X ...X I' X P X I X . X.1,

(9 1 X... V)
a Q. X 1X Q X I X 1. . . X
On the rightside we have v factors; the factorsP, Q respectively,
occurat tlle
ac-thplace. The rowsand columnsof our matricesor the coo6rdinates XA in
 430 RICHARD BRAUER AND HERMANN WEYL.

the 2v-dimnensional space, accordingto the notationintroduced,

representation
are distinguished from each other by a combination of signs (.-,, 02, , UV),
(7a = ) One verifiesat once that the desiredrules prevail:
(10) p2_ PkUP, -P,Pk (i' =7&1)

In this mannerwe have establisheda definiterepresentatlion x -> X of

degree2vforthe algebraI. We maintainthat all miiatrices X appealrhereas
imtagesof elemtents x of the algebi-a. As the algebra II is of the same order
22 -_ (2v) 2as the algebra colnsisting of all matricesin the 2v-cdimensional
space,the relationx ?> X is a one-to-oneisomorphicmappingof H upon the
completematrixalgebra of the 2-cdimensional " spin space": the algebra H
is isonmorphicto the completematrixalgebrain spin space. In orderto prove
ourstatement, let us computethe matrixUa representing Ua iPaqa

. I X If X I X .
(11) Ua iPaQa I X . *.X .* X1
and then
(11') Ul . . .Ua-lPa I X X 1 X PX1X X 1

togetherwith U1 UaiQa. from1 occurat the o-th

(The factorsdifferent
place.) Thus the followingelements

2( + Ua) =- Za++n
. . . - Za
Ul Ua-1(pa iga)
. . . , =
UiM Ua-1(p?a + iqa) Za 2(1Ua) Z.a-

are represented
byproductssimilarto (11) but containingone of the matrices
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 ll0 0 ' 1 0 ll0 1,

at the ac-thplace. Colnsequelntly

the image of the element fI (Za6ara) is the
a=1
matrixcontaininga term different
from0, lnamely 1, only at the crossing
poilntof the row u1 UVwith the column T1 7*v (O-a= ?4 Ta = +)-

We are now in a positionto establishthe colnnectioln

with the rotations
o 11
o (ik) 11in the n-dimelnsiolnal
space (MetlhodA). We chalnge,by means
of the orthogolnal matrixo(ih)

k=1 k=1

and we observe at olncethat the new P*i, like the old oiies, satisfy the relationis
(10). Consequently pi -> P*1i defines a new representation of our algebra H.
Sin?ce the full miiatr7'ix algebra, hoowever, allows on?.lyin ?er autom o rphismis,t

t See the pioof in ? 11.

 SPINORS IN It DIMIENSIONS. 431

this representation
has to be equivalentto the original one; that is, there
existsa non-singularmatrixS(o) such that

(13) P*- ~S (o)Pi S (o) - (it -~,2. , n).

S (o) is determinedby this equation but for a numericalfactor,the "gauge
factor": S (o) is to be interpretedin the "homogeneous" sense,not as an
affiletransformationiof the 2kc-dimensionalvectorspace, but as a collineation
of the projectivespace conlsistinig
of its rays. Afterfixinigthe gauge factors
fortwo rotationso, o' and theirproducto'o in an arbitrarymanner,we neces-
sarilyhave a relationilike
(14) S(o'o)- c S(o') S(o).

Consequentlywe are dealing with a collineationi representtationof degree 2V

of the rotationigroup,the so-calledspin r7epr'esentation A : o > S(o).
The same conniectioncan be describedas follows (Method B). Or-
thogonaltransformation of the tenasorsof an arbitrarytensorset definesan
autoniorphicmappinigx -> x of the algebraII of the tensorsets upon itself.
Such a mappinghowever,in the representation x-> X of the tensorsets by
matricesX of order2v,is necessarilydisplayedin the form
XI --X SXS-' (S independent of x).

Let us writedown this equationin components:X= =

XJE 11; it then reads

X*JK - XT
51R SKT 1R
f,T

S= 1SJR jj is the matrixcontragredienit

to S. Hence the componentsXJK
experiencethe transformation
S X S and this provesthe reductioni

(15) AX ro +al+ r?P - PO+ rl+ +r,v-+ +}?(rv -orv).

The quantities{j1A) and {0.4} of the kind A, A shall be called covar7ian-t

and contravairiant spinior-srespectively. Let us write the components
VIA of a
covariant spinor as a column and the componientsOA of a contravarianitspinor
as a row. Our last equation tells us that one is able to formiiby linear com-
binationof the (2") 2products O4AB: otie scalar, one vector, onTe tensorof
rank 2, etc. The scalar is, of course,
++ = E Oq,A
A

The vectorhas the components4Pqf. Inideed,in carryingout the trans-

folrllation O** 5I, s* - S-1, one gets,
432 RICHARD BRAUER AND HERAMANN WEYL.

p*P. oii*Pi= - o(ik) cS-PP*k S& = o(ik) pPkqp.

k=1 k=1

The tensorof rank 2 has the componentscp(PjPk)> [i y k] ; etc. In this

mannerwe are able to carryout the reduction(15) explicitly.

4. Connectionz and contravariantspinors. Let n be

betweencovar-iantt
even as before. We proposeto showthat therepresentation i is equivalentto
the representation A. For this purposewe observethat the relations (10)
characteristicfor the matricesPi hold at the same time for the transposed
matricesP'i. Accordingto theproposition on theautomorphisms ofour matrix
algebra II we alreadyhave had occasion to use, theremust exist a defilite
non-singularmatrixC such that

(16) P', CPiC-

for all i. It is easy to writedown C explicitly. For we have

Pa Pa, QcLa- Q- xQa, (

But the productpi pv commutes withthe pa and anticommutes withthe

qa, if v is odd; if v is even the situationis reversed. Hence one can take
c -p.. .. pv or q . qv
accordingas v is odd or even. In this way one findsin bothcases:

(17) c== 0 1 10 i X 01 X . (V factors)

1 0 -i 0 1 0
and one verifiesat once the relations (16).
Along with (12) we have

P1 ->J*,
P 0 (ki)P',k.
k

This transitionis expressedon the one hand in the form

P-i > S'(o)-1 P' S'(o) = S(o)P' S(o)1 .

On the otherhand the transformationof P'" CPqC-1is obviouslyperformed

=

by means of CS (o) CW1. Hence an equation like

CS (o) C-1=-p (O) *S (O)

musthold wherep (o) is a numericalfactordependenton o. On multiplica-

tion of S(o) by X,S(o) is multipliedby 1/Xand p is thus changedinto pA2.
 SPINORS IN n DIMIENSIONS. 433

Hence we may disposeof the arbitrarygauge factorin S in such a way that p

becomes = 1:
(18) S(O) = CS(O)C-1.
This has the effectthat
(19) (det S)2 = 1.

S(o) is now uniquelydeterminedbut for the Sign. Afternormalizingthis

sign for two rotationso, o' and the compoundo'o in an arbitrarymanner,
the compositionfactorc in (14) becomes - I; forthe matrices
Xt S(o'o)
and AX S (o') S (o) both satisfythe normalizingcondition

C=CxC-1.

A nowis an ordinary,thoughdouble-valuedrepresentation insteadof a collinea-

tion representation.
Equation (18) gives the explicit relation betweenthe covariant and
contravariantspinors: if C is the matrix 1J
CAB 11the substitution

( = E CAB qB
B

changesthe covariantspinor;, into a contravariantspinor p.

The " square" of the double-valuedrepresentation
A is single-valuedand
is decomposed,accordingto formula

into the tensorrepresentations

rf.
5. Odd numberofdimensions.n - 2i' + 1. To ourquantitiespi,,**, p2V
a furtherone p2v+1 has to be added, p22v+1 = 1, whichanticommutes with the
previouspi. The representationpi Pi (i
-* 1, , 2v) can be extendedby
establishingthe correspondence

P- >Pn=-- 1, X 1, X ***X 1, (n 2v+ 1).

Let t be = 1 or i accordingas v is evrenor odd. The product
(20) u tplp2 . . . Pn
commuteswithall quantitiesof the algebraand satisfiesthe equationu2_ 1.
In the representation
just describedu is representedby the matrix1. There
existsa secondrepresentationof the algebra:
(21) p1>-Pt(i=1,2,i * *,n)
in whichu 1 and whichthus provesto be inequivalentto the firstone.
434 RICIIARD BRAUER AND IIERAIANN WEYL.

The order 2 (2v)2 of the algebra H this time is twice as large as the
orderof the algebraof all matricesX in the 2v-cdimensional spin-space. Our
isomorphic mappingx -> X therefore becomesa one-to-onecorrespondence only
afterreducing11modulo(1 - u) ; thisis accomplished byaddingtheconiditioni
u 1 to the definingequations (5). This new algebramay be realized as a
subalgebrain II in different manniers; for inistanice,
as the algebra of the
the conditionx =ux.
quantitiesx satisfyilng It is moreconvenientto consider
the even quantitiesin Il. Their basis coinsistsof the productsof an even
numberofp; in (6) onehas to add therestriction a, + + , =-0 (mod 2);
the corresponiding tensorsets conitaintensorsof even rank only. Any odd
quantity may be written in the formutxwherex is even. The arbitraryquantity
x + ux' of the algebra rI (x and x' even) is represented by the same matrix
as the even quantity x + x'. Hence the correspondencex -> X is a one-to-one
correspondencewithin the algebra Hl, of the even quantities. The second
representation
(21) coincideswiththe firstfor the even quantities.
The procedureis now as above (MIethodA). Let 110(ilc) 11be a proper
orthogonal transformation. Then (12) yields a new representation of H.
By multiplication we get

P=_
U*-tPl cldet[o(RiU)] U =U.

Hence this representation

like the original one associates the matrix + 1
(and not 1) with u; by means of Pi --P* we thus map the algebra H
reducedmnodulo
(1 - u) isomorphically
upon itself,and consequently
an equa-
tion like
P*. - SPiS-l

holds. The representation

a o -> S (o) may1be extenadedto the improper
rotationsby making the matrix + 1 or 1 correspondto the reflection
xi > xi that commuteswith all rotations. (Wlhetherone chooses + 1 or
-1 does not make any differencehere since the represenitation
A is double-
vTalued.)
(MIethodB). The orthogonaltransformation
o is an isomorphicmapping
of the manifold of all even tensor sets upon itself. After representing this
manifold by the algebra of all matrices X in 2v dimensions in the manner
described above, o appearsas an automorphism X --> X* of the completematrix
algebra: X- SXVS-1. One gets S(o) here at the same time for all proper
ancdimproperrotationso. Furthermore,we obtain the decomposition

(22) Ax A ro+r2+ + 2Vro+ur,1+ + ur3+ ,

 SPINORS IN It DIMIENSIONS. 435

the last sumiconcludingwiththe termrv or 'Orv. Consequentlythereis con-

tailnedin A X A a proper scalar, an imipropervector,a proper tensor of
rank2, etc.
The nt= (2i' + 1)-dimensional oroup of rotationisb, comprises the
(I? - 1)-dimensionalone b,,-,by subjectingthe variablesx1, ..X2V to ain
orthogonaltransformation x,v+lunchanged. This restriction to a
alndleavinog
subgroupcarries the representation A of b1, as here defined,over into the
representationA of the (n - 1) -dimelnsional group of rotationswhich we
definedin ? 3. The same restriction splitsa tenisorof rankf in the n-dimen-
sional space into twotenisorsof ranikf and f - 1 respectively in the (Il - 1) -
dimensionalspace. And thus the decomposition(22) goes over into the
decomposition(15).
The matrix C, (17), which satisfiedthe equations P'i = CPi.C- (for
i - 1, 2, , 2v) fulfills the condition

CP C-1 = (- 1 ) 1P

for P? P2V+1. Hence it can be used hereforthe same purposeas in ? 4 only

=

if v even. In the oppositecase one mustreplaceC by CUP,,:

0i1 0 1 1 0 iK,
1 -? 0 X 1 0 X ? 0,

and one thenhas CPIC-1 P'i (for all i). Under bothcircumstalnces
the
equation (18) obtains for the C determinedin this manner and after ani
appropriatenormalizationof the gauge factorin S (o). Here again we have
A ~ A and we are able to express explicitlythe transfornmatiolnC which
chanigescovariantspinorsinto contravariantonies.
6. Splitting of A under restrictionto pr'oper rotations. In the case of
odd dimensionalityit makes no differenice whetherone considersthe group
bll or bl+ sinicethe reflectioncommutingwith all rotationsis an improper
rotation. If, however,a == 2i' is even,restrictioln
to b,,+effectsa splittingof
the spin representationiA into tw,oilnequivalentrepresentations A+ and A- of
degree2-1, and one will have to distinguishbetween" positive" anid" nega-
tire " spinlorsaccordingly. This comesabout as follows.
Again we form

(23) U tp .pv >U 1 X 1 X . X 1.

We separate the eveencomnbinationsof signs (C,. ,uv) as characterized by
rl *V = + 1 fromn the odd ones. Accoridinig to such an arrangementU
appears-in the form
436 RICHARD BRAUER AND HERAIANN WEYL.

1 0
(24) =- s
0 -1

As a consequenceof equations (12) one has for the proper rotationso:

U -- U* - U. As P*i - SP,S-1 implies U* = SUS-1 the matrix S com-
muteswith (24) and thus breaksup into an "even " and an " odd " part:

S+ O

o S

The matricesS+(o) and S-(o) in the two representations A+ and A- of degree

2v-1are uniquely determinedbut for a commonsign. Hence the fact that
the reflectionis associatedwiththe matrix+ 1 in A+,withthe matrix- 1
in A-,means an actual inequivalence.
What is the significanceof the partitionof X into four squares for the
corresponding quantitiesx of the algebra II or for the tensorsets? (1) We
see fromtheequationUP Pi U thatthe evenquantitiescommutewithU
-

and that the odd ones anticommute. Even and odd quantities are con-
sequentlyrepresentedby matricesof the followingshape respectively:

x x
(25) (26)
x x

(the squares not marked by a cross are occupied by zeros). (2) The in-
volutorialoperation
a ->a* au, A4->A* AU
leavTes
the two frontsquares in

unichanged while it reversesthe signs in the two back squares. Let us agree
to ascribe the signature+ or - to a quantitya accordingas a* a or
a*- a. These quantitiesthen are representedby matricesof the form
(27), (28) respectively:
 SPINORS IN fn DIMIENSIONS. 437

x. x
(27) - - (28)
x x

Everyquantitymaybe uniquelywrittenas the sum of twoquantitiesof signa-

tures+ alid -. (Besides the operationa -> a * one could of coursealso con-
sider the followingone: a -* at ua. But the crossingof bothsignaturesis
=

carriedout in a more convenientway by crossingthe signaturehere applied

withthe divisioninto even and odd quantities. For we have at a* foreven =

quantitiesand at a* forodd ones.) Thus we finallyget this scheme:

x x

x x
even odd odd even
+ + : signature.
The questionas to how our star operationis expressedin termsof tensor
setsis answeredby theequation:
. .
Pi
.
pf* U ( 1 )<f> tpf+1
.
P

showingthatthe transitionfroma {a} to a* -{a*} is definedb+

a* (ifl *. . . fn-f) (1) <f*0 a(t, * i f)

(wherei1 * iif'1 * it f is any evenpermutation). The factor( 1) <0>*

equals i".
Hence, taking into consideration the splitting of rv into rv+ + rv- as
explainedin ? 1, we get the followingreductions:

(29) A+XA+ro+Pr2+A+ x A- ri+r3+

-
A- X +
r + r3 + -X a-ro +r2 + .

Of the two sums in the firstcolumn,one breaksoffwith rv-1, the otherwith

rv+,whereasthe sumsof the secondcolumnend withrv- and rv-J respectively.
From (16) we obtain by multiplication

(- 1) U' = CUC-1 or CU ( 1) UC.

This showsthat C is of form (25) or (26) accordingas v is even or odd.

With C, C2 being the partial matricesof C, we thus have
 SPINORS IN n DIMIENSIONS. 437

x x
(27) (28)
x x
Everyquantitymay be uniquelywrittenas the sum of two quantitiesof signa-
tures + and -. (Besides the operation a -- a* one could of course also con-
sider the followingone: a -- at = ua. But the crossingof both signaturesis
carriedout in a moreconvenientway by crossingthe signaturehere applied
withthe divisioninto even and odd quantities. For we have at = a* foreven
quantitiesand at-= a* forodd ones.) Thus we finallyget this scheme:

x x

even odd odd even

+ - + - : signature.
The questionas to how our star operationis expressedin termsof tensor
setsis answeredby the equation:
. . . . . .
Pi pf * U= (-)f*pf+1 pn,

showingthatthe transitionfroma= {a} to a* = {a,*} is definedby

== . . .
0Z* (ifl *. i'n- f ) (- 1 ) <f> t *aZ(ij if )

(wherei1* if.i'l
. in-f is any evenpermutation). The factor(- 1) <v>*
equals i".
Hence, taking into considerationthe splittingof rv into rv++ rV- as
explainedin ? 1, we get the followingreductions:

(29) Ax +roP+Pr+ XA-X 'r0+Pr3+?

A- x r + r3 + A-X
A-X--ro +r2 + .
Of the two sums in the firstcolumn,one breaksoffwithrv_, the otherwith
rv+,whereasthe sumsof the secondcolumnend withrv-and rv-,respectively.
From (16) we obtain by multiplication

(- 1)U=-- CUC-1 or CU= ( 1)vUC.

This showsthat C is of form (25) or (26) accordingas v is even or odd.

With Cl, C, being the partial matricesof C, we thus have
 SPINORS IN It DIMIENSIONS. 439

for X = S,6 or Tfl (3# (x), but dSa = Sa, dTa= -Ta.

(b) X8X [S.aTfT,XI = for all S and T

exceptfor X = S6 alndTa for whichwe have:

SSO = Sa, STa Tfl.

This is readilyseenifromthe expression

[SaTP, X] = Sa (TflX + XTfl) (XS.a + SaX) Tp.

In this way we have arrivedat Cartan's infinitesimal

descriptioni
of the spill
representationi.
Nothinigessenitialhas to be added in the case of odd dimnensioctality.
It is thenimost colnveniienit
to assume the funidamenital
quadraticformin the
shape
(x0) 2+ 2(XIyI+ + xvyv)

(31) shows that A is double-valuedand not single-valued. For in ac-

cordancewiththis equationthe rotationo:

xl e-> xi, y1-->c y1 (all other variables ulnchaniged)

is associatedwiththe operationi
S (o) multiplyilng
the variablexc1. a, in the
spin space by e"i0L (offa- 1).
8. Conditionsof reality. For the real orthogonaltransformations the
question arises whetherthe conijugatecomplex representation : o S(o)
to \. The Pi beilngHermitianmatrices,P5 equals P'i. Further-
is equivalelnt
more,the equationis:

P*, - o(ki)Pe imply P*. fi o(ki)P;

k k

providedthe o (ik) are real. This leads at oniceto the result

S(o) =p(o)S(o).

Hence the Hermitianunit formYXAXAin spin space goes over,by means of

the substitution
S, into p fold the unit form. So p mustbe positiveand

detSJ2 2

But on accountof our normalizationof S causinig(det S)2 to be = 1 we find

p= 1,
17
 440 RICHARD BRAUER AND HERMTANN WEYL.

S(O) S(O), A=A;

i. e. the represenitationi
A of the real orthogonial
group is uniitary.
Whenrestricting oneselfto real variablesone mustbe aware of the possi-
bilitythat the fundamentalquadraticform

(32) EaxkX

mayhave an inertialintdext differentfromi0. This is of particularimportfor

theory,t - 1 forthe four-dimelnsiolnal
to relativity
physicsas, accordilng world.
One now has to subjectthe determinilngpi of the algebraII to the equation
(plxl + + p.kxb)2 Na kxiXk or 2(pjp7 + pep ) a

One will get the new pi fromthe old ones by means of the transformation H'
if the fundamentalform(32) arises fromthe normalformwithaik 8k by =

means of the transformation H.

But hereagainiit is convenientto base a moredetailedinvestigationupon
the real normalform

(33) (xl)2 . . . -(x)4 + (xt+1)2 + (x8)2 =

c, (xI) .
i

(Withoutalnyloss of genierality we miiay, suppose2t n.) In accordalnce with

physics,let us call the firstt variables xi the temporal,the last i - t the
spatial co6rdilnates.The subject of our conisideratioln is the group b,7 of
Lorentztranisformationis; o carryinlg
that is, of all real linleartranisformationls
the funidamenital form(33) inltoitself.
Pt+i, . ., P., keep their previous significance, while P1, , Pt assurme
the factori V- 1. We thus have

Pi P'i for (i =1, ,t); Pi P'i for (i=t+1,* n).

The HermitianconjugateA' of a matrixA may be denotedby A. The Pi as
well as the P'i satisfythe fundamentalrules of commutation. Both sets of
matricesmustbe changedone into the otherby meansof a certaintransforma-
tion B. It is easy enoughto writedownB explicitly:

(34) B =--V-<t> . Pi . . . Pt.

To be exact,we have

f To be quite definite: the variables xi are subjected to the Lorentz-trans-

formation o: xi .> o (ik) xk. The p, (or Pi) then undergo the contragredient
k
transformation; but in raising the index by means of pi = eip, one may introduce
quantities pi transformingcogrediently with the variables xi.
 SPINORS IN It DIMIENSIONS. 441

(35) P', S=BP B-1 or -P'i -BP B-1

accordingas t is even or odd. The factori-<t> has been added in orderto

make B ilermitian: B B. The transposedmatrixB' coincideswith B but
forthe sign,namelyB' = (-1)<t>B. In the case of an even n the matrixB
is of form (25) or (26) accordingas t is even or odd. All theseproperties
could be fairlyeasily derivedfromgeneralconsiderations;it is not worththe
trouble,however,as one may read them at once fromthe explicitexpression
(34).
One obtainsfrom(35) the relation

(36) BS(o)B-' = p(o )S(o)

or aftermultiplicationby S'(o) on the left:

S'BS = pB:
the HermitianformB goes over,by means of the transformation S, into the
multiplep of itself. In consequencep is real and one infers,in the same
manneras in the definitecase, the equation

p(o) =? 1.

As to its dependenceon o, p (o) satisfiesthe condition

p(ofo) - p(o')p(o).

A new consideration,however,is requiredfor determiningthis sign p.

In a Lorentz transformation o (ik) 1j the temporal minor of the whole
determinant:
o(ll, * *,o(it)
is either 1
(37)
Or<~
o(1) * (tt)

We shall put or (o) + 1 or 1 according as the first or the second case

prevails,and call o- (o) the temporalsignature; it is a character,i. e.

== r_(0 *
cr_(O O) ) af (0).

We need not troubleto prove this here directly, because we shall see in the
courseof our furtherinvestigations thatthep(o) in (36) coincideswithar (o).
In the same mannerone may introducea spatial signatureor+(o) by nieans of
the spatial minor of the matrix 11o(ie) 11. The latter, though, is cr(o) *Q; =
442 RICHARD BRAUER AND HERAMANN WEYL.

hencethe charactercr(o) distinguishingthe properand impropertransforma-

tions equals r,a_. Of the Lorentztransformationshavingu- 1 one may
say that theyreversethe sense of timewhereasthosehavingu+ 1 reverse
the spatial sense. The groupof Lorentztransformationsfalls apart into four
piecesnot connectedwitheach otherand distinguishedfromeach otherby the
values of the two signaturesr and cr.
To prove (37) let us introducethe two vectors
oil' -{o (tl ) ,.* * 0 (itt)}, oi" { o ( , t + 1 ), . (illq)
in the realmsof the temporaland spatial co6rdinatesrespectively.The scalar
product (a' Ii') in these two partial spaces has its usual significance
a'ib+ + + a'tb't. The relations characteristicfor the Lorentz trans-
formationthen read:

(?* ?') 8ik + (O*"Ok") ( 1, 5 2,**, t).

From thesewe derive

(otIot')1- (ot "o1"), (o1"/I02"1), (o +"ot"1 t1)

l"
=1/+(/ ! :(0o + (1/2!) 2 (1 " 2 (
")1 ' )I+

All termson the rightside are > 0;. hencethe whole determinanton the left
is ? 1. This determinant howeveris the square of Q.
The fact that the sigmw
p imz(36) equals o- is proved in the following
manner. In accordancewith
n
P*i - o(lti)Pk
(
k=1
we find
o(11) * o(t)
(38) P*. e P*t . . . .Pt + *
o(tl) . o(tt)

But a productlike Pi,. .

Pi, * P, * * Pt wherei1 . .t are different indices
alwayshas the trace0 exceptif il . . .t is a permutationof 1 . . . t; whereas

tr(Pw . . . Pt P1 * *Pt) = (_ 1))<t>tr(Pi2

. . pt2)
P (- )t-<t> 2v

Hence on multiplyingequation (38) by P1 . . . Pt to the rightand forming

the trace,one is led to this value of the determinant
(2:
 SPINORS IN n DIMENSIONS. 443

of S: P*i ---SPiS-1, and of B, one readilyobtains:

Using the definitions

2S ===tr(SBS-1 *B) - tr(B -SBS-1).

Accordingto (36)
S-i PB'- tSB' PB-'1B.
Replacementof B' by B is allowedas B' coincideswithB but for a numerical
factor. So one finallygets,with T = BS j1tJK 11

21a = p *tr(BSSB) = p *tr(BS SB) - p -tr(TJFT) p I tJK 12,

J,K

and this equation showsp to have the sign of Q.

Any representationr : o -> G(o) of the Lorentz group gives rise to
anotherone cr-r: o -- (o) G(o). Equation (36) or

S (o) (o) B-1S (o) B

(r_-

thenprovesthe equivalence:
(39) A
The transformation B changesthe conjugate of a covariantspinor V/into a
contravariantspinor4: q)' ==-B (in so far as we confineourselvesto Lorentz's
transformations of temporalsignatureu- - 1). (39) yields,on account of
(15), (22), the decompositions

(40) A XA -r-ro
{ +r-]? ++urv- + + (r-rv+--'r+,Pv) [n=t 2v];
07+ro + o?Pr+ + u+rv-1
AX cr-ro
+ +r, + -r2+**' [m 2v+ 1].
The latterseriesbreaksoffwithoJ'rvor cr+rv.
In the case n- 2v we have the splittingof A into A+ and A-, when
restrictingourselves to the group b,+ of proper Lorentz transformations
[o (o) = 1]. This restrictionwipes out the difference
betweenthe two signa-
turescr and o-+. As we mentionedbefore,B is of form(25) or (26) according
as t is even or odd. Hence one has

for even t: A~-/uA, A-'o(A-;

for odd t: Q+~c u& A-uA/+.

9. IrrXeducibility.Irreducibilityof rf is granteda for-tiori

if one is able
to provethat theredoes not exist any homogeneouslinear relationwith con-
stant coefficients
(independentof o) among the minors of order f of the
matrixof an arbitraryrotation11o (ik) 11. This can be shownwithoutusing
444 RICHARD BRAUER AND HERMANN WEYL.

any otherrotationsthan permutationsof the coordinateaxes combinedwith

changesof signs. For let us assumethatwe have such a non-trivialrelationR
minorA (k::
in whicha definite kf) occurswitha coefficient
different
from0.
By suitableexchangewe can place this minorin the left upper cornerof the
matrix. We will now take into accountthe changesof signs only:

thematricesof whichhaveonlytheirchiefminorsA (i, * if) different from0.

The linear relationR will contain,apart fromA (1 2 * f), at least one more
termA (1' 2' fi')with a coefficient different
fromzero. At least one of
the indices1' 2' f',let us say 1,is different
from1, 2, * * *, f. By changing
the sign of the one variablexi, the relationR is carriedover into a new one
R' in whichA (1 2 . *f) occurswith the same, A (1' 2' * *f') howeverwith
the oppositecoefficient.Hence the sum 2 (R + R') certainlyis shorterthan
R, that is, containsless termsthan R; but A (1 2 * f) occursin it withthe
same coefficient differentfrom0 as before. The procedureof shorteningmay
be continueduntil the presupposedlinear relation XI 0 leads to the im-
possibleequation A(1 2 * f) 0.
These considerationswere based upon the comnplete group b?n. If one
allows properrotationsonly,b,+ one may have to combinethe permutation
in the firststep with a change of sign of one variable. The second step can
be performed in the same mannerprovided2f < n, forthenone may chooseI
as above: as one of the indices 1', 2', * *, f' differentfrom 1, 2, . ,f,
furthermore choosem as an index that does not occurin the row 1, 2, . , f,
1', 2',* * *, f', and then change the signs of both variablesxi and xmasimul-
taneously. Even when w 2v, f v the procedureof shorteningwill work
= =

as long as the relationR still containsa termA (1' 2'- * v') the indices of
whichare not just the complementv + 1, . . *, n of 1, . . , v. Thus one will
be led in this case finallyto a relationof the form:

(41) cA(1,2< * ,v) +c'A(v+ 1, ,n) 0.

Such a relationobtainsindeed:

A(v+ 1, * , i) A(1,2, *,v)

 SPINORS IN It DIMENSIONS. 445

but there exists of course no other one of the type (41). From this we
learn not only that the two representations
rJ' and rv- are irreducible,but
at the same timethattheyare inequivalcnt; forit provesthat theredoes not
hold any linear relationwithfixedcoefficients
betweenthe componentsof the
two matricesassociated with the same arbitraryrotationo in these repre-
sentations. For the componentsof thesetwomatricesare
[B Q - 'v) +4 iPBQ(kl k' v) ]

with

Vki. .. kvJ 2 L Vk:L. .. kv)J k'l . .. k' ,

* * * ,,.'1 * i'V and k1 * kv,k1'l*

i:L . .k'v are even permutationsof the
figures1, 2, * , n. The reasoningaboveshowsthatthereexistsno universal
linearrelationbetween B (Q::v )
thequantities
The inequivalenceof two such rf the ranks f of which do not give the
sum n, is grantedby theirhaving differentdegrees.
This wholeargumentwas based upon the comnplex orthogonalgroup. But
nothingis to be modifiedwhen one confinesoneselfto the real orthogonal
transformations.Furthermoreone sees, by formulatingthe resultin an in-
finitesimalmanner,that it cannot be effectedby the inertial index. The
infinitesimal
transformation

(42) dxi= Xk, dxk xi (i=/=1k)

(all otherincremelnts
being0; this transformation
engendersthe permutation
-
xi ->xk, xk --> xi as well as the change of sign xix->--Xi, Xk--->--xk) has to
be replaced,if the fundamentalquadraticformcontainstermswiththe minus
sign,forcouples (xi, Xk) consistingof a temporalandla spatial variableby

dxzi Xk, dxk xi

whileit has to be kept unchangedfor couples of variables (Xi, Xk) both tem-
poral or both spatial. The statementof irreducibility under all transforma-
tions (42) in the definitecase is identicalwiththe statementof irreducibility
under the transformations replacingthem in the indefinitecase; one only
needs to replacethe temporalvariablesXkby V-1 Xk.
The productr X r of a representation r with its contragredientr con-
tains the identityr17at least jz timeswhenr reducesinto ,uparts. If we are
allowedto makeuse of thegeneraland elementary theoremthatthe irreducible
 446 RICHARD BRAUER AND HERMANN WEYL.

partsof a representation are uniquelydeterminedt (in the senseof equivalence

and exceptfortheirarrangement),thenthe formulae(15), (22), (29) show
at once the irreducibilityof i\ or A+ and A- respectively
and the inequivalence
of the latter. Anotherdirectproofruns as follows:
Take the full groupbitin the even case n 2v. Using the fundamental
=

quadraticformin the shape (30), let us considerthe " diagonal" infinitesimal

rotations
(43) dx, if aXa,
= dya i0aYa (c ,1, * * , v)

(0cP,independentparameters). It is associatedin A with the diagonal trans-

formation

dxgL.. .V (i/2) (1 + ** + Covv)xul ... UP (a=+).

Given a partial space P' of the total spin space P, different

from0 and in-
variantunder A.,one choosesa non-vanishing vectorz:

Z =i zAeA = {ZA} [A = (.a,, * , v)]

A
occurringin P'. By performingthe substitutioli(43) repeatedlyone is
able to isolate each term ZAeA,as these parts are of different" weights"
(i/2) (aioi + * * + uvcv). Therefore at least one of the fundamental vectors
eA occurs in P'. But eA = el ... up goes over into any other fundamental
vector e1. .. TP by exchanging Xa -> ?Ya, Ya > X.a those couples (Xa, ya) for
whichthe signso-a and Ta do not coincide. P' is thereforeidenticalwiththe
total P.-Irreducibility of A forodd n = 2v + 1 is an immediateconsequence
of the irreducibilityfor even n, we just proved; one has to restrictoneself
merelyto the subgroupb.,-1 within bs, nn 2v + 1. One sees in the same
mannerthat the two parts A+.,A- are irreducibleand inequivalentfor the
group bit n = 2v.

10. Dirac's theory. Let us suppose we are dealing with a spinorfield

.VA(Xl'
- X4) in an n-dimensional" world" with the fundamentalmetric
form (33). The most essentialfeatureof Dirac's theor-y is that one should
be able to forma vector by linear combinationof the productsqAqB. If n is
even,one sees fromequation (40) that exactlyone such vectorsi exists-that
behaveslike a vectorat least for all Lorentz transformations not reversing
the sense of time; and one such vectorfor all Lorentz transformations not
the
reversing spatial sense. In the case odd, one vectorof the second,and
n

t Compare e. g. Weyl, Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics (London, 1931),

p. 136.
 SPINORS IN It DIMENSIONS. 447

no vectorof the firstkind exists. Only the firsttype can be used when one
believesin the equivalenceof rightand left,but is preparedto abandon the
equivalenceof past and future. n has then to be even and the vectoris

si ==_qBPi f.

From this vectorone can derivethe scalar field:

(44) , ,B(a/x)( pi = iPi).

i

One needs a scalar that arises from linear combinationof the products
OA O/B/aXi in Dirac's theoryas the main part of the actioniquantitywhich
.

accountsfor the fundamentalfeaturesof the whole quantumtheory. There

is no ambiguity: for (A X a) X IX containsthe identityrP or ratherthe
representation o-rA' just once if decomposedinltoits irreducibleparts. That
is shown by equation (40) when one takes into account the fundamental
lemma of the theoryof representations assertingthat the product,r X P1
containsthe identityrP once, or not at all, accordingas the two irreducible
representations r, rPof thesame groupare equivalentor not. Dirac's quantity
of action contains,apart from (44), a second term which is a linear com-
binationof the undifferentiated productsqAbB; it is multipliedby the mass,
and accountsfor the inertia of matter. There exists just one such scalar,
namelyVB+, in the case of an evenas well as an odd n.
Furthermoreone may consideras essentialthe fact that the time com-
ponent of the electriccurrentis positive-definite in Dirac's theory,namely
proportionalto the "probabilitydensity" 2 t/AfA; this grantsthe atomistic
A
structureof electriccharge. If the fundamentalform (33) is of inertial
index t, this propertyhoweveris not possessedby the vectorcontainedin
A X A but by the tensorof rank t withthe components

t= i . Pitt (i*, it different),

the "temporal" component,S12 ... t, of whichis (but for a numerical

=

factor). It seems to be requiredby the schemeof Maxwell's equationsthat

electriccurrentshouldbe a vector; this requirement,
togetherwiththe postu-
late of the atomic structureof electricity,
compelsus to assume the inertial
index t to be = 1I

11. Appendix. Automorphisms

of the completematriixalgebra. A one-
 448 RICHARD BRAUER AND HERMANN WEYL.

to-onecorrespondenceX T>X* of the ring of all n-rowedmatricesupon itself

is isomorphicwhenisatisfyitng
the conditions

(X + Y)* eX* + Ye, (AX)* - *,

X (XY)* X*Y*

(X an a,rbitrary is " si,milarity":

number). The onlysuch automoorphism

X* = AXA--,

A beinga fixednon-singularmatrix.

Proof. The equation GX y-X has a solutionX7 0 only if y is an

eigen-valueof the matrixG; forthe columnsof the matrixX mustbe eigen-
vectorsbelongingto the eigen-valuey. The eigen-valuesof G thus are char-
acterizedin a manner invariantwith respectto the given automorphism.
ConsequentlyG* has the same eigen-valuesas G. Thus we are led to proceed
as follows. Let us choosen fixeddifferent
numbers-y,* ,yy and withthem
formthe diagonal matrix

'Yl

As G* has the same eigen-valuesas G, a non-singularmatrixA can be de-

terminedsuch that G* = AGA-'. Let us replaceeveryX* by X** A-AX*A
and now considerthe automorphism X -> X** thatleaves G unchanged. The
matrix Ei7 containingan elementdifferent from0, namely 1, only at the
crossingpoint of the i-th row with the kc-thcolumn is determinedby the
properties
GEik= yiEik EikG ykEk
exceptfor a numericalfactor. Hence we have

(45) Eik -> EiP*= c'kEik-

The equation E E2,=E,, furnishes =o, a = 1. After putting

2=i ai , (Xlk the relation

leads to a k os,fk. On accountof i= 1 one thereforehas 3 = /ci and

=ik ca/ak. Hence in accordance with (45) an arbitrary
matrix X= Xik
and its image X88 = J*
1x are linkedby the relation
 SPINORS IN n DIMENSIONS. 449

xi*c a$xik/ak or X88 AoXAo-'

whereAo is the diagonal matrixwiththe termsa,, - *, ca.

This demonstration furnishesa methodfor constructing a spinorfroma
given tensorset g. The methodwill be used preferablyin the case whereg
consistsof only one tensorof definiterank. Our representation of degree2"
of the algebraII associateswithg a matrixG. Let us assumethat G has the
(simple) eigen-valuey and let . be the correspondingeigen-vectorin spin
space: Gq y -Ar. The rotationo carriesg into a set g (o) represented
= by the
matrixG(o). y is a (simple) eigen-valueof G(o) as well as of G, and the
solutionVI(o) of the equation

G (o) +(o) yl +()

arises from f by the transformation

S ( o) correspondingto o in the spin
representation.

THE INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED STUDY,

PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY.