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EVALUATION OF THRESHOLD STRESS OF SUBGRADES FOR HIGHWAY
FORMATION BASED ON THE UNCONFINED CYCLIC TRIAXIAL TEST

Elsa Eka Putri ( )

PhD Student, School of Engineering and Information Technology,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia 88999
(Lecturer, University of Andalas, Indonesia)
e-mail: elsaeka@ft.unand.ac.id, elsaeka@gmail.com

N.S.V Kameswara Rao

Professor, School of Engineering and Information Technology,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia 88999
e-mail: nsv@ums.edu.my.

M. A. Mannan
Professor Madya, School of Engineering and Information Technology,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia 88999
e-mail: mannan@ums.edu.my.

ABSTRACT: Subgrade for highway formation is the lowest pavement layer that affords all the stress induced from all
pavement layers above including the traffic loading. The applied stress from the traffic loading, is supposed to be in cyclic
shape, and should be less than the shear strength of the pavement material that it can sustain. Threshold stress is the stress
level above which the stress can lead to excessive permanent deformation due to cyclic loading. Thus to evaluate the
threshold stress soil subgrade is important in order to produce a good design of highway formation. In this investigation,
the threshold stress was studied from the point of view of cyclic deviator stress from unconfined cyclic triaxial test. Cyclic
deviator stress is the stress level during cyclic loading, and the incremental of cyclic deviator stress was chosen from the
small to the highest stress which can lead to permanent deformation or the failure of the sample. The compacted clayey
sand soils are tested using the GDS triaxial testing instrument. The relationship between the incremental values of
permanent strain in the axial direction is developed. It can be concluded that for ratio of threshold stress more than 70%
the permanent axial strain becomes very high leading to failure of the samples.

Keywords: Threshold stress; cyclic stress ratio; unconfined cyclic triaxial test

1. INTRODUCTION behaviour of the soil subgrade that experiences the cyclic

Many structures are subjected to cyclic loading. This
includes railway track as well as the highway and runway
formation (subgrade). With the increasing traffic axle
loads, speeds and traffic density, the conventional design
method used for designing the highway and runway
pavements need to be improved for better performance and
low maintenance cost of highways. Subgrade as a highway
or runway foundation should be stressed well below the
limits of failure stress induced by the traffic loading and it
should not exceed the threshold stress of subgrade soils.
Threshold stress is the highest level of stress that subgrade
can still deal with so that subgrade formation will not
deform excessively due to repeated loading of the moving
vehicle. This test was developed to investigate the
loading due to moving wheel loads of vehicles.
Thus evaluation of the threshold stress and using it for
better design for constructing the highway and runway
formation is necessary which can be obtained using the
unconfined cyclic triaxial test.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Subgrade of the pavement is laid either in cutting or on fill
area, depending on the topography itself. When the
subgrade is laid in fill, the compaction should be properly
done to fulfill the requirements of the formation. Hence,
for standardization of testing, tests are done on the
compacted samples
The specimen deformation will be independent of the
frequency if the maximum number of cycles is 100,000
and it depends only on total number of cycles (Sangrey
1968, Shahu 1993).
The threshold stress is based on the development of plastic
strain with number of cycles at different cyclic stress
ratios. Shahu (1999) carried out threshold stress studies
based on the concept of Rubin et. al (1970) that threshold
stress is defined as a maximum stress that can be applied
to the sample that does not cause cumulative strain greater
than 10 percent in 1000 cycles. Threshold stress (critical
level of repeated stress) value is not a basic material
parameter but is dependent on mean effective stress,
loading wave shape, frequency and previous loading
history.
Fall et. al, (1997) carried out monotonic and cyclic triaxial
loading tests on reconstituted samples of western
Senegalese laterites. In order to model the response of the
soils under the traffic load the permanent strain results and
variation of the resilient modulus during loading are
considered.
Shahu (1999) conducted the tests on alluvial silty clay
known as Gangetic silt using unconfined cyclic triaxial
test. He has studied the unconfined cyclic triaxial test as a
proposed test methodology to develop the threshold stress
for the soil for the design of railway formation and found
that there is significant change in stiffness of the soil due
to cyclic loading.
Shahu et al (2000) had developed a threshold stress
approach for subgrade soils with the basis of the design
such that it keeps the induced maximum deviator stress on
the subgrade well below its threshold stress. Changes in
plastic strain generation on cyclic loading and stiffness of
the soil are relevant to highway and runway pavement
formations. He defined the parameter Rf which is called
cyclic stress ratio for purposes of analyzing the results.
Rf (cyclic stress ratio) is defined as the ratio at which a
sudden increase in incremental plastic strain occurs (Shahu
et. al 1999). Thus, based on studies related to development
of plastic strain the relationship between cumulative
plastic strain and cyclic stress ratio has been evaluated.
The cyclic stress ratio was also studied by Attya et. al
(2007) who used the definition of cyclic stress ratio
developed by Brown et. al (1975) and Zhou and Gong
(2001). They define the cyclic stress ratio as the ratio
between cyclic deviator stress qcyclic to the static deviator
stress at failure qfailure.
3. METHODOLOGY
For evaluation of the threshold stress, tests are conducted
on locally available clayey sands with the Liquid Limit of
53%, Plastic Limit of 23.7% and Specific Gravity of 2.55.
In order to study the threshold stress of the soil the
unconfined cyclic test (Shahu, 1993). The soil sample is
tested in unconfined condition. The sample is then
subjected to 100 load cycles at 1 cycle per minute in
undrained condition. The soil was then tested to failure in
undrained loading.
In this investigation the formation was assumed to be laid
on filling embankment. Thus the compacted sample was
prepared to indicate that the formation is on the compacted
subgrade. The soil was compacted using modified Proctor
compaction test as per BS 1377-4:1990.
Sample is subjected to cyclic load with defined cyclic
stress ratio, Rf., as a percentage defined as
Rf = (qr / qu ) x 100 (1)
where qr is the cyclic deviator stress and qu is the
unconfined compressive strength.
Calculating qu from an unconfined compression test on a
similar sample and also estimate the qr, cyclic stress ratio
can subsequently be determined. The cyclic deviator stress
level has been varied, while the frequency is kept constant
for all tests. The incremental cyclic deviator stress was
chosen from the small to the highest stress which can lead
to permanent deformation or the failure of the sample.
4. RESULTS
4.1. Soil Classification
Soil was collected along the Sulaman road Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah. Within the scope of the laboratory studies, index
properties, compaction characteristics, classification tests,
and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests of the subgrade
soil were performed to determine the geotechnical
properties of the material. The results were shown in
Table 1. The particle size distribution analysis of the soil
involves determining the percentage by weight of particles
within the different size ranges.
Table 1. Index Properties, Compaction Characteristics,
Classification, and CBR of Soil.
Soil Properties
Liquid Limit 56 %
Plasticity Index 33.8 %
 Specific Gravity 2.56 the higher of the deformation as indicated by the higher of
the axial strain.
USCS SC/SP
Classification
AASHTO A-2-7

Optimum Moisture
Standard Content 18%
Proctor
Max. Dry Density 1647 kg/m3

Optimum Moisture
Modified Content 13%
Proctor
Max. Dry Density 1918 kg/m3

CBR value 6.5%

4.2. Unconfined Compressive Triaxial Test

Fig. 2. Maximum of deviator stress occur after 100 cycles
From the modified Proctor compaction test result, the
sample was prepared to be tested for the unconfined In Figure 3 present the data of the moisture content, bulk
compressive strength. In this test, the sample was mounted density and maximum dry density of the entire sample
on the triaxial apparatus. The conventional monotonic tested in laboratory.
unconfined compression tests were carried out following
the procedure given by Bishop & Henkel (1962). The
results are shown in Figure 1.

Fig.1. Deviator stress of the soil from the static monotonic shear.
As shown in Figure 1, the average unconfined
compressive strength of the clayey sand from monotonic
unconfined triaxial compression test is 967.475 kPa.
Fig.3. Moisture content, bulk density and dry density for all
samples
It can be seen from Figure 3 and related to Figure 2 that
there is no relationship apparent between the moisture
content changes and the deviator stress result.

4.3. Maximum Deviator Stress with varying cyclic stress 4.4. The deformation due to cyclic loading
ratio
The cyclic loading leads to an accumulation of
The result of unconfined cyclic triaxial test after 100 deformation that can cause the permanent deformation.
cycles of loading is presented in Figure 2. The deformation of the sample after 100 cycles of loading
is presented in Figure 4.
Figure 2 shows data of the cyclic stress ratio imposed to
the sample. It can be seen that the higher the cyclic stress
ratio, Rf, will be resulted in maximum deviator stress and

Figure 4; Deformation of the sample due to cyclic shear
loading
As seen on Figure 4, the deformation of the sample will
develop quickly, as the cyclic stress ratio increased. It can
be noted from Figure 4, at low cyclic stress ratios which
are below 50% the deformation of the sample, axial strain
Figure 5; Plastic Strain vs. Rf for unconfined cyclic tests
For all the clayey sand soils samples, the permanent strain
at failures is above 7.5% in average. As the ratio of cyclic
stress, Rf, is increased, consequently the permanent strain
increases sharply. Moreover, the permanent strain before
cyclic loading was high for the Rf above 70%.
For higher Rf, the samples will have a high deformation.
As can be seen in Figure 5 (indicated with arrows, for Rf
more than 70%), the sample is failing with excessive
strains in less number of cycles and the permanent axial
strain at 100 load cycles becomes very high, leading to
is still below 5% and the soil sample can still sustain the
cyclic loading utilization up to 100 cycles. Moreover, as
the cyclic stress ratio is increased above 50% the
deformations of the sample are increased sharply. It leads
to the failure of the sample. In this study for the cyclic
stress ratio above 70%, the clayey sand soils will fail
before 100 cycles of loading.
4.5. Determination of threshold stress
Figure 5 has been drawn based on the results of
unconfined cyclic triaxial test. There are three parameters
that have been studied. Firstly, permanent strain at failure,
based on the monotonic loading result after application of
the cyclic loading to the sample is determined. Secondly,
permanent strain after 100 cycles, axial strain is
determined. Thirdly, permanent strain before cyclic
loading, the axial strain result is recorded.
failure of the sample. The corresponding value of plastic
strain, εp after 100 cycles, for the case of unconfined tests
on soil samples compacted at optimum moisture content is
of the order of 7.5%.
5. CONCLUSIONS
As the soil samples deform quickly when the cyclic stress
ratio is 70% or above, it means that the threshold stress
ratio of this soil is 70%. This value is more suitable to be
used as a parameter of highway and runway formation
design because it gives a much better insight into the soil
behaviour under repeated loading, thus simulating the field
soil condition subjected to passing wheel loads. However,
since the threshold stress values are based on laboratory
tests conducted under idealized condition, for example at
optimum moisture content or at room temperature, etc, it is
suggested that the design formation depth based on this
approach be increased by 25% (Shahu, 1993). This
recommendation is primarily meant to take into account
the actual highway pavement layers and drainage
prevailing in the field.
transportation routes. Geotechnique 49, No. 5, pp 639-
649
Shahu, J. T., Yudhbir, Kameswara Rao, N.S.V. (2000). A
rational method for design of railroad track
foundation, soils and foundations. Japanese
Geotechnical Society. Soil and Foundation vol.40.
Zhou, J., and Gong, X. (2001). Strain degradation of
saturated clay under cyclic loading. Canadian
Geotech. J. 38(1): 208–212 (2001)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project is sponsored by the FRGS (Fundamental

Research Grant Scheme) Universiti Malaysia Sabah no.
FRG0074-TK-1-2006 and FRG 174-TK-2008

REFERENCE

Attya, A., Indraratna, B., and Rujikiatkamjorn, C. (2007).

Cyclic behaviour of PVD-soft soil subgrade for
improvement of railway tracks. Proceedings of the
10th Australia New Zealand Conference on
Geomechanics, Brisbane, Australia, 21-24 October
2007, 2, 36-41

BS 1377-4:1990.Method of Test for Soils for Civil

Engineering Purposes

M. Fall, J. -P. Tisot, and I. K. Cisse, (1997). Undrained

Behaviour of Compacted Gravel Lateritic Soils from
Western Senegal under Monotonic and Cyclic
Triaxial Loading , Engineering Geology 47(1-2): 71-
87.

Kim D, Kim J. R. (2007). Resilient Behavior of

Compacted Subgrade Soils under the Repeated
Triaxial Test. Construction and Building Materials.
21 pp. 1470-1479

Koike, M., T. Kaji, Usaborisut, P.,Takigawa, T.,, Yoda,

A., Takahashi S. (2002). Several contributions to soil
compactibility induced by cyclic loading test. Journal
of Terramechanics 39(3): 127-141.

Shahu, J.T.,(1993). Some Analytical and Experimental

Investigation to Predict the Behaviour of Soil under
the Railway Tract. PhD thesis, IIT Kanpur.

Shahu, J.T., Yudhbir, and Kameswara Rao, N.S.V.(1999).

A simple test methodology for soil under
OPTIMUM BINDER FOR POROUS MIXTURES MADE BY VARIOUS
AGGREGATE GRADATIONS AND ITS PROPERTIES TOWARDS
PRODUCING GROUTED MACADAM COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Nadiah Md. HUSAIN Hilmi MAHMUD
Postgraduate Student Professor
Dept. Of Civil Engineering Dept. of Civil Engineering
University Malaya University Malaya
50603 Kuala Lumpur 50603 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia Malaysia
Tel: 603 – 79675203 / 5339 Tel: 603 – 79675203/5339
E-mail: nadiah.husain09@gmail.com E-mail: hilmi@um.edu.my

Mohamed Rehan KARIM

Professor
Dept. Of Civil Engineering
University Malaya
50603 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
Tel: 603 – 79675201 / 5339
E-mail: rehan@um.edu.my

Grouted Macadam (GM) is generally a composite pavement which is manufactured by preparing a highly workable fluid mortar
which is specially designed with a very high early and 28 day strength (1 day-45 MPa, 28 day-105MPa) by filling the water
consistency fluid mortar into a very open porous asphalt skeleton (25-35% VIM). The combination of both components will
produced a semi-flexible pavement or GM which has the best features of both concrete and flexible pavement where it will
replace the conventional wearing course. The aim of this investigation is mainly to find the optimum binder for three (3) different
aggregate gradations (max, mid, min) by Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM) and its properties towards
producing a grouted macadam composite pavement. These include voids in mix (VIM), Bulk Density, and Resilient Modulus
(IDT). The optimum binder was achieved by a binder drainage test (BDT) developed by Road Engineering Association of
Malaysia (REAM), similar to the Transport Research Laboratory, UK and commonly used to set an upper limit on the optimum
binder content. The results indicated that maximum aggregate gradation requires the least percentage of binder followed by
median and finally minimum aggregate gradation. It can be concluded that the more porous the sample (high in VIM), the lesser
the percentage of binder were to be used and vice versa. Finally, it also shows that the three (3) different aggregate gradations
significantly affected its main properties mentioned.

Keywords: Binder drainage test, Porous Asphalt, Aggregate Gradation

1
1. INTRODUCTION
Pavements or road surface is the durable surface
material laid down on an area intended to sustain
traffic – vehicular or foot traffic. In other word, it is
the structure which separates the tires of vehicles
from the underlying foundation material. The choice
of road surfacing has traditionally been between
asphalt (flexible) pavement and the concrete (rigid)
pavement. Flexible pavement consists of asphalt as a
binder (sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or
semi-solid that is present in most crude petroleum)
mixed with various sizes of mineral aggregates. The
total pavement structure deflects under loading. A
typical flexible pavement composed of several layers
which every layer receives loads from the above
layer and spreads them out, and then passes these
loads to the next layer below. Thus, the deeper the
layer, the less load it must carry. Concrete pavement
on the other hand typically comprises of binder
(cement), water and aggregates. This type of structure
deflects very little under loading due to its high
modulus of elasticity of its surface course. Because of
its relative rigidity, the pavement structure distributes
loads over a wide area with only one or at most two
structural layers compared to flexible pavement. Due
to the depth of concrete layer, it will eventually
increase the cost of production.
Road surfacing pavement has always been one of the
major issues in the most developing countries.
Finding the best design of surfacing layer had been a
positive competition among manufacturers and
designers. Road surfacing pavement demands
adequate strength to ensure satisfactory durability.
Both pavement types discussed have their own
advantages and also shortcomings. As for example,
rutting as a result of increased stresses in heavy-duty
pavements is the main cause of deterioration of
flexible asphalt surfacing (Lister & Addis 1977).
Rigid pavement on the other hand can be susceptible
to relatively slow setting times during the
construction phase and poor riding quality (and
noise) caused by the joints required to accommodate
differential expansion/contraction during service
(Hassan et al., 2002).
However, another alternative solution to overcome
the limitation and drawback caused by the commonly
road surfacing would be the joint-less Semi-Rigid
pavement surfacing. The resultant combination
consist both the flexibility from the bituminous
component and the rigidity from the cement
constituent. Semi-Rigid pavement surfacing
composed of porous asphalt skeleton filled with the
best selection of fluid grout tested. Thus, producing a
2
very high workability fluid grout and at the same
time attain a relatively high compressive strength is
required to bond together the two composition with
minimal porosity (<8%). Porous asphalt skeleton is
manufactured by using bitumen as binder, course
aggregates and fine aggregates. Very open porous
asphalt is required in order to allow a self compacting
cementitious grout to impregnate into the porous
asphalt skeleton under the influence of gravitational
force. Thus it is important that the porous asphalt
skeleton to achieve a very high air voids content of
28-32% with a depth of 100mm each sample
prepared ant at the same time maintain a very thick
layer of bitumen coating the aggregates.
Pervious or porous surfacing materials were initially
developed in the United Kingdom in the 1950‟s.
However, it was not until recently that Porous
Asphalt (formerly known as Pervious Macadam or
Friction Course) has been used to any significant
degree on British highways (Woodside A. R. et. al.).
This has not been the case on mainland Europe
where, over the past 5 to 10 years, the use of Porous
Asphalt has expanded dramatically in countries such
as France, Belgium, Holland, Austria and
Switzerland (Fabb T.R.J. 1993). In Malaysia, the first
application of porous asphalt pavement took place in
1991 and followed in the year 1995 on the Federal
Highway. The porous asphalt section along the
Federal Highway carries some of the heaviest traffic
and has recently been resurfaced with porous asphalt.
(Hamzah M.O. et. al.).
Many agencies around the world use different
terminologies for porous asphalt pavement, and
specifications that are slightly different. The various
terminologies used include open-graded asphalt
(OGA), open graded friction course (OGFC), and
porous friction course (PFC), (Suresha S.N. et. al,
2009). But practically, all of the mentioned
terminologies were actually gave the same meaning
and purpose which is a highly porosity or air void
content pavement compared to the conventional
asphalt pavement. Pavements with open-graded
asphalt mixes were found to improve wet weather
skid resistance, minimize hydroplaning, reduce
splash and spray, and also reduce tyre-noise (Huber
G.)
The minimum air voids content specified by some of
the agencies or standards were actually dependent on
the traffic volume. Some countries specified the
minimum air voids depending on the traffic volume
and some does not. ASTM D 7064 suggested that a
typical open graded asphaltic mixes should have a
minimum percentage air voids of 18% in order to
withstand traffic loading. This percentage air void is
slightly lower than those manufactured for the
purpose of semi-rigid pavement. This is due to the
fact that porous asphalt asphaltic pavement stands on
its own while porous asphalt skeleton with high
percentage of air voids will later to be filled with
high strength fluid grout which eventually will have
exhibited much lower porosity (<8%).
3. OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this laboratory investigation is
to determine the optimum binder for three different
aggregate gradations by Road Engineering
Association of Malaysia (REAM) and to see its
significance difference towards producing Grouted
Macadam Wearing Course.

2. BACKGROUND 4. SAMPLING AND TEST PLANS

Grouted Macadam Wearing Course is manufactured 4.1 Materials

by the production of both a very open Porous Asphalt
together with a very high workability fluid grout. The materials used in the investigation are the
This paper is mainly focusing on the production of conventional bitumen 80/100, crushed aggregates
Porous Asphalt skeleton where three different with porous mix gradation and also Portland Cement
aggregate gradations were chosen in order to see the acts as filler. Crushed aggregates were supplied by
significance different between the two boundary lines Hanson, Kajang and the bitumen 80/100 was
(max and min). supplied by Kajang Rock. Table 1 and 2 below shows
the physical test that has been run onto the course
One of the important criteria that need to be aware of aggregates and bitumen binder before any laboratory
in producing Porous Asphalt is the amount of binder test on Porous Asphalt mixtures were carried out.
usage to coat the aggregate. It is crucial to have the
optimum binder coating the aggregates film thickness Table 1: Physical Test on Course Aggregates
as to prevent rapid oxidation of binder. Eventually
weaken the bonding between the binder and Flakiness Index (FI) – BS812 Part 20.8
aggregates. Thus, an optimum binder test has to be 105.1
carried out in order to accomplish the right amount of Elongation Index – BS812 Part 21.2
binder that requires for a certain aggregate gradation. 105.2
Optimum binder is also required to maintain the Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) –
aggregates to be intact in its original position without BS812 Part 112
having neither thin coats nor excessive coating. Thin Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
coats binder film thickness will not give enough BS812 – Part 110
stiffness to maintain the aggregate from friction and
durability. Bitumen will get aged and oxidation may
easily take place. Studies shows that inadequate Table 2: Physical Test on Bitumen 80/100
binder film thickness will eventually caused raveling
and cracks. Thicker coats binder film thickness will Softening Point, oC – ASTM D36 45 - 50
risk of excessive binder run-off during mixing, Penetration at 25 oC, 100g, 5s, 80 - 100
transportation and also laying. Henceforth will cause 0.1mm – ASTM D5
clogging of voids after laying process and reduce the o
Ductility at 25 C, 5cm per min – 80 - 100
important properties of porous mix. ASTM D113
Flash Point (Cleveland open cup) 200
Porous Asphalt skeleton were produced by using o
Marshall Method with 50 compaction blows on upper C – ASTM D92
and lower face of the sample. The 50 compaction
blows is an acceptable compaction value for medium
traffic flow (Wright and Dixon, 2004) and an
acceptable value to produce a desired voids in mix
(VIM). The desired VIM is essential towards
producing Grouted Macadam Wearing Course as it
will enhance the ease of filling the voids by fluid
grout via gravitational force without the aid of
vibration as it may damage the porous asphalt due to
high percentage of air voids.
Figure 1: Aggregate Gradations for Porous Mix

3
Figure 1 shows the 3 aggregate gradations for Porous
mixtures that have been analyzed and evaluated in
this study. In this preliminary investigation of
Grouted Macadam Wearing Coarse, the coarsest
aggregate gradation (G1) mostly consists of 96%
coarse aggregates and 4% fine aggregates. The finest
aggregate gradation (G3) on the other hand comprises
of 86% coarse aggregates and 14% of fine
aggregates. Coarse aggregates define those aggregate
sizes from 4.75mm and above while fine aggregate
indicates those aggregates size from 4.75mm and
below.
4.2 Binder Drainage Test (BDT)
The optimum binder was achieved by a binder
drainage test (BDT) developed by Road Engineering
Association of Malaysia (REAM), similar to the
Transport Research Laboratory, UK and commonly
used to set an upper limit on the optimum binder
content. Each aggregate gradation will undergo a 3
times repetition test for a series of binder contents
and the amount of material drained measured each
time. The retained binder (R %), is calculated from
Eq. (1) and Figure 2 shows the typical plotting. The
mixed binder content M is assumed to coincide with
0.3% drainage. The target binder content is
equivalent to (M-0.3) %. According to Hamzah M.O.
et. al., the term „target binder content‟ or the
„optimum binder‟ refers to the maximum binder
content that can be safely accommodated without the
risk of excessive binder run-off during mixing,
transport and laying process.
R = 100 x B [1-D/(B + F)]/(1100 + B) (1)
Where,
D = mass of binder n filler drained (g)
B = initial mass of binder and filler drained (g)
F = initial mass of filler in the mix (g)
Figure 2: Binder Drainage Test Typical Plot
4
4.3 Marshall Mix Sampling – ASTM D1559
Marshall mix samples were done based on ASTM D
1559 standard. The temperature of each sub-
procedure has to be taken seriously into account. This
is due to the fact that overheated bitumen will affect
the bitumen binder by oxidation or by aging. Table 3
shows the mixing and compaction temperature that
has been used during the preparation of Marshall
mix. A compaction effort of 50 blows was applied on
both upper and lower sample.
Table 3: Temperature for Marshall mix preparation
Mixing Temperature, oC 160 – 180
Compaction Temperature, oC 130 – 140
4.4 Air Void Test - ASTM D 3203-94
Preparation and calculation of air void test were done
according to ASTM D 3203-94.Voids in mix (VIM)
is calculated with the following Eq. (2)
VIM (%) = 100 – (Vol. of bit. + Vol. of agg.) (2)
4.5 Bulk Density (BD) - ASTM D 3203-94
From the air void tests, bulk density can be calculated
with the following Eq. (3).
Bulk density (g/ml) = Wa/Vol (3)
Where,
Wa = mass of Marshall sample in air (g)
Vol = volume of Marshall sample (ml)
4.6 Indirect Tensile Test – Resilience Modulus
Resilience modulus is computed by the indirect
tensile test (IDT) were done according to ASTM D –
4123 (82) standard. It was carried out using the
Universal Material Testing Apparatus (MATTA).
The resilient modulus test involves the application
and the measurement of a stress and measurement of
resultant displacement and hence strain. The resilient
modulus is determined by dividing stress by strain.
The testing parameters are as follows:
i. Temperature : 25oC
ii. Force : 20 x Specimen Depth
iii. Pulse Period : 1 second
Indirect tensile test (IDT) is non-destructive test
(NDT) method, which referring to a method that
evaluates properties of material or a system without
causing damage to the sample. This test was done to
assess the sample deformation properties under compared to the desired VIM for the purpose of
dynamic load application. Grouted Macadam wearing coarse which is between
25% - 32% (REAM, Zoorob S.E). The high
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION percentage of air voids is required in order to allow a
full penetration of fluid grout by gravitational force.
5.1 Binder Drainage Test (BDT)

The results of binder drainage test for conventional

80/100 bitumen are shown in Table 4 below. It is
clearly seen that the amount of bitumen binder
increases as the gradation gets finer. In other word, as
the aggregate gradation gets coarser, lower amount of
bitumen binder is required. This is basically due to
the fact that the amount of fine aggregates gets higher
from G1 to G3. Fine aggregates contribute to a much
higher surface area which prepares a bigger area for
the bitumen binder to coat all the aggregates and Figure 4: VIM and Average Value of 3 Different Aggregate
eventually necessitates a higher usage of binder. Gradations

The coefficient of determination (r 2) represents the 5.3 Bulk Density (Gmb)

percent of the data that is the closest to the line of
best fit. Table 4 also shows the target binder or the
optimum binder (OB) that is going to be used in this
investigation based on the BDT done. The OB
percentage obtained shows a relatively good results
based on the calculated r2.
Table 4: Target Binder (TB) and coefficient of
determination (r2) for 3 different gradations
TB1 TB2 TB3 Average
(%) (%) (%) TB (%)
G1 2.75 2.75 2.50 2.67 0.9086
G2 3.30 3.40 3.20 3.30 0.8968
G3 3.80 3.85 3.85 3.83 0.9046
5.2 Air Voids Test
Voids in total mix (VIM) is defined as the total
volume of the small pockets of air between the coated
aggregate particles throughout a compacted paving
mixture, expressed as a percent of the bulk volume of
the compacted paving mixture. The relationship
between aggregate gradations and VIM were
established as shown in Figure 4 below. The line
connected the 3 aggregate gradations shows the mean
VIM of each group which varies from 28.3% –
32.8%. It can be seen that the aggregate gradations
significantly affected the changes of VIM. G3 which
represents the finest aggregate gradations shows a
much lower VIM compared to G1 which represents
the coarsest aggregate gradations. Thus it can be
concluded that, as the aggregate gradation gets
coarser, so does with the increment in VIM. A
conventional Porous Asphalt skeleton requires VIM
between 18 – 25% which actually much lesser
Bulk density or bulk specific density of a Marshall
sample is defined as the ratio of the mass in air of a
unit volume of a permeable material (including both
permeable and impermeable) at a stated temperature
to the mass in air (of equal density) of an equal
volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated
temperature. Figure 5 shows clearly the effect of G mb
towards the changes of aggregate gradations. Gmb
were found to be inversely related with the changes
r2
of air voids from the 3 different gradations. Referring
to both Figure 4 and 5, Gmb has shown a close
relationship with VIM. It is proven that due to
densification of the mix resulted in a reduction of
VIM and vice versa. The line connected the 3
aggregate gradation shows the mean Gmb of each
group which varies from 1.68 to 1.80 g/ml. Previous
studies done on Porous Asphalt for the preparation of
Grouted Macadam shows similar values with the
current investigation (Zoorob S.E). This is basically
has proven that the chosen Porous Mix gradations are
suitable and acceptable for the current investigation.
Figure 5: Bulk Density of 3 Different
Aggregate Gradations

5
5.4 Indirect Tensile Test – Resilience Modulus
Figure 6: Resilience Modulus of 2 Different
Aggregate Gradations
IDT is a form of test which referring to resilience
modulus is a property of materials that absorbs
energy when it is deformed elastically and upon
unloading to this energy recovered. The greater the
resilience modulus, the stiffer the material gets, thus
higher in resisting deformation. The relationship
between aggregate gradations and resilience modulus
were established as shown in Figure 6 above. The
line connected both aggregate gradation shows the
mean value of each group which varies from 2584 –
2483 MPa. It is clearly shown that aggregate
gradations do not affect significantly towards
resilience modulus but at the same time gives a
reasonably high value towards the production of
Grouted Macadam wearing coarse. G1 on the other
hand is not inserted in this test due to the very high
porosity of mix which made the sample breaks during
testing. Point of aggregate contact in G1 is low and
eventually did not allow the structure to hold on one
another. Higher resilience modulus gives stiffer
material. This will basically lead to a better resistance
towards permanent deformation, thus improved the
resistance towards rutting. It is clearly stated that
when the resilience modulus is at the highest, it
indicates that the stiffest material condition under a
recoverable deformation behavior. According to
AASHTO, 1993 Pavement Design Guide, higher
value in resilience modulus is most desirable to build
a less thick pavement which will still maintain its
structural integrity. Comparing to the previous
studies done, the current investigation shows a
relatively good in resilience modulus and can be
suggested as surfaced for heavy traffic road corridors.
6 CONCLUSION
Bitumen binder decreases as the aggregate gradations
get coarser. Finer aggregate gradations will give
lower porosity, higher in bulk density and higher in
resilience modulus and vice versa.
6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Grateful acknowledgment is made to Institute of
Research Management and Consultancy (IPPP) of the
University of Malaya for funding this project under
grant no PS117/2008C.
References
Lister, N.W & Addis, R.R 1977. Field observation of
rutting and their practical implications. Transport
Research Board No. 640: 28-34
Hassan K.E., Setyawan, A. Zoorob, S.E., (2002).
“Effect of Cementitious Grouts on the properties of
Semi-Flexible Bituminous Pavement” Proceedings
of the Fourth European Nottingham, United
Kingdom, 11-12 April, 113-120
Hassan, K.E., Cabrera, J.G. & Head, M.K. 1998.
“The influence of aggregate characteristics on the
properties of high performance high strength
concrete” In B.V. Rangan & A.K. Patnaik (eds),
Proceeding of the international conference: high
performance high strength concrete, 441-445, Perth,
Australia
Suresha S.N., George Varghese, & Ravi Shankar
A.U. (2009) “Characterization of porous friction
course mixes for different Marshall compaction
efforts” Construction and Building Materials 23
Journal, (2009), pp. 2887-2893.
Huber G. Performance survey on open-graded
friction course mixes. Synthesis of highway practice
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ASTM D 7064/D 7064M. Standard practice for open-
graded friction course (OGFC) mix design. West
Conshohocken (PA); 2008
ASTM D 3203-91 Test Method for Percent Air Voids
in Compacted Dense and Open Bituminous Paving
Mixtures
ASTM D 4123-82 (1987) Test Method for Indirect
Tension Test for Resilient Modulus of Bituminous
Mixtures
Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM)
Semi Rigid Wearing Coarse Specification, (2007)
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Pavement Structures (1993)
Fabb T.R.J. (1993) “The case for the use of Porous
Asphalt in the UK” Institute of Asphalt Technology
Yearbook (1993), pp. 46 – 59.
Hamzah M.O., Samat M. M., Joon K.H., Muniandy
R. (2004) “Modification of aggregate grading for
porous asphalt” 3rd Eurasphaly & Eurobotume
Congress. Vienna 2004 – Paper 196
Wright, P.H., and Dixon, K.K. (2004). Highway
Engineering. 7th ed, United State of America, John
Wiley & Son, Inc.
Zoorob S.E., Hassan K.E., Satyawan A. (2002)
“Effect of Cementitious Grouts on the Properties of
Semi-Flexible Bituminous Pavements” Proceeding of
the Forth European Symposium on Performance of
Bituminous and Hydraulic Materials in Pavements.
Nothingham, United Kingdom, 11-12 April, pp 112-
120
S.E. Zoorob, J.G. Cabrera and S. Takahashi (1999),
“Effect of Aggregate Gradation and Binder Type on
the Properties of Porous Asphalt” Proc. 3rd European
Symposium, Performance and Durability of
Bituminous Materials and Hydraulic Stabilised
Composites, Leeds, April, pp 145-162
Woodsie A.R., Woodward W.D.H., Baird J.K. “A
Critical Appraisal On The Performance Of Porous
Asphalt” Highway Engineering Reasearch Centre of
the Built Environment, University of Ulster, Bardon
Roadstone.
Subagio B.S., Karsaman R.H. “Laboratory
Performance Of Porous Asphalt Mixture Using
Tafpack Super” Journal of the Eastern Asia Society
for Transportation Studies (EASTS), Vol.5, October
2003.
Beale J.M., You Z., “The Mechanical Properties of
Asphalt Mixtures with Recycled Concrete
Aggregates” Journal of Construction and Building
Materials (2009).

Der-Hsien Shen, Chia-Ming Wu, Jia-Chong Du

“Performance evaluation of porous asphalt with
granulated synthetic lightweight aggregate”
Construction and Building Materials, Volume 22,
Issue 5, May 2008, Pages 902-910

Cheuk Ching Wong, Wing-gun Wong “Effect of

crumb rubber modifiers on high temperature
susceptibility of wearing course mixtures”
Construction and Building Materials, Volume 21,
Issue 8, August 2007, Pages 1741-1745

S.N. Suresha, George Varghese, A.U. Ravi Shankar

“A comparative study on properties of porous friction
course mixes with neat bitumen and modified
binders” Construction and Building Materials,
Volume 23, Issue 3, March 2009, Pages 1211-1217

Cheuk Ching Wong, Wing-gun Wong “Effect of

crumb rubber modifiers on high temperature
susceptibility of wearing course mixtures”
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Issue 8, August 2007, Pages 1741-1745

Liseane P.T.L. Fontes, Glicério Trichês, Jorge C.

Pais, Paulo A.A. Pereira “Evaluating permanent
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Construction and Building Materials, Volume 24,
Issue 7, July 2010, Pages 1193-1200

7
EFFECTS OF WASTE COOKING OIL AS A REJUVENATING AGENT FOR AGED
BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT

Hallizza Asli
Postgraduate Student
Email: halli_izza@yahoo.com

Mohamed Rehan Karim

Professor
Email: rehan@um.edu.my

ABSTRACT: Combination of oxidation and volatility are the main cause in changing the physical properties of bituminous pavement.
Ageing process leads to hardening and caused the road failures especially cracking and rutting predictably occurred. In this paper, the
possibility of using waste cooking oil as a rejuvenating agent for aged bitumen is investigated. In addition, the parameters that would
influence the performance of the new rejuvenating agent developed by using waste cooking oil are initially considered. Unconventional
method which is simulation of aging process in laboratory is prepared by using propeller mixer at fixed temperature, 160°C with different
reaction times and speeds. The aged bitumen group that conducted in this research are 60/70, 50/60, 40/50 and 30/40 which have
penetrations between of 60 to 70, 50 to 60, 40 to 50 and 30 to 40, respectively. The binder tests that involved in this research are
Penetration Test, Softening Point Test which is well known as Ring and Ball Test, Brookfield Viscosity Test and Dynamic Shear
Rheometer, (DSR) Test with the purpose of verifying the physical characterisation of bitumen binder for five different percentages mix of
waste cooking oil. The waste cooking oil exhibited a significantly as the rejuvenator in the recycling asphalt pavement. The results
indicate that the aged bitumen will be rejuvenated by the waste cooking oil due to changes in increasing of lower penetration value that
similar as its original bitumen (Fresh Bitumen).

Keywords: Rejuvenating agent, Waste cooking oil, Physical properties, Rheological Characteristics, Viscosity properties, Aged bitumen

1. INTRODUCTION waste cooking oil as recycling/rejuvenating agent to restore

Decreasing supplies of locally available quality aggregate
in many regions around the world, growing concern over
waste disposal, and the rising cost of bitumen binder have
resulted in greater use of reclaimed asphalt pavement
(RAP) for road construction. Recycling Hot Mix Asphalt
(HMA) is the process in which reclaimed asphalt pavement
(RAP) materials are combined with new materials (the
virgin aggregates and asphalt binder) and a rejuvenating
agent to produce HMA mixtures. Recycled HMA mixtures,
properly designed, must have similar properties to those of
conventional HMA, fulfilling the same technical
prescriptions that are demanded for conventional ones.
Experience has indicated that the recycling of asphalt
pavements is a beneficial approach from technical,
economical, and environmental perspectives (Chen et al.
2007 and Romera et al. 2006).
Waste cooking oil was indicated as rejuvenator as well as
one of the recycling agent that possible to improve the
aged bitumen properties as similar level as the virgin
bitumen. Researchers have proved that using rejuvenator in
aged bitumen binder can reach target PG grades when the
optimum percentage of rejuvenator is achieved. This
research work will investigate the possibility of using
the aged bitumen to a condition that resemble of the virgin
bitumen. A rejuvenating agent that is commonly used is a
low viscosity product obtained from crude oil distillation.
The use of waste cooking oil is sought to provide an
alternative rejuvenating agent, and to provide an agent that
is considered as natural waste product. Incorporating a
waste product instead of a petroleum product offers a
potentially more sustainable product, and may lead to price
and supply advantages.
2. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Materials
Bitumen of penetration grade of 80/100 is used in this
research representing most popular usage in Malaysia. An
accelerated ageing process on the virgin bitumen was carry
out in laboratory by using propeller mixer to obtain
different group of aged bitumen: aged bitumen grade
60/70, aged bitumen grade 50/60, aged bitumen grade
40/50 and aged bitumen grade 30/40 that have penetration
in range of 60 to 70, 50 to 60, 40 to 50 and 30 to 40,
respectively.

1
As mentioned earlier, rejuvenator that used in this study
was waste cooking oil that easily acquired from the
residential houses or restaurants. The waste cooking oil has
low viscosity rather than aged bitumen. The fresh bitumen
will be compared to rejuvenated bitumen by adding the
aged bitumen with various percentages of waste cooking
oil which are 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5%. The waste cooking
oil is mixed with the aged bitumen simultaneously by
propeller mixer for 15 minute each percentage for every
condition by 200 revolutions per minute at fixed
temperature, 160°C.
2.2. Experimental
2.2.1. Development of Propeller Mixer Ageing Method
Propeller mixer is one of the laboratory equipment that
utilised as a simulation unconventional method to ageing
the bitumen. The original bitumen is heated in the oven for
160°C about one hour to one hour an half. Then, placed it
on the hot plate and stir it using the propeller mixer for
different reaction time with 300 and 350 revolutions per
minutes mixing speed (300 and 350 rpm). Try and error
process of reaction times have to be concerned to obtain
the different aged group of bitumen. Reaction times by
between four hours to seven hours is possible to be
considered in this research.
2.2.2. Penetration Test (ASTM D5-97)
The purpose of this test is to examine the consistency of a
sample of bitumen by determining the distance in tenths of
a millimetre that a standard needle vertically penetrates the
bitumen specimen under known conditions of loading, time
and temperature. The penetration test is simply a mean for
grading bitumen at ambience temperature. This test is
carried out under laboratory condition at 25°C, and the
purpose of this experiment is to determine the depth that a
weighted needle sinks into a bitumen specimen within 5
seconds.
2.2.3. Softening Point Test (ASTM D36-95)
Two horizontal disks of bitumen, cast in shouldered brass
rings, are heated at a controlled rate in a liquid bath while
each supports a steel ball. The softening point is reported
as the mean of the temperatures at which the two disks
soften enough to allow each ball, enveloped in bitumen, to
fall at certain distance. To determine the softening point of
bitumen within the range 30°C to 157°C by means of the
Ring-and-Ball apparatus.
2.2.4. Brookfield Viscosity Test (ASTM D4402-87)
The Brookfield Thermosel Viscometer described in this
procedure can be used to measure the viscosity of asphalt
at elevated temperatures. The torque on a spindle rotating
in a special thermostatically control sample holder
containing a small sample of asphalt is used to measure the
relative resistance to rotation. A factor is applied to the
2
torque dial reading to yield the viscosity of the asphalt in
millipascal seconds. This test method can be used to
measure the apparent viscosity of asphalt at application
temperatures.
2.2.5. Dynamic Shear Rheometer Test (ASTM D – 4
Proposal P246)
A Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) may be used to
determine the rheological properties of bituminous binders
and it is generally assumed that a DSR can accurately
measure binder properties over a wide range of conditions.
Bitumen binders in the medium to high temperature range
behave partly like an elastic solid (deformation due to
loading is recoverable, it is able to return to its original
shape after a load is removed) and a viscous liquid
(deformation due to loading is non recoverable, it cannot
return to its original shape after a load is removed). By
measuring G* and δ, the DSR is able to determine the total
complex shear modulus as well as its elastic and viscous
components. The basic DSR test uses a thin bitumen binder
sample sandwiched between two plates. The lower plate is
fixed while the upper plate oscillates back and forth across
the sample at 1.59 Hz to create a shearing action. These
oscillations at 1.59 Hz (10 radians/sec) are meant to
simulate the shearing action corresponding to a traffic
speed of about 90 km/hr (55 mph) (Roberts et al., 1996).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Influence of percentage of waste cooking oil on the
penetration
200
180
FRESH BITUMEN
Penetration value (dmm)
AGED BITUMEN 60/70
160 AGED BITUMEN 50/60
140 AGED BITUMEN 40/50
AGED BITUMEN 30/40
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Percentage of waste cooking oil (%)
Fig. 1. Comparison graph of penetration value, (dmm)
against percentage of waste cooking oil, (%) for aged
bitumen grade 60/70, 50/60, 40/50 and 30/40
In this study, penetration test was applied to examine the
consistency of bitumen sample which is specifically was
the hardness of the bitumen. In term of engineering,
consistency is an empirical measure of the resistance
offered by a fluid to continuous deformation when it is
subjected to shearing stress. In Figure 1, increasing of
penetration value for each different group of aged bitumen
is caused by the chemical reaction when different
percentage of waste cooking oil is added into it and it is
obviously illustrated from the graph below. But, when it
reached for certain volume of waste cooking oil, the
penetration value is as similar as the original bitumen.
As can be seen from the graph above, for aged bitumen
grade of 30/40, approximately 4% added waste cooking oil
is changed the brittle bitumen to soft bitumen as similar as
fresh bitumen. When 3% of waste cooking oil is added into
the aged bitumen grade 40/50, the penetration value is
alike the original bitumen with the penetration value of 84.
On the contrary, the penetration value for aged bitumen
grade 60/70 and 50/60 is similar as the original bitumen
after 1% of waste cooking oil is mixed together.
From the graph displayed above, it was apparently showed
that the lower group of aged bitumen, the obvious
transformation can be observed. Rejuvenating agent such
as waste cooking oil can be used in order to decreasing the
maintenance cost of exited asphalt pavement.
3.2. Influence of percentage waste cooking oil on the
softening point
Contrasting some other substances (e.g water which
changes from solid to liquid at 0°C) bituminous materials
do not have an exact melting point. Instead, as the
temperatures rises, these materials slowly change from
brittle or very thick and slowly-flowing materials to softer
and less viscous liquids.
56
Softening point value (°C)
54
52
50
48
46
44
42
40
38
36
34
0 1 2 3
Percentage of waste cooking oil (%)
Fig. 2. Comparison graph of softening point Temperature,
(°C) against percentage of waste cooking oil, (%) for aged
bitumen grade 60/70, 50/60, 40/50 and 30/40.
The effects of percentage of waste cooking oil and
softening point value of different aged bitumen group:
aged bitumen grade 60/70, aged bitumen grade 50/60, aged
bitumen grade 40/50 and aged bitumen grade 30/40 were
presented in figure 2. As illustrated from the graph, when
the group of aged bitumen is decreasing with the
penetration value, the softening point is increased. For
aged bitumen without waste cooking oil for grade 30/40,
the softening point is 54°C but for grade 40/50, the
bitumen melted at 50°C meanwhile for grade 50/60 and
grade 60/70 is 49°C. Instead, the higher percentage of
waste cooking oil added into the aged bitumen group, the
lower softening point temperature is obtained. For aged
bitumen grade 60/70 and 50/60, 1% of added waste
cooking oil caused it to returns to the original value. On the
contrary, the original value of bitumen was achieved when
3% of waste cooking oil added into aged bitumen grade
40/50 which is 46°C. Meanwhile, the softening point of
aged bitumen grade 30/40 is similar as the fresh bitumen
when 4% of waste cooking oil is added.
As can be seen in the figure 2, the softening point value is
diminishing gradually. With the increasing of aging time,
the penetration value is decreased but softening point
temperature is increased due to oxidation reactions
happened and more asphaltenese micelles appeared.
Increasing of asphaltenese content with high molecular
weight was produced harder bitumen. The chemical
reaction and mixture of waste cooking oil was rejuvenating
the diverse groups of aged bitumen.
3.3 Influence of percentage waste cooking oil on the
viscosity
This test is significantly to ensure that the binders are
sufficiently fluid when being pumped and mixed at the hot
mix plants. As compared with the capillary tube
viscometers, the rotational viscometer provides larger
clearances between the components. Therefore, it can be
used to test modified asphalts containing larger particles,
which could plug up a capillary viscometer tube. Another
advantage of the rotational viscometer is that the shear
stress versus shear rate characteristics of a test binder can
be characterised over a wide range of stress or strain levels.
FRESH BITUMEN For Superpave binder specification purpose, the rotational
AGED BITUMEN 60/70
AGED BITUMEN 50/60
viscosity test is to be run at standard temperature, 135 °C
AGED BITUMEN 40/50 to ensure proper workability during mixing and placement.
AGED BITUMEN 30/40
Critical condition of an asphalt concrete is at the highest
pavement temperature at which the asphalt mixture is the
weakest and most susceptible to plastic flow when stressed.
When the other factors are kept constant, an increase in the
viscosity of the asphalt binder will increase the shear
strength and subsequently the resistance to plastic flow of
the asphalt concrete. With respect to resistance to plastic
4 5 6 flow of the asphalt concrete, it is preferable to have a high
asphalt viscosity at the highest anticipated pavement
temperature.
The effectiveness of the mixing of asphalt cement and
aggregate, and the effectiveness of the placement and
compaction of the hot asphalt mix are affected greatly by
the viscosity of the asphalt. The result of viscosity towards
the elevated temperature is reported in figure 3 as the
following below. In this study, elevated temperature of
90°C, 110°C, 130°C, 135°C, 150°C and 170°C is
concerned. As can be seen from the illustrated figure 3
showed the high temperature viscosity relationships with
the different percentage of waste cooking oil to the
different grade of aged bitumen: 60/70, 50/60, 40/50 and
30/40 which is to be compared to original bitumen grade
80/100. According to Sengoz and Isikyakar (2008), the
increase in viscosity is not favorable because the bitumen
with high viscosity levels require higher mixing, laying and
compaction temperatures which results in too much energy
consumption.
3

8000
FRESH BITUMEN
7000 60/70 + 1% WCO
50/60 + 1% WCO
6000 40/50 + 3% WCO
Viscosity (MPa.s)
5000 30/40 + 4% WCO
4000
3000 R² = 0.9475
2000 R² = 0.9465
R² = 0.9427
1000 R² = 0.9423 R² = 0.9477
0
-1000 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Temperature (°C)
Fig. 3. Viscosity (MPa) versus temperature for fresh
bitumen and optimum percentage of waste cooking oil
added to aged bitumen grade 60/70, 50/60, 40/50 and 30/40
As to the Brookfield viscosity is increasing from 90°C to
170°C, the results in figure 3 clearly showed the decreasing
in viscosity due to higher waste cooking oil contents. For
aged bitumen grade 60/70 and grade 50/60, as can be seen
from the graph, the line of fresh bitumen is overlapped
with the 1% added of waste cooking oil. It showed that
adding the 1% of waste cooking oil achieved the
rejuvenated bitumen. Meanwhile, range of 3% to 4% of
waste cooking oil is obtained from the aged bitumen grade
40/50 to be similar as the original bitumen. On the
contrary, for grade 30/40 of aged bitumen, within the range
waste cooking oil content of 4% to 5% is slightly
overlapped to the line of fresh bitumen. Other line for each
test condition for diverse grade of aged bitumen is shift out
from the line of the original bitumen. From the Brookfield
viscosity test, it was obviously an additional proved that
waste cooking oil can be used as the rejuvenating agent for
aged bitumen in addition to softening point test and
penetration test
3.4 Influence of percentage waste cooking oil on the
rheology
When testing bitumen with the DSR tester according to the
Superpave specification, the sample is sandwiched between
a fixed-base plate and an oscillating spindle plate. The
stress–strain pattern is recorded. The angular frequency,
which is varied in many other types of test, is fixed at 10
rad s-1 in the Superpave specification, which can be
attributed to the loading time within a pavement where
vehicles travel at 90 km/h. As binders get older, they
become more stiff and brittle. It is generally accepted that
bitumen hardening in the field is mostly due to oxidation. It
has also been recognised that the reactions taking place in
bitumen exposed to the air at low and high temperatures
are different. Thus rutting is a more significant problem at
the beginning of the service life of a pavement, and the
low-temperature cracking and fatigue failure are more
serious problems towards the end of the service life of a
pavement.
4
Figure below showed result of dynamic shear rheometer
test for aged bitumen grade 60/70, 50/60, 40/50 and 30/40.
The rheological properties of aged for each group of aged
bitumen with five different percentage of added waste
cooking oil are compared to original bitumen (80/100).
Behaviour of asphalt binders can be showed by plotting
master curves of the complex modulus vs. temperature.
Figure 4 plot G* vs. temperature at 10 rad/s for different
aged bitumen group with optimum waste cooking oil
content and fresh bitumen. As the temperature increases,
the modulus decreases significantly. Aged bitumen grade
60/70, 50/60, 40/50 and 30/40 without adding waste
cooking oil was the stiffest over the entire range of
temperatures, but after adding waste cooking oil from 1%
to 5%, the modified binder become soft due to decreasing
of modulus value. The modulus for these binders does not
change as dramatically as the temperature changes
compared to the other modified binders. As we can be
seen, the graph curve of 1% added waste cooking oil for
aged bitumen grade 60/70 and 50/60 is the nearest due to
the fresh bitumen curve. On the contrary, when 3% and 4%
is mixed to the aged bitumen grade 40/50 and 30/40 it
seems to be as similar as original bitumen, respectively.
200000
Complex Shear Modulus, G*
FRESH BITUMEN
175000 60/70 + 1%WC0
50/60 + 1% WCO
150000 40/50 + 3% WCO
30/40 + 4% WCO
125000
(Pa)
100000
75000
50000
R² = 0.991
R² = 0.9917
25000 R² = 0.9994 R² = 0.9918
R² = 0.99
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (°C)
Fig. 4. Complex shear modulus, G* (Pa) versus
temperature for Fresh Bitumen and optimum percentage of
waste cooking oil added to to aged bitumen grade 60/70,
50/60, 40/50 and 30/40
Phase angle, δ (°) is the phase difference between the
stress and strain in an oscillatory deformation and is a
measure of the viscoelastic character of the material. If δ is
equals to 90°, then the binder can be considered purely
viscous in nature and when the δ is equal to 0° would
represent an ideal elastic solid. The ability of the binders to
store deformational energy at high temperatures and to
dissipate deformational energy through flow at low
temperatures is called elasticity and flexibility,
respectively. In this study, phase angle as a function of
elevated temperatures were determined for all the condition
at 10 rad s-l (1.59 Hz) over a temperature range of 30 to
80°C. As can be seen graph from the figure 5, at a fixed
frequency and at temperatures that higher than about 65°C
the phase angle of all the modified bitumen approaches
90°. In this case, the stored energy per cycle of
deformation becomes negligible compared to that
dissipated as heat. The rejuvenated bitumen curve showed Doh, Y.S., Amirkhanian, S.N. and Kim, K.W. (2008).
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Building Material 22: 1253-1260.
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90
evaluation of ageing properties of SBS polymer
88
Phase Angle, δ (°)

modified bitumens. Fuel, S0016-2361: 00283-4.

86
84 Lu, X.H. and Isacsson, U (2002). Effect of ageing on
82 bitumen chemistry and rheology. Construction and
80 FRESH BITUMEN Building Material, 16(1): 15-22.
60/70 + 1% WCO
78 50/60 + 1% WCO
76 40/50 + 3% WCO Lu, X.H. and Isacsson, U (1996). Rheological
30/40 + 4% WCO characterisation of styrene-butadiene-styrene
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copolymer modified bitumens. Construction and
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Building Material, S0950-0618: 00033-5.
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Lee, S.J., Amirkhanian, S.N., Park, N.W. and Kim, K.W.
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30/40
Roberts, F.L., Kandhal, P.S., Brown, E.R., Lee, D-Y,
4. CONCLUSIONS Kennedy, T.W., Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture
design and Construction, Text Book, NAPA Education
As the conclusion, waste cooking oil (waste material) is Foundation Lanham Maryland, second edition, 1996.
found to be a suitable rejuvenating agent for aged bitumen
in asphalt pavements. By using waste cooking oil as Romera, R., Santamaria, A., Pena, J.J., Munoz, M.E.,
bitumen rejuvenator in recycled asphalt pavements, it Barral, M., Garcia, E. and Janez, V. (2006).
significantly contributes to the reduction in environmental Rheological aspects of the rejuvenation of aged
degradation. In addition, recycling asphalt pavements bitumen. Rheol Acta, 45: 474-478.
reduces the use of virgin materials (natural rocks, bitumen
from petroleum). Saleh, M.F. (2006). Experimental investigation of bitumen
physical properties on foamability and mechanical
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT properties of foam bitumen stabilized mixes. Third
Gurl Conference on Roads, March 6-8: 92-98.
This study is a part of research project that sponsored by
the Institute of Research Management and Consultancy,
Sengoz, B. and Isikyakar, G. (2008). Analysis of styrene-
University of Malaya as the financial assistance by
butadiene-styrene polymer modified bitumen using
awarding the grant PS138/2009B to accomplish the present
fluorescent microscopy and conventional test methods.
and ongoing work. And it is an honour to have Kajang
Journal of Hazardous Materials. 150: 424–432
Rock Sdn. Bdn. as a cooperative supplier of bitumen
80/100.
Shen, J., Amirkhanian, S.N. and Tang, B. (2007). Effects
of rejuvenator on performance-based properties of
REFERENCES rejuvenated asphalt binder and mixtures. Construction
and Building Material, 21: 958-964.
Airey, D.G. (2003). Rheological properties of styrene
butadiene styrene polymer modified road bitumens. Wu. S., Cong, P., Yu, J., Luo, X. and Mo, L. (2006).
Fuel, 82: 1709-1719. Experimental investigation of related properties of
asphalt binders containing various flame retardants.
Airey, D.G. and Rahimzadeh, B. (2004). Combined Fuel, 85: 1298-1304.
bituminous binder and mixture linear rheological
properties. Construction and Building Material, 18: Wu, S.P., Pang, L., Mo, L.T., Chen, Y.C. and Zhu, G.J.
535-548. (2009). Influence of aging on the evolution of structure,
morphology and rheology of base and SBS modified
Chen, J.S., Huang, C.C., Chu, P.Y. and Lin, K.Y. bitumen. Construction and Building Material, 23:
(2007). Engineering characterization of recycled 1005-1010.
asphalt concrete and aged bitumen mixed recycling
agent. Journal of Materials Science, 42:9867–9876.p

5
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF LOCAL RECLAIMED ASPHALT PAVEMENT AGGREGATE

Lillian Gungat1, Jodin Makinda1 and Liew Yu Li 2

1
School of Engineering & IT, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah
E-mail:lillian@ums.edu.com.my
2
DH Perunding, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah

ABSTRACT: Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) as an alternative material in road construction is not a new issue as it is being
widely accepted in many countries compared to Malaysia. The use of RAP brings about many credit and advantages in term of
environment, cost, resources and engineering value. Thus give it a sustainable usage. In pavement design and construction, selection of
material influences the overall performance and quality. Therefore, engineering properties play important roles in maximizing the
usage of the material. In this study, the properties of RAP aggregate obtained from local roads were tested and evaluated to determine
its existing condition. The study covered the RAP aggregate physical properties such as grading and shape, and also its mechanical
resistance against impact and abrasion. Tests and investigation were done in accordance to the Public Work Department (JKR)
specification and standard applied such as BS, ASTM and ASSHTO. Comparison and evaluation were done based on the original
initial properties and the road conditions such as traffic data, age and location. Results showed that tested RAP aggregate properties are
still within the pavement material limit range with some degradation. Traffic condition and pavement age found to be the main
influencing factors for the mechanical properties deprivation. Investigation findings showed that the RAP aggregate still possess good
quality properties to be used as an alternative resource in road construction.

Keyword: Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP), Aggregate, physical properties, Impact and Abrasion

highly affected by the aggregate arrangement and the

1. INTRODUCTION
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) utilization as an
alternative material used since many years ago in
European countries compared to Malaysia. RAP is the
term use for remove or reprocessed asphalt pavement to
be used in road construction (Huang et al.,2005).
Researches have shown that RAP usage minimize the
dependency to the aggregate natural resources, saving
cost, energy and environment. Thus contributes to the
sustainable development in road construction.
In road construction, aggregate is the highest abundant
material used. In asphalt concrete pavement, aggregate
may constitute about 70-75 percent by volume or 90-95
percent by weight (Somayaji, 2001). Aggregate plays an
important role in sustaining the vehicle loads and
transferring it from the wearing surface to the foundation
in flexible pavement (Karim et al, 1991). Therefore the
aggregate properties are very much influential to the
pavement behaviour and quality. A well understanding of
its engineering characteristic is important in maximizing
the usage and benefits. The principal factor that
determines the suitability of recyclable materials for use
in highway construction is their engineering properties
(Aribisala,2007). Engineering characteristic is the
property in term of physical, mechanical, and chemical
which will contribute and effect on the design and its
usage.
The most important aggregate properties in road
construction are the size of the aggregate and it’s grading.
This is important in order to obtain the maximum
compaction to achieve maximum dry density; which is
amount of filler particle to form the best interlocking
layers. Based on the function and required characteristic,
appropriate grading will be selected and evaluated. Poor
aggregate grading may causes pavement deterioration
such as segregation, improper compaction and thus leads
to structure failures, surface defects and surface
deformations. Apart from that, geological factors
(composition, texture, particle shape, pores, etc.) also
affect the mechanical degradation and strength of
aggregates.
In Malaysia, various recycling techniques are adopted for
rehabilitation work of flexible pavement (Ahmad et. Al,
2004). The stabilized RAP recently used for road
maintenance in Sabah showed good performance and yet
fast construction, saving cost, labour and environment
(Stabilised Pavement Malaysia,2007). This indicates that
RAP has the potential as an alternative resource in road
construction. Therefore, further research on local
properties of RAP is needed. This study investigates the
physical and mechanical properties of RAP obtained from
three local roads.
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
The reclaimed asphalt pavement samples were obtained
from selected site in Sabah which is under construction
for road maintenance. Three locations of road with
different classification were selected namely Jalan
Penampang, Jalan Bundusan-Lintas and Jalan Papar
Lama. The sample taken in various chainages to ensure
the RAP samples are not influenced by the surrounding.
Due to the sample taken is a used material, studies of its
background history is important as it will influences the

1
aggregate properties. Figure 1 and Table 1 show the used plotted in the specification grading limits range
Asphalt pavement and road data respectively. respectively shown in figure 2, figure 3 and figure 4.

Specification Grading Limits for Wearing Course,

Class 'B', Jalan Bundusan-Lintas

120

Percentage Passing (%)

100
RAP Sample
80 Jalan Bundusan-
Lintas

60 Minimum Grading
for Class 'B'

40
Maximum Grading
for Class 'B'
20

0
0.01 1 100
Sieve Size (log)
Fig. 1. Stockpile of Used Asphalt Pavement at Jalan
Bundusan-Lintas. Fig. 2. Specification Grading for Jalan Bundusan-Lintas,
Class ‘B’.
Table 1. Road Data And Parameters
Specification Grading Limits for Wearing Course 'B',
Description Road Location Jalan Penampang
120
Jalan Jalan Jalan Papar
Penampang Bundusan Lama 100
Type State road State road Federal road
Percentage Passing (%)

Age >5 yrs <5 yrs >20 yrs 80

RAP sample Jalan
Aggregate Class B Class B ACW 20
Simpang Lido
Average daily 60
Minimum Grading
traffic (ADT) 20511 15357 2623 for Class 'B'
Heavy <2% <2% >20% 40
Maximum Grading
Vehicle (%) (2007) (2006) (2007) for Class 'B'
20
Source: JKR Sabah, 2008
0
Collected samples have to be processed prior laboratory 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
testing. The samples obtained from the site which in Sieve Size (log)
coring form, were evaluated based on it instantaneous
appearance such as the thickness of the sample and clay Fig. 3. Specification Grading for Jalan Penampang, Class ‘B’.
or silt soil content. Contaminants were washed and
cleaned from the RAP sample. Samples were then heated Both Jalan Bundusan and Penampang RAP samples fall
in oven and hot plate to obtain a loose aggregate sample within the aggregate limit range with uniform aggregate
coated with bitumen. Parameters such as boiling particles. Jalan Bundusan sample contains maximum
temperature not to exceed the bitumen flash point and percentage of particle range within the size of 4.75mm,
heating duration were taken into account to minimize 2.36mm and 600  m sieve. From the size distribution
error and to obtain consistency during the sample analysis, more than 65% passes the 4.75mm sieve
preparation. After that, laboratory testing were conducted opening which indicate most of the particle are fine grain
to evaluate the physical properties; size grading, water aggregate. Similar pattern is observed for Jalan
absorption and flakiness and mechanical properties; Penampang. However, this sample contained more coarse
abrasion and impact value The obtained tests results were aggregate compared to Jalan Bundusan sample.
compared to the standard specification which is specified
in Malaysian Standard, British Standards American
Standard Testing of Materials (ASTM) and the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officers
(AASHTO) and correlated to the local pavement design
(JKR, 1990).

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Sieve Analysis

The gradation obtained for all the three samples were

2
 Specification Grading Limits for Wearing Coarse of flakiness index might caused by the degradation of size
AWC-20, Jalan Papar Lama particle due to fracture and break down process. Overall,
the entire samples still possess reasonable FI values and
120 lower than the standard specification.
Percentage Passing (%)

100 Table 2. RAP Aggregate Flakiness Index (FI)

RAP sample Jalan
80 Papar Lama
Minimum Grading Sample location Flakiness Index (FI)
60
for AWC-20 Jalan Bundusan 30.11
40 Maximum Grading Jalan Penampang 31.81
for AWC-20 Jalan Papar Lama 26.57
20

0
0.01 1 100 3.3 Water Absoprtion
Sieve Size (log) The water absorption results are shown in Table 3.
Compared to its initial test result, some percentage drop
Fig. 4. Graph of Specification Grading for Jalan Papar Lama, are observed but still less than 2% and satisfied the
AWC-20. standard requirement. Bitumen is a hydrocarbon material
and it behaves as a hydrophobic. Therefore, the bitumen
Whereas for Jalan Papar Lama sample it shows a poorly coating decrease the water absorption, thus results in low
or gap graded curve, compared to the standard AWC-20 water absorption percentage. This also explains the lesser
gradation. The sieve size opening of 3.35mm with a low percentage drop when the age of the sample increases
weight of percentage indicate it as the missing size. The
nominal size is between 5mm and 4.25mm aggregate with Table 3. RAP Aggregate Water Absorption
the highest weight percentage of 32.18% and 30.62%
respectively. The results obtained fall outside the Sample Water Absorption Percent Drop
specification range limit. Both the coarse and fine grain Location (%)
showed a poor graded sample. This indicates that the Initial RAP
Jalan Papar Lama RAP aggregate gradation is totally out (Virgin Aggregate) (%)
of the boundary of the standard specification required. (%)
Jalan 1.23 0.70 43
Bundusan
The test results of this sieve analysis showed some
Jalan 1.23 0.96 22
degradation in RAP aggregate due to fraction and break
Penampang
down of the aggregate during the scraping of the Jalan Papar 1.37 1.11 19
pavement. The nominal size of the aggregate basically Lama
falls between 5mm to 2mm size. Aggregates are subjected
to impact stresses during handling, processing, and
compaction and repeated stresses during the service life of 3.4 Los Angeles Abrasion (LAAV) and Impact
a pavement. The fracture of the coarse aggregate into Value (IV)
smaller grain aggregate explains the abundant of this size The results for all three samples of roads indicated the
particle. Due to the heating process and spread drying, the various properties differ due to the different existing
fine aggregate such as those 150  m and 75  m tends to condition and situation as shown in Table 4. Jalan Papar
stick together because of the existing bitumen coating, Lama shows the least mechanical strength with the
and forming a group of slightly bigger than its size. This highest abrasion wear and aggregate impact value of
explains the low percentage of aggregate within this size. 26.94 and 43.81 respectively. Jalan Bundusan is the
The age of the RAP sample is also affected the grading of strongest among all three sample with 14.61 for AIV and
the aggregate as the older sample tends to have more 30.26. As for Jalan Penampang, it falls between the two
fracture particle due to its impact during service and samples with 15.78 for AIV and 33.07 for LAAV. Both
degradation of the sample. This proves the poorly graded the state road has a very close value, as the existing
of Jalan Papar Lama sample with the age more than 20 condition does not vary much. The longer period of life
years compared to the other two samples. Additionally, time service explains the weak condition of the RAP
the usage of the roads with percentage of heavy vehicle aggregate sample from Jalan Papar Lama as compared to
worsens the road condition. Jalan Penampang and Jalan Bundusan-Lintas.

3.2 Flakiness Index

Table 2 shows the Flakiness Index of the RAP samples.
Both the state road (Jalan Bundusan and Jalan
Penampang) shares a near value of 30, and compared to
its standard specification of 35, it is still under the
requirement limit. As for Jalan Papar Lama, smaller result

3
 Table 4. Aggregate Los Angeles Abrasion (LAAV) and
Aggregate Impact Value (IV)
Sample location LAAV IV
Jalan Bundusan 30.26 14.61
Jalan Penampang 33.07 15.78
Jalan Papar Lama 43.81 26.94
Additionally, the traffic volume shown in Table 1 also
influences the sample strength, as the traffic indicates how
much load the road accommodates. The differences in
both the state road can be explained due to the different
traffic volume, where Jalan Penampang carries more
volume than Jalan Bundusan. Furthermore, Jalan
Penampang service life is longer than Jalan Bundusan.
Therefore, Jalan Bundusan is slightly stronger compared
to Jalan Penampang. With the highest percentage of heavy
vehicle in Jalan Papar Lama; 20% in year 2000, whereas
only 2% in year 2007 recorded in Jalan Penampang, gives
it the worst condition compared to the other two
location’s sample.
Furthermore, the bitumen coating gives extra strength to
the aggregate to resist impact and tends to group up and
stick together. However, the bitumen properties tend to
weaken as the age increases. The old, harden RAP binder
as in Jalan Papar Lama does not possess the original good
quality anymore compared to Jalan Penampang and Jalan
Bundusan. . The bitumen coating in Jalan Penampang
and Jalan Bundusan tends to bind the sample together
when its heat up and give a better resistance.
3.5 Relationship between Physical and Mechanical
Properties of RAP
Through the obtained results, relationship between the
RAP aggregate properties can be identified. The variation
in resistance within the samples can be attributed to the
influence of aggregate particle shape and geological
features (Koukis et. al, 2007). The aggregate resistance
and geometrical properties; particularly the shape, are
linearly related. Due to the flakiness of the particle shape,
compaction results a higher void ratio and weaker
compound. This can be seen from the results of Jalan
Penampang and Jalan Bundusan. However, for sample
obtained from Jalan Papar Lama, ages and many other
factors influence the variation in the values obtained.
The water absorption reflects the volume of pore spaces
constitute significant geological factors influencing the
aggregate resistance. The durability, in term of resistance
to weathering to wear, generally increases with the
decreasing grain size and decreasing volume of pore
spaces. The increase in percentage water absorption is
related to an increase in LAAV and AIV results.
Additionally, the grading of the sample which still falls in
the grading limits, such as Jalan Penampang and Jalan
Bundusan, results in higher resistance value as compared
to Jalan Papar Lama.
4
4. CONCLUSION
Tests and evaluation have been conducted on the RAP
aggregate samples, and the following conclusions can be
drawn;
 There is some degradation on the size
distribution of the RAP samples, but the
Flakiness Indexes of the samples are still under
the requirement specification.
 Mechanical properties of the RAP samples show
some deprivation especially Jalan Papar Lama.
However, RAP samples of Jalan Penampang and
Jalan Bundusan still possessed strength within
the standard.
 The RAP aggregate is influenced mostly by the
traffic condition and the pavement condition
especially the period of service. Therefore, the
existing condition is important and need to be
studied.
It can be seen that the RAP aggregates do have the
potential to be used as an alternative material in road
construction. With the aid of its engineering properties
understanding, maximizing the usage of RAP become an
advantage. However due to their various individual
characteristics, tests and evaluations should be conducted
to ensure proper usage of the material.
REFERENCES
Ahmad, J., Rahman, M. Y. A. & Din, K. (2004)
Degradation And Abrasion Of Reclaimed Asphalt
Pavement Aggregates. International Journal of
Engineering and Technology, 1: 139-145.
Aribisala, J.O. and Ogundipe, O.M. (2007) Recycled
Materials In Highway Construction For Sustainable
Development. Research Journal of Applied
Sciences., 2: 393-396.
Huang, B., Shu, X. & Li, G. (2005) Laboratory
investigation of Portland cement concrete containing
recycled asphalt pavements. Cement and Concrete
Research, 35: 2008-2013.
JKR 20407 0001-1990. Guidelines for Inspection and
Testing of Road Works, Jabatan Kerja Raya. Kuala
Lumpur.
Karim, M. R., Hamzah, M. O., & Hasan, A.(1991)
Pengenalan Pembinaan Jalan Raya Berbitumen.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Koukis, G., Sabatakakis, N., Spyropoulos, A. (2007)
Resistance Variation Of Low-Quality Aggregate.
Earth and Environmental Science, Vol. 66 (4): 457-
466.
Somayaji, S. (2001) Civil Engineering Materials, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Stabilised Pavement Malaysia(SPM) Sdn. Bhd (2007).

Road Recycling & Stabilisation-The New Era of
Roads Construction in Sabah Malaysia, IEM
Seminar.

5
MODIFIED BITUMEN WITH OIL PALM FRUIT ASH

Gatot Rusbintardjo1,2, Mohd. Rosli Hainin2

1)
Department of Civil Engineering and Environment, Faculty of Engineering,
Universitas Islam Sultan Agung (UNISSULA) Semarang
Email: gatotrsb@gmail.com; phone: +60177932890; +62247471703
2)
Department of Geotechnical and Transportation Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Email: roslihainin@gmail.com; phone: +6013745050

ABSTRACT: Increased traffic factors such as heavier loads, higher traffic volume, and higher tire pressure as well as studded tire
wear, demand higher performance pavements to prevent pavement distress. Some of these serious distresses include rutting, shoving,
stripping, and fatigue cracking, which ultimately may lead to complete failure of the pavement. Such distresses reduce the performance
of asphalt pavements, which not only cause inferior ride quality to motorists, but also yield higher life-cycle costs. Some of these
problems are associated with the asphalt cement or bitumen as binders. The performance of asphalt pavements is mainly governed by
the properties of the bitumen, because bitumen is the continuous matrix and only deformable component. At high temperatures (40 to
600C), asphalt exhibits a viscoelastic behaviour. Pavement made of bitumen may show distress when exposed to high temperatures. At
elevated temperatures, permanent deformation (rutting) occurs and leads to channels in the direction of travel. This is attributed to the
viscous flow of the bitumen matrix in paving mixtures, which retains strains induced by traffic. On the other hand, bitumen will brittle
in low temperature and pavement cracking will occur. Therefore, pavement performance is strongly associated with the rheological
properties of bitumen. Bitumen exposed to wide range of load and weather conditions, however, does not have good engineering
properties, because it is soft in a hot environment and brittle in cold weather. To prevent occurring of pavement distress, it is important
to reinforced bitumen to improve its mechanical properties. Modified bitumen with Oil Palm Fruit Ash (OPFASH) was studied by
analyzing its rheological properties. The results which were reported in this paper show that OPFASH-Modified Bitumen can resist to
high pavement temperature rutting up to 70°C, 10°C higher than average high pavement temperature. in addition also resist to
intermediate pavement temperature fatigue cracking 20°C.

Keyword: Oil Palm Fruit Ash, Modifier, Bitumen, Rheology, Rutting, Cracking

1. INTRODUCTION and 0.1 kg Kernel Oil or totally resulted 0.44 kg of oil

Traditionally, a conventional binder such as bitumen
penetration grade 80/100 was used in road pavement
construction which also most use in Malaysia.
However, increased traffic factors such as heavier loads,
higher traffic volume, and higher tire pressure as well as
studded tire wear, require the durability and strength of
the binder to resist rutting, fatigue and cracking
tendencies of the pavements. One means of achieving
this is by modifying the bitumen. Modified bitumen
with additive to strengthen the mechanical properties of
the bitumen has been practiced in many forms for over
150 years but there is a renewed interest.
(Department of Environmental, Ministry of Science,
Technology and the Environment Malaysia, (1999)). This
means that from 1 kg of oil palm fruitlets resulted 0.56 kg
of the mesocarp waste. If the product of palm oil in the
year 2009 is 17.56 million tonnes (44% of the oil palm
fruitlets), it is means that there are 9.83 million tonnes of
the waste of mesocarp in the year 2009, large amount of
waste that will pollute the environment if not used.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
2.1 Materials

Feasibility of using Oil Palm Fruit Ash (OPFASH) was
evaluated in this research. OPFASH is by-product of
palm oil mill, or the ash from burning mesocarp of
fruitlets of the palm oil fruits. The idea to use OPFASH
is to look for the alternative of other modifier instead of
polymer, the most use of bitumen modifier, and to
reduce environmental pollution caused by waste palm
oil industry. Malaysia is the palm oil producing
countries and the country’s largest palm oil industry in
the world. Malaysia Palm Oil production in the year
2009 was 17.56 million tonnes1. From 1 kg of oil palm
fruilets can be resulted 0.34 kg of crude palm oil (CPO)
The bitumen used in this study was 80/100 penetration
grade source from PETRONAS. Oil Palm Fruit Ash
(OPFASH) is by-product of palm oil mill, or the ash from
burning mesocarp of fruitlets of the palm oil fruits. This
by-product has been disposed as waste thus polluting the
environment and affecting the health of community
surrounding. Physically, OPFASH is grayish in colour and
become dark with increasing proportions of unburned
carbon. The physical properties and chemical composition
of OPFASH were given in Table 1 and 2 respectively.
From Palm Oil Mill OPFASH was in form of rough
elongated-flat grains with maximum grains size length 6
mm. In order to be able to well mixed with the bitumen,
OPFASH was grinded into the fine grains with uniform
grains size 75µm or 0.075 mm.
Table1. Physical Properties of OPFASH (Mohd. Warid)
Table 2 Chemical Composition of OPFASH (M. Warid)
2.2 Procedures
2.2.1 Sample preparation
The amount of 1500 grams of 2.5% to 10% of OPFASH
in increments of 2.5% by weight of bitumen were
blended with bitumen using ordinary laboratory
propeller mixer at mixing temperature 160 ± 5°C,
mixing time 60 minutes, and mixing stirring speed 800
revolution per minute (rpm). Immediately after mixing
being finished, amount of 300 grams were poured into
25.4 mm by 139.7 mm of aluminum tube to be used for
storage stability test. The rest of the mixtures were kept
into room temperature during three days for further
aging test.
2.2.2 Storage stability test
Storage stability test was conducted to evaluate the
possible separation of OMB under storage. The test
procedure was conducted in accordance to ASTM
D5892. The test procedure was as follows: immediately
after mixing being finished, OPFASH-modified
bitumen was poured into 25.4-mm by 139.7-mm
aluminum tube and heated to 165°C for 1 and 3 days in
the oven. The selection of storage days was based on
estimation of road construction delay. At the end of the
test period, samples were placed in the freezer at -10°C
for 4 hours to solidify the OMB. Upon removing the
tube from the freezer, samples were cut into three equal
length portions with the spatula and hammer. Softening
point (Tr&b) test was performed to the top and bottom
samples. The Tr&b difference between top and bottom
portions was used to evaluate OMB’s stability.
2.2.3 Rheology test using Dynamic Shear Rheometer
(DSR)
The DSR was used to characterize the viscous and elastic
behaviour of bitumen binders It did this by measuring the
complex shear modulus |G*| and phase angle (δ) of
bitumen binders Test was performed based on European
Standard Test EN 14770, and was conducted on unaged,
RTFO aged residue, and PAV aged residue, both for neat
bitumen and OMB binders. Therefore, sample must be
aged by using rolling thin film oven (RTFO) and pressure
aging vessel before being performed DSR test however,
the RTFO and PAV tests procedure were not described in
this paper.
There are two types of pavement distress can be measured
by using of DSR, these were permanent deformation or
rutting and fatigue cracking.
2.2.3.1 Permanent deformation (Rutting)
The geometry of the equipment needed to measure |G*|
and δ was shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Dynamic Shear Rheometer Geometry
Bitumen was sandwiched between the oscillating spindle
and the fixed base. The spindle was oscillated back and
forth using either a constant stress or constant strain.
Constant stress means that the spindle was rotated through
a certain distance until a fixed stress was achieved.
Constant strain means that the spindle was rotated every
time through a fixed distance, regardless of the stress
achieved. While this rotation occurs, the resulting stress or
strain was monitored. The relationship between the
applied stress and the resulting strain provides information
necessary to compute |G*| and δ.
In this study, for rutting test were conducted at five
different temperatures 50, 60, 65, 70, and 75°C, using
stress controlled sweep, and at test frequency 1.59Hz. The
binder to be tested were unaged, RTFO aged, and PAV
aged residue.
2.2.3.2 Fatigue cracking
Test procedure for fatigue cracking was similar to that
of rutting test. The difference was only in the test
temperature, test geometry, and test sweep controlled.
Fatigue cracking was considered as a strain controlled.
Test was conducted at five different temperatures, 20,
25, 30, 35, and 40°C and use small spindle (8 mm) with
gap 2500 microns (2.5 mm), as well as strain sweep
control, and test frequency 1.59Hz.
The binders to be tested were PAV aged residue.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Storage stability
The softening point temperature (Tr&b) difference
between top and bottom sections was used to evaluate
OMB’s stability. A low Tr&b difference was observed in
all of OMB as shown in Figure 2.
Different of Tr&b
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2.5 5 7.5
OPFASH Cont ent ( %) by weight of bit umen
Tr&b 1day st or age Tr&b 3 days st orage
Figure 2: Tr&b differences changing by OPFASH
content for bitumen pen. Grade 80/100
The Tr&b should be controlled within 2°C at which
OMB can be properly stored. There were no set
standard tests in Malaysia, as an approach, temperature
difference 2°C refers to the research conducted by
researcher in Taiwan (J.C. Chen et.al., 2003) was used.
All OMB have Tr&b different below 2°C as can be seen
in Figure 2. OMB with 2.5% OPFASH has different
Tr&b 0°C. For 1 day storage the other three OPFASH
content have Tr&b different 0.5°C, and for 3 days storage
OMB with 5% OPFASH has 0.5°C Tr&b different, while
the other two OPFASH content 7.5 and 10% have 1°C
different of Tr&b. These results showed that OPFASH
compatible with bitumen when used as modifier.
3.2 Rheological testing
As expected, adding the amount of OPFASH in the
bitumen increasing the resistance to permanent
deformation or rutting and resistance to fatigue
cracking. The Strategic Highway Research Programme
(SHRP) researchers considered rutting as a stress
controlled (Freddy L. Robert et.al., 1996), cyclic
loading phenomenon in determining the rutting parameter
chosen for specification purposes. With each of traffic
loading cycle, work is being done to deform the HMA
pavement surface. A part of this work is recovered by
elastic rebound of the surface while some is dissipated in
the form of permanent deformation or heat. In order to
minimize permanent deformation (rutting), the amount of
work dissipated during each loading cycle must be
minimized. Mathematically, the work dissipated per
loading cycle at a constant stress can be expressed as
follows (Bahia, H.U. and D.A. Anderson (1995) :
⎡ 1 ⎤
Wc = π ×σ o2 ⎢ (1)
⎣ G * / sin δ ⎥⎦
where,
Wc = work dissipated per lod cycle,
σo = stress applied during the load cycle,
G* = complex modulus,
Δ = phase angle.
This equation indicates that the work dissipated per
loading cycle is inversely proportional to G*/sinδ. For this
purpose, the G*/sinδ parameter was chosen as a Superpave
bitumen binder specification. Specification requirements
for the DSR test parameters, when the unaged bitumen
binder is tested, the G*/sinδ value must be minimum of 1
kPa, and when the RTFO residue is tested the G*/sinδ
value must be a minimum of 2.2 kPa (Freddy L. Robert
et.al., 1996).
Fatigue cracking can occurs both in thick or thin of HMA
10
pavement layers. In thick layers, fatigue cracking is
typically considered a stress controlled, and in thin layers
it is considered a strain controlled. Since fatigue cracking
is known to be more prevalent in thin pavements, the
SHRP researchers assumed that it should be considered
mainly a strain controlled.60. Mathematically, the work
dissipated per loading cycle at a constant strain can be
expressed as follows (Bahia H.U. and D.A. Anderson
(1996):
Wc = π ×∈o2 [G *× sin δ ] (2)
where ∈ is the strain and the other variables are as
previously described. This equation indicates that G*
and/or δ are increased, more work will be dissipated per
traffic loading cycle. The lower the amount of energy
dissipated per cycle, the lower of fatigue cracking or any
other damage to occur.
The G*sinδ parameter was, therefore, chosen for
Superpave specification purposes to limit the total amount
of energy dissipated thereby minimizing fatigue cracking.
The DSR specification requirement for G*sinδ parameter
when PAV aged bitumen binder was tested must be
maximum 5000 kPa (Freddy L. Robert et.al., 1996).
Test results shown in Figure 3 for unaged sample and in
Figure 4 for RTFO aged sample showed that for unaged
sample, OMB can resist rutting until 65°C, and for RTFO
aged sample until 70°C reached by OMB with 5%
OPFASH content.
The test results for PAV aged sample shows that OMB can
resist fatigue cracking until 20°C reached by OMB with
2.5% OPFASH content, and the other resist at temperature
25°C.

4. CONCLUSION

Storage stability test was known that there was no

separation between OPFASH and bitumen or can be
concluded that OPFASH was compatible to be used as
bitumen modifier.

This conclusion was also brought the meaning to the DSR

test results. Since OPFASH-bitumen was compatible,
without doubt, the DSR test results were also valid.

Figure 3: |G*|/sinδ for unaged sample The overall conclusion was Oil Palm Fruit Ash (OPFASH)
feasible to be used as bitumen modifier.

|G*|/sin (delta) for RTFO aged sam ple

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
45
The writers wish to thank Prof. Dr. Ir. A.A.A. Molenaar
40
and Prof. Ir. Martin van de Veen from the Road and
Railway Section, Faculty of Civil and GeoScience
35
30

25
Engineering of the Delft University of Technology, the
20
Netherlands for permitting the writers to conduct DSR,
15 BBR, and DTT tests for OPFASH-Modified Bitumen in
10 the laboratory of Road and Railway Section, and for their
5 guidance and supervision during the writers conducting
0 the test.
0 2.5 5 7.5 10

OP F A S H c o n t e n t ( % b y we i g h t o f b i t u m e n ) ,
0 i s Ne a t Bi t ume n
6. REFERENCES
Temp. 50C Temp. 60C Temp. 65C
Temp. 70C Temp. 75C Bahia, H.U. and D.A. Anderson. (1995). The SHRP
Binder Rheological Parameters: Why Are They
Figure 4: |G*|/sinδ for RTFO aged sample Required and How Do They Compare to
Conventional Properties. Transportation Research
Board, Preprint Paper No. 950793, January 1995.

Department of Environmental, Ministry of Science,

Technology and the Environment Malaysia, (1999).
Industrial Process and the Environment of Crude
Oalm Oil Industry. Printed by: Aslita Sdn. Bhd. Kuala
Lumpur, December 1999.

European Normalization EN 14770. Bitumen and

bituminous binders – Determination of complex
modulus and phase angle – Dynamic Shear
Rheometer (DSR)

Freddy L. Robert, Prithvi S. Kandhal, E. Ray Brown, Dah-

Yinn Lee, and Thomas W. Kennedy. (1996). Hot Mix
Asphalt – Materials, Mixture Design and
Construction. 2nd edition. NAPA Education
Foundation, Lanham, Maryland. p. 84-85
Figure 5: |G*|sin(delta) for PAV sample
Google Alert - Malaysia Palm Oil Industry 2009

Mohd. Warid Hj. Hussin, Prof. Ir. Dr. (2002). Blended

Cement Concrete – Potential without Misuse.
Public Lecture, Universisti Teknologi Malaysia.

J.S. Chen, M.C. Liao, and C.H. Lin. (2003).

Determination of polymer content in modified
bitumen. Journal of Materials and Structures. Vol.
36, November 2003, p. 594-598.
PROPERTIES OF DUTCH TWINLAY POROUS ASPHALT UTILIZING LOCAL AGGREGATES

Noor Halizah Abdullah

School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang,
Malaysia.
nhalizah@yahoo.com

Meor Othman Hamzah

School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang,
Malaysia.
cemeor@eng.usm.my

ABSTRACT: Porous asphalt was first attempted on Malaysian roads in 1991. It prevents hydroplaning, improve skid resistance and
overall enhancement in traffic safety. However, the life span of Malaysian porous asphalt is much shorter compared to Dutch mixes. It
is reported that the most durable and successful porous asphalt resides in the Netherlands. Therefore, it is justifiable to refer to the
Dutch porous asphalt design as a guide to improve the performance of Malaysian porous asphalt mixtures. In 1990, the Dutch
developed the double layer porous asphalt named as ‘Twinlay’. Twinlay is made up of a top finer thin porous mix which acts as a
‘sieve’ that prevents dirt from entering the bottom layer while the bottom layer consists of a much coarser but thicker porous base layer
mix that can reduce the chances to trap dirt or pollutants. Twinlay offers possibilities for even more noise reduction and cleaning of
Twinlay has proven manageable through experience in practice. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the performance of Dutch
Twinlay porous asphalt mixes using local aggregates. Performance parameters measured includes permeability, Marshall stability and
flow, indirect tensile strength (ITS) and abrasion loss. Local granite aggregates were batched and compacted by the Marshall Hammer.
Conventional bitumen 60/70 penetration grade, modified binder PG76 and hydrated lime were used as binders and filler respectively.
Mixes incorporating modified binder PG76 exhibits better performance for all conducted tests on specimens which includes
permeability, abrasion loss, ITS, and Marshall stability test. Incorporation of modified binder increases the resistance to abrasion loss,
and the tensile strength of the mixes.

Key words: Porous asphalt; Double layer; Permeability; Abrasion loss

1. INTRODUCTION (The Netherlands) have led to a new development of PA.

Porous asphalt (PA) is an advanced road surfacing
technology which has been used in many countries. Its
continuous air voids allows water to enter into the asphalt
mix and flows through it. It is used worldwide for its
favorable splash and spray properties and its reduction of
aquaplaning under rainy conditions as well as its noise
reduction property. Pores in the mix play the role of a
drainage mechanism which absorbs considerable quantity
of precipitation falling on them before becoming
saturated. Compared to dense mix, PA is more susceptible
to clogging and less durable. The pores in PA are easily
clogged by dirt, silt, clay and debris especially in rainy
conditions. When the pores are clogged, there will be a
permeability loss and when the extent of clogging is
severe, the benefits associated with open mix will vanish.
In European countries, the PA surfacings offer a big
potential to reduce traffic noise at source in harmony with
a stricter environmental regulations related to traffic
noise. Nonetheless, the noise absorbing capacity of PA is
greater as the gradation becomes finer (Van Bochove,
1996). However, the finer graded PA is more prone to
clogging. The Dutch experience with double layer PA
was presented to the 1st Euroasphalt and Eurobitumen
Congress held in Strasbourg (Van Bochove, 1996).
In 1990, the Dutch developed the double layer PA
designated as ‘Twinlay’. Test sections were constructed
since 1990 and these test sections took part on a large
scale research project aimed at optimizing noise reduction
of PA. Acoustic measurements showed that Twinlay
offers possibilities for even more noise reduction, even at
lower vehicle speeds. Cleaning of Twinlay has proven
manageable through experience in practice (Van
Bochove, 1996).
The double layer PA consists of two different mix
gradations. The top layer consists of a finer thin porous
mix while the bottom layer consists of a much coarser but
thicker porous base layer mix. The top layer acts as a
‘sieve’. Its finer layer prevents dirt from entering the
bottom layer, while the bottom layer, which has larger
pores, reduces chances to trap dirt or pollutants.
Therefore, only the top layer gets clogged and the dirt is
easily removed by existing field cleansing techniques
which involves vacuuming of the dirt (Battiato et. al.,
1996). The schematic diagram of the Twinlay PA is
shown in Fig.1. The objective of this paper is to assess the
properties of Twinlay PA using local aggregates and
incorporating two types of bitumen, base bitumen 60/70
penetration grade and modified PG76 bitumen.

Since the 1980’s, PA had been used as a wearing course

for pavement in urban roads in the Netherlands with the
first trial conducted in 1984. Years of experience and
research by Heijmans Civil Engineering at Rosmalen

1
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a Twinlay porous asphalt
(Van Bochove, 1996)

2. METHODOLOGY
Fig. 2. Dutch Twinlay PA gradation
2.1. Materials
2.2. Specimen Preparation
Local crushed aggregates extracted from a local source
and supplied by Quad Quarry Sdn. Bhd. were used in this Specimens were prepared in a Marshall standard mould
study. Hydrated lime and OPC were used as fillers. with a total height 70 mm with top layer thickness of 25
Table 1 shows the basic properties of local crushed mm. Mix for top and bottom layers were prepared
granite used in this paper. Bitumen penetration grade separately according to their respective binder contents as
60/70 and modified bitumen PG76 supplied by Shell shown in Table 3. The bottom layer aggregates and
Malaysia were incorporated in the mix. The properties of bitumen were blended at the mixing temperature based on
bitumen used are presented in Table 2. The aggregates viscosity results. The mix was then conditioned at the
were washed, dried, and sieved into the selected size compaction temperature for 2 hours. The top layer
range according to Dutch aggregate gradation and sieve aggregates were then mixed with bitumen and also
sizes. There were two gradations used, the top and bottom conditioned for two hours prior to compaction. The mass
layer which differs in terms of their nominal maximum of top and bottom layer mixes were calculated based on
aggregate sizes of 8 mm and 16 mm respectively. Fig.2 their corresponding single layer densities. The actual
illustrates the gradation for top and bottom layers used in amount of mixes required was calculated based on the
this study. density and volume obtained from its single layer
properties. The bottom layer was weighed first and
Table 1. Properties of local crushed granite used in this poured to the bottom of the mould and the top layer was
study then weighed and placed on top of the bottom layer. A
total of 50 blows were applied on each face of the
Specification specimen. The mixing and compaction temperatures are
Properties Requirement Result Conform shown in Table 4.
(JKR, 2008)
Abrasion Loss Less than 25% 23.6% Yes Table 3. Binder contents for top and bottom layers
Aggregate
Less than 25% 17.3% Yes Type of Layer Binder Contents (%)
Crushing Value
Flakiness Index Less than 25% 18.1% Yes Top 6.0
Water Bottom 4.2
Less than 2% 0.7% Yes
Absorption
Polished Stone Table 4: Mixing and Compacting Temperatures
Not less than 50 51.8 Yes
Value
Temperature (oC)
Table 2. Properties of bitumen used in this study Type of Binder
Mixing Compaction
Bitumen 60/70 165 155
Basic Properties
60/70 PG-76 PG-76 180 170
Specific Gravity (g/cm3) 1.030 1.024
Penetration at 25 °C (x0.1mm) 63 45
Softening Point (°C) 49 64
Ductility at 25 °C (cm) > 100 88.8

2
2.3 Specimen Testing
where F is the maximum applied load (N), h is the
2.3.1 Permeability Test specimen thickness (mm), and d is the specimen diameter
(mm).
Permeability is an important property of an open mix. The
hydraulic conductivity of the compacted specimens was 2.3.4 Marshall Stability Test
expressed in terms of the coefficient of permeability (k),
determined using a falling head water permeameter. This The Marshall test was carried out to determine the
test involved a specimen secured to the permeameter base stability and flow of the specimen when placed between
plate and pouring water into the perspex tube while two split breaking heads in an unconfined manner. Load
sealing the orifice with the rubber stopper. The rubber at a constant rate of 50.8 mm/min was applied
stopper was then removed and the time taken for water to perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the specimen
fall through two designated points on the permeameter until failure. Stability is expressed in kN and is equivalent
standpipe was recorded. to the maximum load applied and flow is the deformation
that took place up to the point where failure occurred and
The coefficient of permeability was calculated based on measured in units of mm.
the formula shown in Eq.(1).
3.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
aL ⎛ h1 ⎞
k = 2.3 log10 ⎜ ⎟ (1)
3.1 Coefficient of Permeability
At ⎝ h2 ⎠
This test was conducted using the falling head
where k is the coefficient of permeability (cm/s), A is the
permeability apparatus. Atleast three different specimens
cross section area specimens (cm2), a is the cross section
were tested for permeability and the average permeability
area standpipe (cm2), L is the height of specimens, t is
of both mixes are recorded. The permeability of Dutch
time taken for water in standpipe to fall from h1 to h2 (s),
twinlay PA is presented in Fig.3. It was found that mixes
and h1, h2 is the water level at t1 and t2 (cm)
with PG76 grade bitumen exhibits higher coefficient of
permeability compared to bitumen penetration grade
2.3.2 Cantabro Test
60/70. Incorporating a polymer modified binder in the
mix has increased the permeability of the mix. Faghri et.
The Cantabro test was conducted to determine specimen
al. (2002) had also reported that with the use of polymer
resistance to particle loss. The test was conducted in the
modified bitumen had increased the permeability of open-
Los Angeles (LA) machine, without steel balls. Twinlay
graded asphalt mixes.
specimen was conditioned at 25°C for at least four hours
before placing it in the LA machine to tumble for 300-
drum rotations. The percentage mass loss after 300
rotations compared to the original mass defined the
abrasion loss as shown in Eq.(2).

M1− M 2
% Loss = ×100 (2)
M1

where M1 is the initial mass (g), and M2 is the final mass

(g).

2.3.3 Indirect Tensile Strength

The indirect tensile strength (ITS) was used to determine

the strength required to split the specimen into two halves.
This serves as the tensile strength of the specimen. The
test was done according to ASTM D4123, (ASTM, 2005).
The specimen was cured at 20oC for at least 4 hours
before conducting the test. Compression loads were
applied parallel to the vertical diameter plane by using the
Marshall testing machine. The specimen usually fails
along the loaded plane when tensile stress loading acts
perpendicular to the applied load plane (Kok and Yilmaz,
2009). The ITS value is calculated using Eq.(3).
2000 F
ITS = (3)
πhd
3
Fig. 3. Permeability test results
3.2 Abrasion Loss
The abrasion loss was conducted on specimens
conditioned at 25°C. A total of three specimens for each
type of mix was tested. The average values from the three
samples were taken as the abrasion loss. The test result is
shown in Fig.4. It can be seen that the mix made with
bitumen grade 60/70 produces higher abrasion loss
compared to PG76. Mixes made with modified bitumen
PG76 has stronger bond and more resistant to particle
loss. Nielsen et. al. (2004) reported that the use of twinlay porous asphalt made with bitumen grade PG76
modified binder had improved the resistance of PA to exhibit 37.5% higher stability compared to mixes made
particle loss. with conventional bitumen.

Table 5. Marshall test results

Binder Stability, Ms Flow, F MQ (Ms/F)

Type (kN) (mm) kN/mm
60/70 5.32 2.77 1.92
PG76 10.38 3.38 3.07

Fig. 4. Abrasion loss results

3.3 Indirect Tensile Strength

The results for the ITS values for two different types of
bitumen is shown in Fig.5. From the results, it can be seen
that the mixes made with modified bitumen PG76 exhibit
higher ITS values compared to conventional 60/70
penetration binder. The use of modified bitumen increases
the mean ITS values by 13.5%. A study done by Faghri
et. al. (2002) also found that the use of polymer modified
bitumen has increased the tensile strength of open-graded
mixes.
Fig. 6. Marshall quotient
4.0 CONCLUSION
This paper presents the results of the Dutch Twinlay PA
mixes properties using local aggregates and two different
types of binder. Generally, mixes incorporating modified
binder PG76 exhibits better performance for all conducted
tests on specimens which includes permeability, abrasion
loss, ITS, and Marshall stability test. Incorporation of
modified binder increases the resistance to abrasion loss,
and the tensile strength of the mixes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge the Malaysian

Fig. 5. Indirect tensile strength results
3.4 Marshall Stability Test RESULT
The ratio of stability (kN) to flow (mm) is used to define
the Marshall Quotient (MQ). MQ is a measure of the
materials resistance to shear stresses, permanent
deformation and hence rutting (Zoorob and Suparma,
2000). High MQ values result a high stiffness mix with a
greater ability to spread the applied load and resistance to
creep deformation (Kok and Yilmaz, 2009). The Marshall
test results are presented in Table 5, while Fig.6 illustrates
the ratio of stability to flow. It can be seen that the
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation that has
funded this research grant through eScience Fund
program that enables this paper to be written. Many
thanks are also due to technicians of the Highway
Engineering Laboratory at the Universiti Sains Malaysia
for their help. Acknowledgments are also due to the
suppliers of bitumen and aggregate, which include Shell
Ltd., Singapore and Kuad Quarry Sdn. Bhd., Penang
respectively.
REFERENCES
ASTM, 2005. ASTM D4123: Standard test method for
Indirect Tension Test for Resilient Modulus of
bituminous paving mixtures, Annual Books of ASTM
Standard, Vol. 04.03, West Conshohocken, PA

4
Battatio G., Donada M., Grandesso P., Russiani M.
(1996). DDL a New Generation of Sound Absorption
Draining Layers. 1st Euroasphalt & Eurobitume
Congress 1996.

Bochove Van G.G. (1996). Twinlay, a New Concept for

Porous Asphalt. 1st Euroasphalt & Eurobitume
Congress 1996.

Faghri, et. al., 2002. Performance Improvement of Open-

Graded Asphalt Mixes, URITC Project No. 536144,
Transportation Centre, University of Rhode Island.

JKR, 2008. Standard Specification for Road Works

(Section 4: Flexible Pavement), Public Works
Department, Ministry of Works Malaysia, Kuala
Lumpur.

Kok, B. V. and Yilmaz, M., 2009. The Effects of Using

Lime and Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene on Moisture
Sensitivity Resistance of Hot Mix Asphalt,
Construction and Building Materials 23, 1999-2006.

Nielsen C.B., Nielsen E., Andersen J.B., and Raaberg J.,

2004. Development of Durable Porous Apshalt Mixes
from Laboratory Experiments, 3rd Eutoasphalt &
Eurobitume Congress, Vienna, [090].

Zoorob, S. E., Suparma, L. B. (2000), Laboratory Design

and Investigation of the Properties of Continuously
Graded Asphaltic Concrete Containing Recycled
Plastic Aggregate Replacement (Plastiphalt), Cement
Concrete Composites 2000:22:233-42.

5
FIELD STUDY OF URBAN HEAT ISLAND EFFECTS FROM ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

Chitral Wijeyesekera
Professor in Civil Engineering, School of Computing, IT & Engineering, University of East London, UK
& UTHM Johore Malaysia
chiral@uel.ac.uk
John Walsh
Senior Lecturer in Civil Engineering, School of Computing, IT & Engineering, University of East London, UK
j.w.walsh@uel.ac.uk
Robert Allen
Aggregate Industries (UK) Ltd.,, UK
Bob.Allen@aggregate.com
Helen Bailey
Aggregate Industries (UK) Ltd.,, UK
ABSTRACT: The rapid growth of worldwide urbanization arouses concerns on Urban Heat Island (UHI) effects particularly within areas
where the population density is high. Road pavements are necessary facets of urbanization and have important localized environmental
effects; absorbing heat during the day and radiating it back out at night time contributing to significant localized temperature increase.
Furthermore social and ecological effects are felt in terms of heat related illness and breakdown of sensitive environmental systems leading
to derogatory contribution to global warming. Due to the large area covered by pavements in urban areas, they are an important element to
consider in the heat island migration. The temperatures of the pavements depend on the percentage composition of the solar energy, and the
pavement material’s thermo physical properties such as solar reflectance (albedo), thermal conductivity, and thermal emittance. Installation
of green roofs, cool pavements and increasing tree and vegetation cover are some of the strategies being adopted to reduce the urban heat
effects. Preliminary field monitoring of the urban heat island levels within an array of different pavement materials are being conducted on
5 test pavement bays constructed at an Aggregate Industries (UK) site. The temperature distribution within the test bays were data logged
continuously for the field analysis. The heat flow characteristics through the pavement constituents, including thermal energy input and
output are evaluated and assessed. Innovative systems to reduce such temperature variations in order to extend life of the asphalt pavements
as well as the possibility of harnessing the UHI as an energy source are explored.
.
Keywords: Urban heat island, heat transfer, road pavement, thermo-physical properties

1. INTRODUCTION
A “heat island” is perhaps a “reversed oasis” and occurs
when the thermal energy stored at a particular location
causes higher temperatures there than that in the
surrounding area. Such locations are normally found in
urban and sub-urban areas. During hot weather and
particularly at night, the ambient temperatures are warmer
in cities than in the surrounding areas. An Urban Heat
Island (UHI) is a consequence of the intrusion into the
natural green space by heat absorbing infrastructure such as
high rise buildings, road pavements, parking facilities etc. Fig. 1. Typical temperature profile across an UHI
This is further exacerbated with the lack of planned (Source: www.urbanheatislands.com)
compensating landscapes (see figure 1). With rapid
urbanization and increasing growth of cities, UHI related UHIs are becoming equally important as climate change
problems of thermal discomfort lead to derogatory human where the urban fabrics are susceptible to heat absorption.
health and mortality which are coupled with environmental Heat islands define local-scale temperature difference
issues of increased energy consumption, reduced air quality between urban and rural areas, whereas global warming
and accelerate significantly the green house effect. refers to the gradual rise of the worldwide average surface

1
temperatures. The overall UHI patterns are essentially
similar for most cities apart from the minor differences due
to climate and geography. As shown in figures 1 and 2, the
temperature pattern is highest in the highly built up down
town area and diminishes towards the edge of the urban
areas and into the countryside.
Fig. 2. Surface temperature of London at 2130 hrs on 7 August
showing the signature of urban heat island. Source: NASA
1.1 Aim and objectives of the research
The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of asphalt
pavement on urban heat island and to assess the impact of
the fabric of the road pavement on UHI.
A critical literature review of UHI is objectively followed
with a description of the field set up used to make
observations of the thermal flux through a pavement.
Elements of heat transfer studies are provided as a basis for
UHI reduction strategies.
2. URBAN HEAT ISLAND
Figure 2 is an image of the Land Surface Temperature
(LST) distribution over the London area as observed on 7th
August 2009. Fractional vegetation cover modulates the
proportions of vegetation and ground visible to a sensor.
The temperature differences (generated by the radiated
thermal energy) between the vegetation canopy and the
ground affect the measurement of LST. In non vegetated
areas, LST measurements typically represent the
radiometric temperature levels of bare soil. With increasing
amounts of vegetation cover, the temperature levels
recorded by a LST sensor reflect more closely the
temperatures of green leaves, and the canopy temperature.
Therefore such LST observations need to be carefully
scrutinized to separate the contributions from each part of
the hybrid shaded and sunny vegetation-ground system.
LST measurements are also influenced by the viewing
angle, the lower atmosphere and the differential
temperature between the vegetation canopy, its variable
biophysical properties and the soil background.
2
For any surface material, certain thermal properties, such as
heat capacity, thermal conductivity and thermal inertia,
significantly govern the transient temperature of a body
with its surroundings. These thermal properties vary with
soil type and its moisture content. Dry, bare, and low-
density soils have a relatively low thermal inertia. The
thermal emissivity (via the combined thermal processes of
conduction, convection and radiation) of soils is also
dependent on soil moisture conditions and the density.
Though the temperature differences between the urban and
countryside is obviously evident at midday, the UHI effect
causes the greatest temperature difference to occur two to
three hours after sunset. The latter effect results from the
gradual release of the heat stored during the day by the
asphalt and concrete structures. Most building materials are
impermeable and watertight, which does not therefore
facilitate the ready dissipation of the sun’s heat. Dark
Construction materials in concert with canyon like
configurations of buildings and pavements collect and trap
more of the sun’s energy. Temperatures of dry dark
surfaces exposed to direct sun light can reach up to 88ºC
during the day, whereas the vegetated surfaces with moist
soil under similar conditions might reach only 18ºC.
Anthropogenic heat or human produced heat, slower wind
speeds and air pollution in urban areas also contribute to
heat island formation (Gartland, 2008).
Permeability and volumetric heat capacity of pavement
layers greatly influence its heat exchange. Impermeable
pavements reduce evaporation and the high volumetric heat
capacity causes negligible flow of water or cooling air
through them. These generate high night time air
temperatures described as a nocturnal urban heat island
(Asaeda and Thanh, 2000) Average summer temperatures
are predicted to increase by 2.5o to 3o C by the 2050s
together with a high CO2 emissions scenario leading to an
increase of 5-10 days per year of exceptionally hot days
(>30oC). This hotter air contributes to the acceleration of
smog (ozone) production, which is a major health and
environmental concern (Gray and Finster, 2000).
3. HEAT TRANSFER IN PAVEMENTS
The wavelengths of solar radiation are less than 3mm.
These heat the surfaces on which they fall. Such surfaces
being much cooler than the surface of the sun, the radiation
emitted by the urban fabric have a much longer wavelength.
Figure 3 illustrates the thermal process prevalent in a
pavement. These are important aspects to consider in heat
islands mitigation. The complex heat transfer mechanism
involves different processes of thermodynamics. In addition
to the processes, there are thermophysical properties, such
as solar radiation, solar reflectance (albedo) material heat
capacities, surface roughness; heat transfer rates, thermal
emittance and permeability that contribute to UHI.
 pavement layers as quickly as a pavement with higher
conductivity. It can be extended further that lower thermal
conductivity of the pavement causes high daytime
temperature as it stores more energy, than transfer it..

3.1.5 Heat Capacity (Thermal Mass)

Urban materials can store more heat than natural materials,
such as dry soil and sand. The higher heat capacity of
conventional urban materials contributes to heat islands at
night, when materials in urban areas release the stored heat.

3.1.6 Thickness
The thickness of pavement also plays a significant role in
contributing to UHI because it displays the amount of
energy it will store. The thicker pavements will store more
heat than thinner pavements.

3.2 Field Test Site & UHI Monitoring

Fig. 3. Heat transfer processes from and within a pavement

3.1 UHI Sensitive Thermophysical Properties of pavement

3.1.1 Solar Reflectance or Albedo

Solar reflectance, or albedo, is the percentage of solar
energy reflected by a surface. It is a primary determinant of
a material’s maximum surface temperature. Conventional
paving materials such as asphalt and concrete have solar
reflectance of 5 to 40 percent, which means that they absorb
95 to 60 percent of the energy reaching them instead of
reflecting it into the atmosphere (Golden and Kaloush
2005). These values change with time depending on age
and the type of material.

3.1.2 Permeability
Permeability of the pavement provides greater flow
capacity of air, water, and water vapour into and through
the voids of the pavement. Moisture within the pavement Fig. 4 Instrumented Road Pavement Test Site – Aggregate
Industries UK
structure evaporates as the surface heats, thus drawing heat
A dedicated road pavement testing site with 5 different
out of the pavement, similar to evaporative cooling from
pavement bays (see figure 4), constructed at the Aggregate
vegetated land cover. Permeable surfaces are currently used
Industries Research Centre based in Hulland Ward, UK has
to control storm water runoff; the evaporative cooling effect
been adapted further to accommodate the UHI monitoring.
also could be used for UHI reduction.
Figures 5 and 6 presents details of two of the five different
pavement bays made of dissimilar traditional and
3.1.3 Thermal Emittance
innovative sustainable materials to evaluate the influence of
A material’s thermal emittance determines how much heat
traditional and non-porous materials.
is radiated per unit area at a given temperature, that is, how
Also included for the identification of effectiveness and
readily a surface sheds heat. When exposed to sun light, a
influence are sustainable pavement materials such as
surface with high emittance will reach thermal equilibrium
Charcon Permavoid, Hydrain granular gravel reservoir bed,
at a lower temperature than a surface with low emittance,
reinforced and unreinforced geotextiles. These are used in
because the high  emittance surface gives off its heat more
the test bays as probable thermal barriers and porous layers.
readily
Charcon Permavoid (figure 5) is aplastic open geocellular
load bearing structure while Hydrain (figure 6) is a porous
3.1.4 Thermal Conductivity (k)
concrete. The asphalt surface and asphalt base shown in
Pavements with low thermal conductivity may heat up at
figure 5 is dense impermeable asphalt.
the surface but will not transfer that heat into the other

3
Temperature sensors in the form of thermocouples are
located at the boundaries of the various pavement fabrics.
Thermocouples have been read hourly and data logged
since August 2008. Some of these observations are
discussed briefly in this paper.

Fig. 7 Temperature variations observed from a bay on a typical

day (3rd September 2008)

Fig. 5 Cross section details of the pavement in Bay X.

Fig. 8 Temperature variations on 14/8/2008 - Bay X

Fig. 6 Cross section details of the pavement in Bay Y.

Figure 7 shows the temperature observations logged over a
typical day. Note the temperatures within the pavement
layers remain consistently higher than that of the air
temperature which is traditionally measured at a height of
2m above ground surface. There is a distinct time lag
between the pavement and the air temperatures with the
effect decreasing with depth.
A peak temperature of 35.4ºC was observed on the asphalt
surface in Bay X (see figure 8) compared to a 30.8ºC seen
on Bay Y (figure 9) confirming that the dense impermeable
asphalt (Bay X) is more susceptible to solar radiation and
more rapidly conducts and stores the heat than the porous
asphalt (Bay Y). Note that the comparisons of figures 8 and
9 are for the same day (see the same air temperature
variation and that of the sand and gravel layer). Fig. 9 Temperature variations on 14 Aug 2008 – Bay Y
Furthermore there is very little change in temperature
beneath the first geotextile layer.

4

Fig. 10 Temperature isochrones in Bay X
Fig. 11 Equations to temperature curve fits (Bay X)
Fig. 12 Equations to temperature curve fits (Bay Y)
The temperature isochrones shown in figure 10 indicate that
there are significant temperature variations to depths in
excess of 600 mm within the pavement.
Figures 11 and 12 show the polynomial fits to the
temperatures measured using thermocouples (A,B and G,H)
placed at the boundaries of the “asphalt” layer in bays X
and Y respectively. Thermal conductivities calculated from
5
the traditional asphalt and the porous asphalt are 1.42
W/mºC and 2.30 W/mºC respectively. While factors such as
prevailing weather patterns, climate, geography and
topography are beyond a designer’s control, there are
tangible heat island reduction strategies in vegetation,
landscaping, and improved building and road pavement
materials leading to the tangible construction of reflective
and cool roofs and pavements.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Temperature monitoring within the test pavements has
given a wealth of information for strategic analysis. There
is observed evidence that the porous pavements have low
thermal storage with indications of up to 60% reductions in
thermal gradients.
The use of sustainable and innovative materials presented
(Charcon Permavoid and Hydrain) creates a platform for
protecting the environment from adverse UHI effects. In
colder cities at higher elevations, the heat islands are seen
as beneficial because of its winter warming effects. In most
cities throughout the world, the effects of summer heat
island are seen as a major problem.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Access to field information from Aggregate Industries (UK)
is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Asaeda, T., and Thanh, V. (2000), .Characteristics of
permeable pavement during hot summer weather and
impact on the thermal environment Building and
Environment, 35:. 363-375.
Gartland L (2008), Heat Islands – Understanding and
mitigating Heat in Urban areas, London. Earth-scan
publication.
Golden, J., Kaloush, K. (2005), ‘Mesoscale and Microscale
evaluation of surface pavement impacts on the urban heat
island effects’, The International Journal of Pavement
Engineering, 7 (1):37‐52..
Gray, K., and Finster, M. (2000), .The Urban Heat Island,
Photochemical smog, and Chicago: Local features of the
problem and solution,. Department of Civil Engineering,
Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA.
Wong, N.C., and Chen, Y. (2009), Tropical Urban Heat
Islands- Climate, Buildings and greenery, Milton Park,
London, Taylor and Francis Publication.
PCI DETERMINATION USING EXPERT SYSTEM

Norlela Ismail1, Amiruddin Ismail2, Riza Atiq Abdullah O.K.Rahmat3

Sustainable Urban Transport Research Centre / Dept. of Civil and Structural Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: 1norlelaismail@uniten.edu.my; 2abim@vlsi.eng.ukm.my; 3riza@vlsi.eng.ukm.my

ABSTRACT: Airport networks are one of the important assets in a country especially after the air travel has become
increasingly popular as a mode of transportation. Large investments in time and money are required by aviation agencies to
sustain and maintain the airport networks operation in a safe and smooth condition. Aviation agencies responsible for operation
and maintenance of airport continually face problems with pavement distress and deterioration which occur due to environmental
factors and increasing weight and volumes of traffic. The pavement performance evaluation procedure based on Pavement
Condition Index (PCI) was developed in the late 1970s by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to help manage airport pavement.
The use of the PCI has received wide acceptance and formally adopted as standard procedure worldwide. This standard employs
the visual distress in which distress type, severity, and quantity are identified and rating system that rates the pavement condition
from 0 for a failed pavement to 100 for a perfect pavement. PCI is also used to measure the structural integrity and surface
operational condition of a pavement. Computing the PCI manually is not a tedious operation but the calculations involved are
time consuming. This paper presents the determination of PCI using expert system. The method is based on procedures in ASTM
D5340 (Standard design method for airport pavement condition index surveys). The expert system will automatically calculate
the PCI of each sample unit survey once the user enter the distress information. The system also determine the percentage of
deduct values based on distress mechanism and the primary cause of pavement deterioration. Using several sample unit of
pavement, this system is then tested by comparing the output results with manual calculation and MicroPAVER. The results
indicate that the PCI calculated from the expert system is almost similar with the other two.

 
Key words: Pavement Management System; Pavement Condition Index; Expert System

INTRODUCTION agencies have recognized the need for pavement

Upon completion, likes highway pavements, airport
pavements begin to experience constantly
deterioration due to larger weight and volumes of
aircraft traffics and climatic factors. This
deterioration, if being unattended, can eventually
pose safety risks to airplanes taking off or landing
which may increase the possibility of aircraft
accident and aircraft operation delayed. Failure to
perform suitable treatment in the early stage of
deterioration may also results in serious pavement
distress that may require costly repairs in term of
money and closure time (FAA 2003). It is important
to carry out the right maintenance at the right time in
order to ensure the smooth airport operations and
enhances the longevity of the pavement.
However, managing of an aging pavement
infrastructure is a difficult task especially with the
growing budgetary constraints. Due to that, many
management (Haas 1997) to link together the
activities of planning, designing, constructing,
maintaining and rehabilitating pavement. Pavement
management systems (PMS) are then being
developed to provide a structured and comprehensive
approach to pavement management. PMS in airport
pavement has grown dramatically since 1985. Their
primary function is to assist engineers and decision
makers in selecting the most cost effective way of
strategies for providing and maintaining pavements
in an adequate and safe condition over a given period
of time.
Ritchie et al. (1987) claimed that pavement surface
condition play a pivotal role in the analysis and
design of pavement rehabilitation strategies. As
distresses visible on the pavement surface provide
valuable input in the rehabilitation design process,
most of the airport agencies conduct surveys on
pavement condition as additional information to
support their decision in maintenance and used to combine data on each distress type, severity
rehabilitation of a runway. In order to standardize the level, and distress density into a single condition
survey methods and pavement ratings, pavement value. For section samples that have distresses with
condition index (PCI) was developed. The PCI deduct value greater than five points, modified
developed by the US Army Corps of Engineers in deduct value is used, which is shown in Figure 2.
mid 1970’s seems the most common airport This value is subtracted from 100 to give the PCI
pavement distress survey used by airport agencies to value. ES-APAM also used the survey data to
help manage airport pavement (Shahin et al 1980; compute the structural condition index (SCI) and a
Shahin 1982, 1994; Michael et al. 1998). It has FOD condition index (FCI). The procedure used for
gained widespread acceptance and has been formally computing the FCI value is similar to the PCI, but
adopted as standard procedure worldwide. Shahin et only for several distresses which is shown in bold in
al. (1980) also stated that PCI is the first tool used in Figure 1. These indices are tools that could help users
the pavement rehabilitation process because it to quickly reduce the number of feasible
provides a standard measure of the pavement rehabilitation option.
condition in term of structural integrity and
operational condition, an objective and rational
method for identifying maintenance and repair needs, Distress Severity
and an early warning system for identifying Alligator Cracking L, M, H
expensive repair project. Bleeding n/a
Block Cracking L, M, H
Corrugation L, M, H
Computing the PCI manually for a single sample unit
Depression L, M, H
is not a tedious operation but it is time consuming Jet Blast Erosion n/a
especially when involving large volume of data
Joint Reflection Cracking L, M, H
(Shahin 1994). This paper presents the determination
Long and Trans Cracking L, M, H
of PCI using an object oriented expert system based Oil Spillage n/a
on KAPPA-PC to speed up the distress evaluation Patching L, M, H
process. It is part of the modules in the early stage of Polished Aggregate L, M, H
the prototyping Expert System for Airport Pavement Raveling and Weathering L, M, H
maintenance and Rehabilitation (ES-APAM) Rutting L, M, H
development. Shoving L, M, H
Slippage Cracking n/a
MATERIALS AND METHODS Swelling L, M, H
L=Low, M=Medium, H=High
The development of the prototyping expert system Figure 1: Distress List for Airfield Asphalt Surface (Shahin
for Airport Pavement Maintenance and Rehabilitation 1994)
(ES-APAM) is generally to give advice on making
decision in selecting the appropriate maintenance and
rehabilitation strategies for flexible airport pavement.
It is developed using KAPPA-PC expert system shell,
where the rule-base reasoning and other decision
process operate on objects and still in the early stage.
This system consists of several modules that include
the distress evaluation module.

In the ES-APAM distress evaluation module, the

decision made in implementing the PCI inspection is
based on procedures in ASTM D5340 (Standard
design method for airport pavement condition index
surveys). The PCI is a numerical index, which rates
pavements on a scale of 0 for a failed pavement to
100 for a pavement in perfect condition. It is
determined based on the results of a visual condition
survey in which the type, severity, and quantity of
distress are identified. For airport pavement asphalt Figure 2: Corrected deduct value for Airfield asphalt
surfaces, ES-APAM considered all sixteen types of pavement (Shahin 1994)
distresses as in Figure 1. Weighted deduct value is
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The result of this study is the output of the
prototyping Expert System for Airport Pavement
maintenance and Rehabilitation (ES-APAM) in
surface evaluation which are presented via figures
and illustration. Figure 3 shows the window of
distresses considered for asphalt surfaces of airfield
in the ES-APAM. By clicking on the help command
in the interface window located in Figure 3, the
module helps the user identify the type of distress and
Figure 3: Selection of distress type
Figure 4: Description and severity level of distress
select the correct severity level by describing each
distress by severity as in Figure 4. The user has to
insert the distress of quantity data for each severity
level of particular distress type and confirm the data,
which as shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6
respectively. For making the system calculate the
PCI, determine the percentage of deduct values based
on distress mechanism (i.e. load, climate, and other)
and give the primary cause of pavement
deterioration, the user need to press the forward
button in Figure 3.
Figure 5: Distress quantity input data

In order to verify the result of the ES-APAM system,

few sample of airport pavement with several distress
type and their severity levels was chosen in this
study. Table 1 shows the data of seven samples taken
from one section of Sandakan Airport in Malaysia.
The PCI result of the expert system is then compared
to manual calculation and MicroPAVER software,
where MicroPaver is the most widely software used
for pavement management in airport agency. From Figure 6: Confirmation of distress quantity data
Table 2, the results show that the PCI calculated from
the expert system is almost similar with the
MicroPAVER. The comparative result is illustrated
clearly on graph in Figure 7.

Table 1: Input data of local sample

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Facility Type Runway Runway Runway Runway Runway Runway Runway
Pavement Type AC AC AC AC AC AC AC
Sample Area 450 m2 450 m2 450 m2 450 m2 450 m2 450 m2 450 m2
Distress Type
Alligator Crack (L) - - 3.12 m - - - 2.20 m2
Long/Transverse Crack (L) 29.83 m 6.96 m 356.8 m 33.59 m 21.31 m 21.3 m 68.7 m
Long/Transverse Crack (M) - - 30 m - 7.5 m - -
Patching (L) - 2.03 m2 0.25 m2 2.25 m2 0.25 m 0.25 m 0.25 m
Rutting (L) 13.33m2 - 0.70 m2 - - - -
Bleeding - - - 1.30 m2 - - -

Table 2: PCI determination by manual, MicroPAVER and ES-APAM

PCI
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 mean
Manual 74.5 93.5 48 76 62 92 78 74.85
Micro PAVER 74 94 48 77 62 92 79 75
ES-APAM 74.54 93.7 47.64 76.16 61.57 91.64 78.22 74.78
Figure 7: Graph of manual, MicroPAVER and ES-APAM Pavement Condition Index
CONCLUSION
Distresses visible on the pavement surface provide
valuable information in the maintenance and
rehabilitation design process. To support their
decision in maintenance and rehabilitation of a
runway, many airport agencies conduct surveys on
pavement condition that produce a pavement
condition index. The PCI developed by the US Army
Corps of Engineers has received wide acceptance and
formally adopted as standard procedure worldwide.
The method of determining the numerical value of
PCI is simple operation but the calculations involved
are time consuming.
This paper presents the determination of PCI, which
is in a part of the distress evaluation module in the
prototyping Expert System for Airport Pavement
maintenance and Rehabilitation (ES-APAM). The
method in calculating the PCI is based on procedures
in ASTM D5340. Seven sample of airfield pavement
in Sandakan Airport, Malaysia is evaluated using ES-
APAM. The results of PCI when compared to the
manual calculation and MicroPAVER show
similarity. This shows that the expert system has
revealed satisfactorily findings in a faster PCI
determination.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank the Malaysia Airport Holding
Berhad (MAHB) for providing information and data.
REFERENCES
FAA, Advisory Circular (2003). Guidelines and
Procedures for Maintenance of Airport Pavements,
AC 150/5380-6A,FAA Washington, D.C.
Shahin,M.Y., Darter, M.I and Kohn S.D. (1980).
“Condition Evaluation of Jointed Concrete Airfield
Pavements”, Transportation Engineering Journal
Shahin, M.Y. (1994). “Pavement Management For
Airport, Roads, and Parking Lots”. Chapman &
Hall, New York. ISBN 0-412-99201-9.
Michael G., and Patrick, S. (1998). “Airport
pavement management systems: an appraisal of
existing methodologies”. Transportation Research
Part A: Policy and Practice. Volume 32 (3), pp
197-214. DOI 10.1016/S0965-8564(97)00008-6.
Shahin, M.Y. (1982). “Airfield Pavement Distress
measurements and Use in Pavement Management”.
Transportation Research Record, 893, pp 59-63.
Ritchie, S.G. (1987). “Expert System in Pavement
Management”. Journal of Transportation
Research. 21A (2) pp 145-152. DOI 10.1016/0191-
2607(87)90007-0
Haas R (1997). “Pavement Design and Management
Guide”. Transportation Associate of Canada. ISBN
1-55187-114-9.
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SURFACE ROUGHNESS
INDEX OF VARIOUS BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS IN
MALAYSIA.
SULEIMAN ARAFAT YERO
arafatyero@yahoo.com
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 skudai, Johor, Malaysia.
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Mohd. Rosli bn Hainin
roslihainin@utm.my
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Abdulaziz bn Chik
Azizchik@utm.my
Dr. Haryati Yacoob
Yacoob.h@gmail.com
Abstract: The road system of Transportation is the
major means of transporting goods and services in a
developing country like Malaysia, hence the need
for the assessment on the performance of the
pavements becomes of paramount importance. The
roughness of the road surface constitutes the
frictional properties of the pavement surface and in
turn related to the safety , smoothness and the ease
of the driving Path. The roughness of a pavement is
an important parameter in determining the comfort
level of the riding path on a pavement, and this
roughness of the pavement surface is related to the
vehicle vibration, operating speed, wear and tear of
the wheels. The surface roughness of a pavement is
determined using the International roughness index
(IRI), which is a measure of the texture of a
pavement surface. This study investigated mainly
three classes of bituminous pavement surfaces in
Malaysia using the Australia road research board
(ARRB) walking profilometer. The surfaces include
asphalt concrete wearing (ACW), stone mastic
asphalt (SMA), and surface dressed (SD) surfaces
on jalan tebrau, jalan UTM-utama, jalan potian in
Johor and jalan parit yaani in Batu Pahad. The study
was conducted on the six selected roads and 60 test
points where investigated. The results obtained from
the study indicated that the surface dressed surfaces
have the highest value of IRI, then the SMA
surfaces and the least was the ACW surfaces
indicating a smoother surface.
Keywords: Walking profilometer, ACW, SMA, SD,
and IRI
INTRODUCTION
Among the various means of transportation
which include sea, air, rail, the road
transportation system becomes the leading
means of transportation in Malaysia. There has
been considerable publicity on the comfort and
safety of these roads. Roughness of a road (or
runway) is an important parameter which not
only indicates the comfort level of ride over a
pavement surface, but it is also related to
vehicles vibration while in motion, the vehicle
operating speed, wear and tear of the wheels
with time, and the resulting operation cost of
the vehicle. A pavement, which is structurally
sound to sustain heavy load repetitions, may
even be unserviceable functionally if its
surface is rough and distressed.
Roughness index is typically considered to be
the high frequency, short wavelength
component of a measured surface. Roughness
plays an important role in determining how a
real object will interact with its environment.
Rough surfaces usually wear more quickly and
have higher friction coefficients than smooth
surfaces.The roughness index is a function of
the smoothness of the pavement, comfort and
its safety to the road user. The surface
roughness is quantified by the vertical
deviations of a real surface from its ideal form.
If these deviations are large, the surface is
considered to be rough; if they are small the
surface is smooth. Roughness is often a good
predictor of the performance of a mechanical
component, since irregularities in the surface
may form nucleation sites for cracks or
corrosion that will eventually lead to the
failure of the pavement [8]. It is also
paramount to note that examining the
performance of the wearing course of a
pavement and the quantification of the
roughness level of the pavement surface
evolves as a prime concern to the highway
engineer.
A road profile is a two-dimensional part of the
road surface, taken along an imaginary line. A
profile measurement is a series of numbers
representing elevation relative to some
reference level. Generally, profile is measured
along two lines per lane, one in each wheel
track. Roughness is the summary of variation
in surface profile that induces vibrations to the
traversing vehicles and is defined over a length
of the pavement surface.

The JKR in Malaysia had adopted
International roughness index (IRI) of
1.6m/km for four lane highways, 2.5m/km for
two way highways and 8m/km for minor
roads[6]. The measurements of the Roughness
Index (IRI) for a completed pavement surface
to be measured in terms of its lane IRI, can be
achieved using the Australian Road Research
Board (ARRB) walking profiler (WP).The
road surface often used by motorist has some
frictional properties that is relatively
associated with performance, of the road and
its safety to the road user[13]. They include the
aggregate interstices termed as the
microtexture and the coarse component of the
texture due to the aggregate particle on the
road surface kwon as the macrotexture which
are often mentioned as contributory factors to
providing comfort to the road user or other
wise[10].
Generally the road pavement structure is
classified into the sub-grade, sub- base, road
base and the surfacing which consist of
binding course and wearing course. The
wearing course is the exposed topmost layer
that provides the travel path, skid resistance,
safety and comfort to the road user. In view of
this the study investigated specifically the
pavement surface roughness of these
categories of bitumen pavements, ACW, SMA
and SD surfaces
For this study, the roughness index of various
bituminous test surfaces was determined in
accordance to the International roughness
index (IRI) standards [4]. The roughness index
is a function of the smoothness of pavement,
and its comfort, safety and convenience to the
road user. The roughness index depends on the
road surface roughness, which in turn depends
on the finishing of the road surface. A good
road is expected to give an improved riding
quality, a reduce surface noise, provide
minimum delays at road works, and provides
enhance deformation resistance[9]. The
roughness of different road surface can be
determined by various design field testing
equipments; these include the Australian roads
research board walking profilometer and other
Motorize sensors.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The objective of the study is to assess the
roughness levels of the various bituminous
pavements surfaces in Malaysia. The study
deals with measurement of a number of
parameters characterizing the level of
roughness of a given stretch of a road surface.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The study shall provide useful data of the
roughness level of the various bituminous
pavement surfaces in Malaysia. The study
shall also provide necessary data for
determining level of comfort provided by the
driving path and the pavement condition.
METHODOLOGY
The study involved a field survey and
testing using the ARRB walking profilometer
on the various bituminous pavement surfaces.
The walking profiler is an instrument used to
produce series of numbers to represent a
profile. The profiler works by combining three
parameters mainly, a reference elevation; a
height relative to the reference; and a
longitudinal distance. The International
Roughness Index (IRI) is calculated from a
measured single longitudinal road profile.
First, the profile is smoothened with a moving
average of base-length 250 mm[4]. Then,
response of a quarter car model, in the form of
vertical vibration, is accumulated, which on
dividing by the profile length yields IRI. If
profile information of two wheel track is
available, point-by-point average is
considered, and the index is called Half car
Roughness Index (HRI)[11].
The study investigated 10 test points per road
surface for each of the 6 selected test road
surfaces. The test was conducted at an interval
of 1km along each test road spanning 10km
each, and the total of 60 test points where
investigated. These tests were conducted in
accordance with the ARRB walking
profilometer code [1]. The table below shows
the location and categorization of the test
roads;
TABLE1.
Number of sites categorized by surface type The low value for the ACW makes the surface
and age to be smooth and could be attributed to the age
of the pavement and the polishing of the
Road Surface Age aggregate[13], while in the case of the SMA
Type (months) the surface is rough and generating a high IRI
value that exceeds the JKR specification [6].
Jalan Utama- ACW14 4 The SD surface as a minor road [2], generated
UTM an IRI that is slidely above the JKR
Jalan Pontian ACW20 36 recommendation [2], for such surfaces in
Malaysia.
Jalan Tebrau SMA14 24
01 For this study, the International Roughness
Jalan Tebrau SMA20 24 Index (IRI) indices profiler was used, to test
02 the pavement with some of the profiles for the
Jalan Parit SD 60 test roads shown below in Fig.1,2 and 3 below;
yani
Jalan Pt. SD 56 The profile for Jalan UTM-UTAMA in Fig. 1
Bulat below

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

All the data collected from the study were

analyzed in accordance with the Jabatan Karja
Raya (JKR) of Malaysia and the IRI Fig. 1 ACW profile
specification. All the data obtained from the
study were analyzed and the following results The road profile for the Jalan Tebrau SMA
obtained. It should be noted that the following surface could be seen below in Fig. 2;
roughness indices obtained from the study
could also be used to quantify other pavement
surface roughness indices using the Mean
Panel Rating (MPR); Profile Index (PI); Ride
Number (RN); and Root Mean Square Vertical
Acceleration (RMSVA).

The roughness index obtained from the study

for the various bituminous pavement surfaces
investigated indicates that the ACW14 showed Fig. 2 SMA profile
the lowest IRI of 1.2m/km indicating a smooth
surface, and the surface dressed road surface The road profile of Jalan Parit yaani in Muar is
showed the highest IRI of 8.05m/km indicating shown below in Fig. 3 as recorded by ARRB
a rough surface and the SMA 4.1m/km. walking profiler used in this study.
The results obtained shows that only the
surface dressed roads conforms with the JKR
specification [6], with the IRI value of
1.6m/km for 4 lane Highway, 2.5m/km for
2lane Highway and 8m/km for minor roads is
specified [2].

Based on the Arahan Teknik (jalan) 8/86

classification of roads in Malaysia, the surface
dressed are considered as R2 minor roads with
average daily traffic (ADT) volume less than
1000. While the ACW and SMA surfaces in
this study are urban arterials U4 with ADT
volume less than 3000.
Fig. 3 SD surface profile
All the data obtained from this study were
analyzed in accordance with ARRB
specification [1] using the formula below and
the average and combine IRI for all the SD Roughne s s
surfaces presented in the tables below
10

Formula used to determine the Roughness 6

4
Index (IRI) 2

IRI = {IRI1 +IRI2}/2 0

0 2 4 6 8 10

Where IRI is the International roughness index D i st a n c e ( k m )

IRI1 is the first single lane roughness index

IRI2 is the second single lane roughness index Fig. 4 IRI for SD

Table 2 The Average IRI for the test roads The SMA surfaces generated an IRI value that
exceeds the JKR [6], as shown in Fig. 5 below;
SD SMA ACW SM A Roughne s s
km IRI(m/km) IRI(m/km) IRI(m/km)
5
1 3.52 2.3 1.28
4

2 5.18 3.4 2.23 3

3 6.79 3.3 1.75 2

4 4.15 3.6 1.96 0

0 2 4 6 8 10
5 8.04 3.7 2.05 D i st a n c e ( k m )

6 5.31 4.1 2.06

7 8.05 2.02 2.76 Fig. 5 IRI for SMA
8 7.29 2.50 1.20
9 4.12 3.22 2.02
The ACW generated the least IRI values and
10 4.43 3.4 3.03
could be seen below in Fig. 6

ACW Roughness
The results obtained from the study were
4
analyzed and the average combine IRI for all 3
the surfaces presented in Table 3 below; 2

Table 3 Average combine IRI for all the test 1

0
roads 0 5 10

D i st a n c e ( k m )

Dist IRI(m Fig. 6 IRI for ACW

(km) /km)
Ave
The combine IRI for all the test roads in this
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 .
study is as shown below in Fig. 7;
1 1.62 5 8.3 3.0 3.52 4.31
2 2.55 2.76 5.1 5.8 5.18 4.29
3 7.93 6.29 4.51 4.0 6.79 5.92
4 2.71 5.76 5.8 7.3 4.15 5.12
5 6.77 6.75 8.5 8.6 8.94 7.93
6 4.95 3.11 3.6 5.8 5.31 4.58
7 5.01 4.03 3.0 4.1 8.95 5.03
8 4.38 3.81 3.5 4.0 7.29 4.60
9 3.26 4.10 4.6 3.0 4.12 4.43
10 4.41 2.70 5.90 5.3 2.83 4.24
Fig. 7 Combine IRI for all the surfaces

From the study the SD surfaces indicated the

highest frequency IRI as can be seen in Fig. 4
below
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION
The investigation was undertaken with the
primary objective to assess the roughness
indices of various bituminous surfaces in
Johor, Malaysia. The study indicates;
Design of flexible Pavements, 2005. JKR
specification
Ford W.G, Suffian Z and Smith HR
(1996). The benefits of using
Chipseals in Malaysia.

The results obtained from the study shows that
the surface dressing surfaces gave the highest
average IRI value indicating high roughness
and the tendency for high vibration and noise.
While the SMA and ACW surfaces show a
relatively lower IRI indicating a lower
vibration, noise and smoother.
Hasnur R. B (1990). The deterioration
of bituminous binders in road
surfacings.Sixth, REAA4-10March
1990.
Hunter R.N (2000). Asphalt in Road
construction. 125-196.

The study recommends the use of aggregate
with high polish stone value (PSV) of 55,
aggregate with good interstices and a surface
finishing based on the JKR specification.
However, the study recommends further
investigation on more test surfaces with a
propare view of understanding the mean IRI
values of these pavement surfaces.
Kwang H.J, Morosiuk G. and Emby J.
1992 Assessment of skid resistance
and macrotexture of bituminous
road surface in Malaysia. Seventh
REAA conference, Singapore.443-
449.
Sayers M.W. (1995), profiles of
Roughness. Transport research board
(TRB), Washington D.C no.1260

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Walking Profiler G2, ARRB

technology user note, 2006.
The work described in this paper was
carried out by the department of transportation Wilson D.J and Dunn R.C.M (2005).
and highway engineering, faculty of civil Polishing aggregates to
engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia equilibrium skid resistance. 55-71.
(UTM) in collaboration with Bina Mahsyur
Sdn Bhd. and the author will like to thank the
supervisors and all those involved in making
the study a huge success.

REFERENCE

ARRB, Walking profiler AG:PT/T450,

technology note, 2006. 1-37

Arahan Teknik (jalan) 8/86 classification

of roads in Malaysia

Awasthi G. and Das A. (2001), Pavement

Roughness indices.Transport Research
Laboratory TRB vol.84, may 2003.

Book of profiling university of Michigan

(USA), Sourced
(www.umtri.umich.edu/erd/roughness)

Beaven P.J and Tubey L.W (1978). The

polishing of road stone in peninsular
Malaysia. TRRL supplementary
report 421.TRRL Crowthorne
MIX DESIGN OF COLD RECYCLED MIX USING DIFFERENT RECYCLED ASPHALT
PAVEMENT (RAP) PROPORTION

R. Razali1, Z. Sufian3
Public Work Department, Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA

M.Y. Abdul Rahman2, J.Ahmad4 & E. Shaffie5

Institute for Infrastructure Engineering and Sustainable Management (IIESM)
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT: In Malaysia, pavement recycling technology is relatively new and this technique has become a viable alternative in
reducing pavement construction and maintenance cost. In this study, the modified Marshall Test procedure was adopted to identify
the mix design parameter for the recycled mixes at various RAP proportions. Four aggregate combinations with various RAP
proportions of 0%, 25%, 50% and 75% were used in this study. The optimum moisture content, bitumen emulsion content and
cement content were determined at every RAP proportions in the recycled mixes. From the analysis, optimum mix design for each
RAP proportion in the recycled mixes were produced based on the laboratory strength parameters such as Marshall Stability, flow
and density. Results show that increase in RAP proportion reduces the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of the
recycled mix. The recommended combination and optimum RAP proportion for use in the recycled mix is 25%, 3% of bitumen
emulsion and 2% of cement to achieve maximum stability of the recycled mix

Keywords: Bitumen emulsion; optimum moisture content; recycled asphalt pavement; stabilising agent

1. INTRODUCTION investigation to determine the best combination and

Various pavement rehabilitation techniques were
adopted by the Public Works Department which
included overlay, mill and pave, reconstruction and
recycling. Since Malaysia road network extend to
approximately 72781.35 kilometers of pave road and
18838.25 kilometers of unpaved roads, the desire to
maintain a safe and efficient and cost effective
roadway system has led to significant increase in
demand to rehabilitate existing pavement (Razali et al.,
2010). The rehabilitation method involves haulage of
new and old materials at the construction site which
may affect construction time. Hence, recycling
technique offers better logistic with respect to
transportation of materials for disposal.
The reuse of asphalt pavement materials in full-depth
recycling (FDR) is cost effective. This technique uses
the existing pavement material from the asphaltic layer
and a portion of the base materials with addition of
additives to produce stabilized base course. These
materials are then spread and compacted before asphalt
surfacing is applied. The technique of reusing of the
old materials in this study is the Cold-In-Place
Recycling (CIPR) technique. According to Sufian et
al., 2007, the functional and structural performance of
the pavement recycling was satisfactory and better than
that of the conventional rehabilitated pavements.
Furthermore, one of the advantages of the CIPR is cost
savings of up to 40% over conventional techniques
(Sufian et al., 2005). The concept of recycling
technique was first introduced in Malaysia in the mid
80s and since then, has become an alternative and
acceptable rehabilitation measures. In this study, an
selection of recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) and non
asphaltic material mixes to produce quality recycled
mix layer was investigated. Development of an
optimum mix design for each RAP proportion in the
recycled mix were also analysed and discussed in this
study.
2. METHODOLOGY
In this research, several combinations of RAP and
crushed stone aggregates were analysed. The RAP
materials were taken from milled old pavement section
under rehabilitation while the crushed stone aggregate
was taken from Kajang Rock Quarry, Semenyih.
Initially, test on the physical properties of the
aggregates were conducted so as to comply with the
recommendation by Malaysia Road Specification for
Cold-in-Place Recycling (REAM, 2005). The material
testing was conducted to identify material properties
for both RAP and crushed stone aggregate.
The mix design study was established to determine the
optimum combination of RAP and crushed stone
aggregates to produce the recycled layer. This study
also investigates the suitable grading of the combined
materials, the optimum moisture content, optimum
bitumen emulsion content and required cement content.
The experimental procedure of this study is as shown
in Figure 1. The gradation was selected at the mid
range complying with REAM Cold in Place Recycling
Specification gradation limit as shown in Figure 2.
Generally, the RAP samples have coarser particles and
lesser fine particles. The existing RAP grading was
modified to fit the designed grading by adding crushed
stone aggregates into the existing RAP sample. For
each selected gradation, the RAP materials and crushed
Design REAM CIPR Envelope  RAP
stone aggregates was combined in ratios of 0:100,
25:75, 50:50 and 75:25 respectively. The Proctor test 100

is conducted for each combination to determine the

80

Percentage Passing (%)
optimum moisture content (OMC). Specimens were
then prepared at OMC for each RAP proportion to 60
determine the optimum bitumen emulsion and cement
content using Marshall method. The Marshall 40

specimen of the combined RAP and crushed stone

aggregates were prepared using bitumen emulsion 20

content ranging from 2 to 6 percent by weight in at 0

increments of 1 percent at every stage of cement 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
content of 0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 percent cement content. -20
At different percentage of RAP content, all specimens Sieve Size (mm)
were tested for Marshall Stability, Density and Flow Fig. 2: Design grading for RAP
test for determination of optimum emulsion content
and cement content of the recycled mix.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

• Obtain RAP material from the project site Table 1 shows the results of RAP and crushed stone
• Obtain new materials from quarry aggregate properties which complied with REAM
CIPR specification requirements. Results from
• Sieve analysis proctor test showed that the optimum moisture content
• Physical properties of aggregate ranges between 5.2 to 6.5 percent. The dry densities
• Established the design of aggregates grading are 1.885 to 2.260 kg/m3. At 0% RAP content, no
cement is used and the highest optimum moisture
content and maximum dry density achieved was 6.5 %
Determination of optimum moisture content
and 2.260 kg/m3. The moisture content decreases as
proportion of RAP increases for the recycled mix as
shown in Figure 3. This is an indication that moisture
0 : 100 25 : 75 50 : 50 75 : 25 is retained in RAP materials and hence moisture
content must be controlled during construction.
RAP: Crushed stone aggregates Proportion
Table 1. Material properties for RAP and crushed stone
Crushed REAM Specification
Parameter RAP
stone Limit
Aggregate
0 : 100 25 : 75 50 : 50 75 : 25 Impact 25.6 21.8 < 30
Determination of Marshall Properties at various contents of Value
stabilizing agent and RAP proportions: Aggregate
• Stability, Flow & Density Crushing 22.17 15.38 <30
Value
Flakiness
16.91 16.69 <30
Establish mix design Index
• Optimum moisture content
• Optimum bitumen emulsion content Dry Density vs Moisture Content
• Optimum cement content 2.350
• Optimum RAP proportion 2.300
2.250
Fig 1: Experimental design flowchart 2.200
Dry Density

2.150
2.100
2.050
2.000
1.950
1.900
1.850
1.800
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Moisture Content

0% RAP 25% RAP 50% RAP 75% RAP

Fig. 3: Dry density vs moisture content of recycled mix

Figure 4 shows the result for the Marshall stability The density of the recycled mix was also investigated
varies for different RAP proportions, cement and as shown in Figure 5. Results showed that control
emulsion content. The peak Marshall stability results specimen has the highest maximum density of 2.300
obtained for 0% RAP was 46 kN with 1.5% cement kg/m3. The trend shows that as RAP proportion
and 2.5% emulsion. For both 25% and 50% RAP increases, the density decreases. At 25%, 50% and
proportions, interestingly, the peak Marshall stability 75% RAP proportion, the maximum density is 2.220,
results were 51 kN. However, the recycled mix with 2.200 and 2.120 kg/m3 respectively.
75% RAP have the lowest strength of between 24 to
27kN even with different variations of cement content
added to the mix. Figure 4 shows the Marshall
stability results of the recycled mix at different
percentage of RAP, cement and emulsion content.

Stability vs Emulsion Content

(0% RAP)
54.0
50.0
46.0
42.0
38.0
Stability (kN)

34.0
30.0
26.0
22.0
18.0
14.0
10.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Emulsion Content (%)

2.5% cement 0% cement 1.5% cement 2% cement

Stability vs Emulsion Content

(25% RAP )
54.0
50.0
46.0
42.0
38.0
Stability (kN)

34.0
30.0
26.0
22.0
18.0
14.0
10.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Emulsion Content (%)
2.5% cement 0% cement 1.5% cement 2% cement

Stability vs Emulsion Content

(50% RAP )
54.0
50.0
46.0
42.0
Stability (kN)

38.0
34.0
30.0
26.0
22.0
18.0
14.0
10.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Emulsion Content (%)
2.5% cement 0% cement 1.5% cement 2% cement

Stability vs Emulsion Content

(75% RAP )
54.0
50.0
46.0
42.0
38.0
Stability (kN)

34.0
30.0
26.0
22.0
18.0
14.0
10.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Emulsion Content (%)
2.5% cement 0% cement 1.5% cement 2% cement

Fig.4: OMC and maximum dry density of recycled mix Fig.5: Density for recycled mix
Results for Marshall flow test show that higher flow The mix design selection for recycled mix with various
values were observed for mix with 0% and 75% RAP RAP proportions were summarised in Table 2. The use
proportions compared to recycled mix with 25% and of 25% RAP requires minimum usage of bitumen
50% RAP. The Marshall flow values for 0% and 75% emulsion but contribute to good stability. Combination
RAP mix is 3.5mm and 4.5mm for recycled mix with of 3% bitumen emulsion and 2% cement is required to
50% RAP. However, at 75% RAP proportion, there is achieve maximum stability with 25% RAP proportion
an increase in the flow value. Figure 6 shows the result in the recycled mix.
of Marshall flow of the recycled mix.
Table 2. Recycled mix design selection criteria
Optimum Optimum
Flow vs Emulsion Content (0% RAP) Cement
RAP Stability Moisture bitumen
10.0 Content
9.0 content (kN) Content emulsion
(%)
8.0 (%) content (%)
7.0
0% 1.5 44 6.5 2.5
Flow (mm)

6.0
5.0 25% 2.0 49 6.0 3.0
4.0
3.0 50% 2.0 40 5.3 3.5
2.0
1.0 75% 1.5 27 5.1 4.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Emulsion Content (%)

2.5% cement 0% cement 1.5% cement 2% cement

Flow vs Emulsion Content (25% RAP ) 4. CONCLUSIONS

10.0
9.0 Based on the results obtained from this study, it was
8.0
also concluded that :
7.0
Flow (mm)

6.0
5.0 • An increase in RAP proportion reduces the
4.0 optimum moisture content and maximum dry
3.0
density of the recycled mix.
•
2.0
1.0
The cement content in recycled mix with higher
0 1 2 3 4
Emulsion Content (%)
5 6 7 RAP proportion does not effectively contribute to
2.5% cement 0% cement 1.5% cement 2% cement
strength of the mix.
• The recommended combination and optimum
Flow vs Emulsion Content (50% RAP )
RAP proportion for use in the recycled mix is
10.0
25%, 3% of bitumen emulsion and 2% of cement
9.0
to achieve maximum stability of the recycled mix.
8.0

7.0
REFERENCES
Flow (mm)

6.0

5.0

4.0 REAM (2005) Specification For Cold In-Place

3.0 Recycling. Road Engineering Association of
2.0
Malaysia. p. 13.
1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 R.Razali, M/Y. Abdul Rahman and Z.Sufian (2009)
Emulsion Content (%)
The effects of different RAP Proportion to the
2.5% cement 0% cement 1.5% cement 2% cement
performances of cold inplace recycled mix,
Flow vs Emulsion Content (75% RAP ) Proceeding in 13 REAAA Conference in Incheon ,
10.0 South Korea
9.0

8.0
Zulakmal Sufian, M.Z.H., Mohd Yazip Matori, Nafisah
7.0
Abdul Aziz (2007) Research on fundamental
Flow (mm)

6.0 characteristic of stabilised full depth reclaimed

5.0 pavement layer. Proceeding, 7th Malaysia Road
4.0 Conference 2007. Sunway Pyramid Subang,
3.0 Selangor, Malaysia.
2.0

1.0
Zulakmal Sufian , N.A.A., Yazip Matori, Mat Zin
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hussain (2005) Cold in-place pavement recycling
Emulsion Content (%)
2.5% cement 0% cement 1.5% cement 2% cement
in Malaysia. in 2005 International Symposium On
Pavement Recycling. Sao Paolo, Brazil
Fig. 6: Density of recycled mix at various RAP proportions
ID 167: USE OF DYNAMIC MODULUS TEST TO EVALUATE MOISTURE
SUSCEPTIBILITY OF ASPHALTIC CONCRETE MIXTURES

J. Ahmad, M.Y. Abd Rahman

Institute for Infrastructure Engineering and Sustainable Management (IIESM)
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA

M.R. Hainin
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM-Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA

M. Hossain
Dept of Civil Engineering, 2124 Fiedler Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5000, USA
Email: juraidah@salam.uitm.edu.my

ABSTRACT: Currently, the Modified Lottman test from indirect tensile strength test is widely used to evaluate moisture
susceptibility of asphaltic concrete mixtures. In this study, evaluation of moisture induced damage of asphalt concrete mixtures
were conducted from dynamic modulus tests in a Simple Performance Tester at different frequencies by applying sinusoidal
loading to the specimens in wet and dry conditions. Results showed that there is a good agreement between the tensile strength
ratio and dynamic modulus ratio of the wet and dry specimens from both tests. There is also good agreement between
unconditioned and conditioned values from the dynamic modulus test. The dynamic modulus values appears to be very close to
the line of equality which implies that the results are more consistent and showed less variability than results from the indirect
tensile strength test. Results from ANOVA statistical analysis test showed that the SPT dynamic modulus test are more reliable
and considers many factors affecting moisture susceptibility of asphaltic mixtures compared to the indirect tensile strength test.

Keywords: Simple Performance Test; Tensile Strength Ratio; Dynamic Modulus Stiffness Ratio
 
STRIPPING PERFORMANCE OF TENDER MIX

E.Shaffie1, Z. Abd.Rahman2 & W. Hashim3

Institute for Infrastructure Engineering and Sustainable Management (IIESM)
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT: The possibility of tender mixes existing in pavement construction is high and a remarkable increase in traffic volume has
contributed to the severe stripping on highway and main road in Malaysia. This paper with objective to evaluate the stripping characteristic
of tender mixes as compared to typical mixes through laboratory tests focusing at HMA ACW 20 of mix type for wearing course. One mix
was designed with typical dense graded gradation but away from the maximum density line (MDL) described as control mix. The other mix
was designed close to Maximum Density Line (MDL) to simulate tender mix. Both mixes conformed to JKR specification. Marshall
samples were prepared in order to determine the optimum bitumen content (OBC) and volumetric properties of both mixtures. Six samples
were prepared for the the Modified Lottman Test which measured the stripping. Volumetric properties results indicate that tender mix is
not tender as expected due to high voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) compared to control mix. The Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) value
in the Modified Lottman Test is an indication of the potential for moisture damage. The TSR result for control mix was 87% while tender
mix was 78%. In general, the average tensile strength ratio (%TSR) values for control mixes exceeded the minimum requirement. Thus,
the control mixes are not susceptible to moisture damage and more resistant with respect to the tensile strength compared to tender mixes.

Keywords: Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA); Tender Mix; Stripping; Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR)

to quite numerous pavement constructions around the

1.0 INTRODUCTION
An unstable mix that tends to displace laterally and shove
rather than compact under roller loads is best to describe
what tender mix actually is. Tender hot mix asphalt
(HMA) mixes have been observed and experienced by
paving contractors for many years.
The tender zone is range of mix temperatures during
which the mix exhibits instability during roller action.
There have been many possible causes of the tender zone
presented including differences in lab and production
aging, mix moisture, low dust to asphalt ratio, increased
asphalt binder film thickness, and a temperature
differential with the lift.
In 1989, Crawford reports the existence of two types of
tenderness which first type is characterized by the asphalt
mix being difficult to compact when normal construction
techniques are used. Re-compaction attempts will result
in a decrease in pavement density. The asphalt mixtures
being slow setting after construction characterizes the
second type of tenderness. This type is sensitive to
turning traffic and power steering. It may also lack
resistance to critical loading, especially during hot
weather.
1.1 Problem Statement and Objective
The possibility of tender mixes existing in pavement
construction is high, which can be caused from the
improper mix design resulting to lower compaction and
high pavement distress. Cooley Jr, et.al (2000) reported
that tender mixes are often difficult to compact to the
required density. The existence of tender mixes happen
world, including in Malaysia.
Furthermore, a remarkable increase in traffic volume has
contributed to the severe stripping on highway and main
road in Malaysia. Therefore, the evaluation of stripping
potential on tender mixes is relevant. As due to that, this
research was conducted to evaluate the properties of
tender mixes through Marshall Mix Design Test as well
as to assess the performance of tender mixes in term of
stripping characteristic.
1.2 Scope of Research
The research involves literature review and laboratory
works that include designing two ACW20 mixes using
Marshall Design. The designation conforms to JKR
specification. One mix design was designed with a
typical dense graded gradation away from MDL and
described as control mix and the other was designed close
to MDL to simulate tender mix and described as tender
mix. Modified Lottman Test was conducted particularly
to evaluate the stripping performance of both mixes.
2. BACKGROUND
2.1 Tender Mix
Tender pavement has been described in many ways and
according to Marker, (1977) the following difficulty has
been associated with tender pavement:
i. The mix is difficult to roll.
ii. The specified density is difficult to achieve.
iii. The pavement ruts after construction is
complete.
iv. The pavement is soft after completion and will
displace under the heel of a shoe.
 v. The pavement “shoves” under traffic,
sometimes months after construction.
vi. The pavement “slips” under traffic, usually
fairly soon after construction.
vii. The pavement “scuffs” under power steering or
severe braking action.
viii. The pavement indents under a punching load.
Identifying the specific causes of tender mixes is difficult
to do. There are a number of items that can cause mixes
to be tender and any combination of these items may
result in tenderness. Works by Crawford (1989) identified
that common causes of tender mixes are any one or any
combination of any of the following:
i. Incorrect mix design,
ii. Smooth and rounded aggregates,
iii. Moisture in the mix,
iv. Abnormally high ambient temperature,
v. Asphalt cements characteristics,
vi. Incorrect asphalt cement grade,
vii. Incorrect production and construction
techniques,
viii. Inadequate bond to underlying layer
2.2 Stripping
Stripping is a distress in the asphalt pavement which
happens due to moisture susceptibility of the HMA
mixture (Roberts et al., 1996). Stripping is defined as the
physical separation of the asphalt cement from the
aggregate produced by the loss of adhesion between the
asphalt cement and the aggregate which is primarily due
to the action of water or water vapor (Kenedy, T, et al.,
1984). Stripping is the other effect of moisture in the mix
where moisture susceptibility is a phenomenon when
moisture causes a loss of bond between the aggregate and
the asphalt binder.
Proper mix design is essential to overcome this moisture
susceptibility problem. Even though the mix may be
properly design, but not compacted adequately, it may
still be susceptible to moisture damage. As such,
evaluation of moisture susceptibility of HMA mix design
should be done in a situation where moisture is allowed to
infiltrate into the air voids of the mixture (Roberts et al.,
1996). Several additional factors that contribute to
stripping are the use of open-graded asphalt friction,
inadequate drying of aggregate, overlays on deteriorated
concrete pavements and waterproofing membranes
(Hunter and Ksaibati, 2002).
Source of moisture in an asphalt pavement can be either
external or internal, although generally stripping begins
and progress from bottom upwards in sealed pavement
layer without physically opening up the pavement. Water
can enter the pavement externally from poorly drained
areas and from underlying layers due to high ground
water sources a shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Sources of water (moisture) in asphalt pavement
structure.(Larry Santuci et al., 2002)
3. METHODOLOGY
This study approach mainly involved experimental work.
The study focuses on the properties evaluation and also
the rutting and stripping performance evaluation of tender
mixes. The Marshall Mix design procedure
involvedcareful material selection and volumetric
proportioning as a first approach in producing a mix that
will perform successfully.
The aggregates were obtained from Hanson Quarry
Production (HQP), Semenyih and undergone and satisfied
the Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) material specification test.
Laboratory tests to be performed on the aggregates are
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
(ASTM C127), Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine
Aggregate (ASTM C128) and Sieve Analysis of Fine and
Coarse Aggregate (ASTM C136). The gradation will be
conduct to determine the grading of the Control mix and
Tender mix.
For sample preparation, mix design and compaction and
testing, the gradation which compliance with
specification were used in this research. Marshall Mix
design procedure was used to design asphaltic mixtures.
In this phase, selection of gradation and selection of
optimum binder content will be determined. The were
prepared for each binder content range from 4.5% to
6.0% by weight increment of 0.5%. Loose HMA sample
for each mix will then were tested using Maximum
Specific Gravity of Bituminous Paving Mixtures
(AASHTO T 209-82) and the effective specific gravity
of the aggregate will be determined. Volumetric
properties Voids in the Total Mix (VTM), Voids in the
Mineral Aggregates (VMA) and Voids Filled with
Bitumen (VFB) analysis and OBC were obtained using
effective specific gravity of aggregate. Then, the optimum
cement content was determined using the Marshall
method.
Finally, the samples were tested for performance
evaluation. The performance evaluation performed were
stripping test. Samples stripping test were prepared and
will compacted to approximately 7 + 1% air voids. The
Modified Lottman test (AASHTO T283) was performed
by compacting samples to an air void level of 7% ± 0.5%.
Three samples were selected as a control and tested
without moisture conditioning; and another three samples
were selected to be conditioned by saturating with water
at 70-80 percent followed by immersing in water for 24
hours at 60ºC in a water bath. The samples were then
tested for indirect tensile strength (ITS) by loading the
samples at constant head rate (50 mm/minute vertical
deformation at 25ºC) and maximum compressive force
required to break the specimens were recorded. Tensile
Strength Ratio (TSR) results were determined by
comparing the indirect tensile strength (ITS) of
unconditioned samples with the control samples.
Analysis and conclusion on stripping were determined
from the result of strength which obtained from the ratio
of mean strength of conditioned specimens to the mean
strength of dry specimens to measure moisture
susceptibility of the mixes. TSR will be used with 80% as
the boundary between mixtures resistant and sensitive to
moisture (AASHTO, 2005b). The overall experimental
procedure of this research work is shown in the Figure 1.
Gradation Design of ACW20
Control mix and Tender mix
Preparation of Marshall Sample
Sample Preparation for (Modified Lottman Test)
Determine number of compaction to get 7.0 + 1% void.
Conduct Modified Lottman Test
Data Collection and Analysis
Conclusions and Recommendations
Figure 1: Flowchart of experimental design
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Marshall Mix Design And Compaction
Two gradations were designed for ACW20 conformed to
JKR/SPJ/1988 specification. One gradation consist a
typical gradation of dense graded design away from
maximum density line (MDL) described as control mix.
The other gradation was design close to MDL to simulate
tender mix described as tender mix. Figure 2 shows the
plotted graph for both gradations.
100
bottom
90 top
80 control
MDL
70
tender
60
% passing
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 sizes ^0.45
sieve 3 4 5
Figure 2: Gradation chart of control mix and tender mix for
ACW20
Volumetric properties of HMA consist of VMA, VTM
and VFB. Based on the result obtained, relationship
between volumetric properties (Stability, Stiffness, Flow,
VTM and VFB) and Binder Content were evaluated.
Volumetric properties for ACW 20 control mix and
tender mix were calculated using effective specific
gravity of the aggregate obtained from Maximum
Specific Gravity of Bituminous Paving Mixtures
(AASHTO T 209-82) test.
The optimum bitumen content (OBC) of the mix was
determined from data obtained range of different bitumen
content. Series of curves were plotted to get the density,
percent of VFB, percent of VTM, Marshall stability and
flow value. The OBC were then determined by Asphalt
Institute (AI) method which is by the average of selected
four series of curve. The OBC determined for control
mix and tender mix was performed using AI method. The
result of OBC for tender mix was 5.4% higher than
control mix which was 5.1%.
4.2 Modified Lottman Test (AASHTO T283)
In this study, the samples were tested for both control and
tender mixtures. Results of the Modified Lottman test
conducted on both mixtures are tabulated in Figures 3
respectively. These figures indicated that unconditioned
HMA prepared for control mixes demonstrated higher
tensile strength values than tender mixes. For the IDT of
unconditioned samples results, control mix has the higher
tensile strength value of 1.15 KPa compared to tender
mix which has the lower tensile strength value of 1.02
KPa.
For conditioned specimens, these figures also indicated
that control mix showed better resistance to stripping with
respect to the tensile strength compared to tender mixes.
For control mix, the IDT of unconditioned samples was
1.15 KPa and for conditioned samples was 1.01 KPa, a
decrease of 12% from unconditioned samples. It is
evident that the IDT of the mixtures after conditioning
will lead to pavement failures. A similar trend was found
for tender mixes. Therefore, it could be noted that
moisture conditioning significantly affects the
performance of the hot mix asphalt.
 more resistant with respect to the tensile strength
Unconditioned Conditioned
compared to tender mixes.

1.4
It is recommended that other types of mix such as
ACW10, ACW14, Gap Graded, Stone Mastic Asphalt
Average Tensile Strength (KPa)

1.2 (SMA) or Open Graded to be used in future study and

1 designed close to MDL to simulate tender mix. Various
type of mix tested will give higher indicative result.
0.8

0.6

0.4 6. REFERENCES
0.2
American Society of Testing Materials. ASTM C 127
0 (1992). Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity
Control Mix Tender Mix and Absoprtion of Coarse Aggregates. Philadelphia.
Figure 3: Indirect tensile strength of unconditioned and
conditioned samples for both mixtures tested American Society of Testing Materials. ASTM C 128
(1992). Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity
Moisture Susceptibility criterion for TSR for the moisture and Absoprtion of Fine Aggregates. Philadelphia.
susceptibility according to standards of AASHTO T 283
is minimum 80 %. The TSR value in the Modified American Society of Testing Materials. ASTM C 136
Lottman Test is an indication of the potential for moisture (1992). Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of
damage of the mix design. Table 1 shows a comparison of Fine and Coarse Aggregates. Philadelphia.
the Tensile Strength Ratio (%TSR) for both mixtures
tested. The average tensile strength ratio (%TSR) values Crawford, C.. (1989). Tender Mixes: Probable Cause,
for control mixture is 87 percent and 78 percent for Possible Remedies. NAPA. (108/86)
Tender mixture. In general, the average tensile strength
ratio (%TSR) values for control mixes exceeded the Cooley Jr L.A., Kandhal, P.S., and Mallick R.B.. (2000).
minimum requirement. Thus, the control mixes are not Accelerated Laboratory Rutting Tests: Evaluation of
susceptible to moisture damage and more resistant with the Asphalt Pavement Analyzer. Transportation
respect to the tensile strength compared to tender mixes. Research Board, National Cooperative Highway
Research Program Report. (508).
Table 1: Modified Lottman Test TSR Values
Mix Design Mixture Kennedy, T., F. Roberts, and K. Lee (1984). Evaluating
Control Tender Moisture Susceptibility of Asphalt Mixtures Using
the Texas Boiling Test. Transportation Research
Unconditioned Specimen
Record 968, TRB,National Research Council,
Ave. Air Voids(%) 7.0 6.9 Washington, D.C., pp. 45-54.
Ave .ITS (KPa) 1.15 1.02
Conditioned Specimens Hunter E. R. and K. Ksaibati, (2002). Evaluating
Moisture Susceptibility of Asphalt Mixes.
Ave. Air Voids (%) 7.0 6.9
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering,
Saturation level (%) 72.3 71 University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming.
Ave. ITS (KPa) 1.00 0.79
Tensile Strength Ratio Larry Santuci, P.E., LTAP Field Engineer (2002).
87 78
(%) Moisture Sensitivity of Asphalt
Pavements.Technology Transfer Program and
Pavement Specialist, Pavement Research Center,
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION UC Berkeley
The TSR value in the modified Lottman test is an
Marker, V.. (1977). Tender Mixes: The Causes and
indication of the potential for moisture damage. Higher
Prevention. Asphalt Institute. No. 168 (IS-168).
TSR value indicates greater resistance of the mix to
moisture damage. A minimum TSR criterion of 80
Roberts, F. L., Kandhal, P. S., Brown, E. R., Lee, D. Y.,
percent was adopted according to standards of AASHTO
and Kennedy, T. W. (1996). Hot Mix Asphalt
T 283(AASHTO, 2005b).
Material, Mixture Design, and Construction. 2nd
The TSR result for control mix was 87% while tender Edition.
mix was 78%. In general, the average tensile strength
ratio (%TSR) values for control mixes exceeded the
minimum requirement. Thus, it can be concluded the
control mixes are not susceptible to moisture damage and
SKID RESISTANCE AND THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

Mohd Amin Bin Shafii

Postgraduate Student
Faculty of Civil Engineering,
University Technology of Malaysia
amintybe982@gmail.com

Dr. Haryati bte Yaacob

Senior Lecturer
Faculty of Civil Engineering,
University Technology of Malaysia
haryatiyaacob@utm.my

Dr. Mohd Rosli bin Hainin

Associate Professor
Faculty of Civil Engineering,
University Technology of Malaysia
mrosli@utm.my

ABSTRACT: Skid resistance is the force developed when a tire that is prevented from rotating slides along the
pavement surface. It is the most important characteristic of the road pavement. In the wet conditions, skidding will occur easily
when the water film covering the pavement act as lubricant and reduce the friction between the tire and pavement. There are
several factors that influence skid resistance such as road pavement texture, aggregate characteristic and surface temperature.
Although a number of researcher have attempted to explain and quantify the effect of temperature on pavement skid resistance
properties, the result are still unclear. Therefore, the objective of this study is to investigate the effect of pavement surface
temperature on the pavement skid resistance properties of different type of mixtures. Besides, this study also wants to investigate
whether the type of gradation has a significant effect on skid resistance based on temperature difference. To accomplish the
objective of the study, five types of mixture consist of ACW 14, ACW 10, Porous Mix Grade A, Porous Mix Grade B and SMA
14 were prepared. Then, the skid resistance test using British Pendulum Tester was conducted. The test was conducted using
heated temperature method and natural temperature method. The results of skid resistance using heated temperature method were
compared with the result of skid resistance using natural temperature method. In this study, it is found that temperature has a
significant effect on skid resistance value and the relationship between skid resistance value and temperature can be represent
using quadratic curve. Based on temperature different, type of gradation has also significant effect to skid resistance value.

Keywords: Skid Resistance, Temperature, British Pendulum Tester, ACW, SMA, Porous Mixture, PTV
 

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Road accident is a significant problem and a major
concern of most highway agencies. Statistics from
Polis Diraja Malaysia (PDRM) show that the number
of road accidents increased almost every year. The
number of road accident increased from 279711 cases
in year 2002 to 363319 cases in 2007. Almost 3% of
the road accident involves the fatal accident.
There are several factors that contribute to the road
accidents. One of the factors is skidding. Skid
resistance is the most important characteristic of the
road pavement. Skidding will happen when the
pavement surface does not provide adequate friction to
the tire. In the wet conditions, skidding will occur
easily when the water film covering the pavement act
as lubricant and reduce the friction between the tire and
pavement.
Skid resistance is monitored using different types of
skid testing device. The most commonly used device is
locked wheel trailer and British Pendulum Tester
(BPT). Skid tests are subject to many influential
factors, which can be generally classified into three
categories: tire-related factors (rubber compound, tread
design and condition, inflation pressure, and operating
temperature); pavement-related factors (pavement type,
microtexture and macrotexture, and surface
temperature); and intervening-substance-related factors
(quantity of water, presence of loose particulate matter,
and oil contaminants).
A number of researchers have investigated the effect of
temperature on pavement skid resistance properties.
One of the problems encountered while reviewing
these efforts is that the type of temperature used in
these studies has not been consistent. For example,
Runkle and Mahone [4] considered the maximum,
minimum and average daily temperatures; Burchett and
Rizenbergs [4] considered the maximum and minimum
air temperature during a four to eight - week period;
and the National Safety Council (1975) used the
pavement surface temperature to correlate with
pavement friction. Furthermore, the investigations
conducted so far have not produced consistent results.
While some researchers Runkle and Mahone [4],
Burchett and Rizenbergs [4], indicated a statistically
significant effect of air or pavement temperature on the
skid properties, others Mitchell et al. [4], concluded
that the effect was insignificant.
1.1 Problem Statement
Environmental factor such as temperature is believed to
affect the skid resistance properties of the pavement.
Although a number of researcher have attempted to
explain and quantify the effect of temperature on
pavement skid resistance properties, the result are still
unclear.
1.2 Objectives of Study
The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of
pavement surface temperature on the pavement skid
resistance properties of different type of mixtures.
Besides, this study also wants to investigate whether
the type of gradation has a significant effect on skid
resistance based on temperature. To accomplish the
objectives of the study, several tests were conducted
using asphaltic concrete wearing (ACW) mixture,
porous asphalt and stone mastic asphalt (SMA). The
test was conducted at several temperatures.
1.3 Scope of Study
Due to limitation of time, this study only limited to
laboratory test and will not consider field test. The
temperature variable only considers pavement surface
temperature (sample temperature).
2.0 METHODOLOGY
This study was divided into three parts: sample
preparation, apparatus that was used and testing
procedure. The samples which were prepared consist of
ACW 10, ACW 14, Porous Mix Grade A, Porous Mix
Grade B and SMA 14. All the samples were prepared
based on Marshall Mix Design. Each type of mixture
was prepared in two samples for testing. Apparatus
that were used in this study are British Pendulum
Tester, Infrared Temperature Gun, dryer and water
spray. In testing procedure part, the sample was tested
using heated temperature method and natural
temperature method. At heated temperature, the sample
was heated using a dryer to obtain a certain
temperature. While, at natural temperature, the sample
was place outside the laboratory at different time in
order to obtain different temperature.
2.1 Sample preparation
After obtaining the optimum bitumen content for each
type of mixture, samples for skid resistance test were
prepared. The procedure to prepare the test sample is
similar with the procedure to prepare Marshall sample.
The difference is only the size of sample and
compaction process. The size of sample is 305 mm (1
feet)(width) x 305 mm (1 feet)(length) x 50 mm
(depth). In the compaction process, the sample was
compacted until it achieves the design air voids of 7 %
for ACW 10, ACW 14 and SMA 14 and 20 % for
Porous Mix Grade A and Porous Mix Grade B.
2.2 Apparatus
2.2.1 British Pendulum Tester
The measurement of skid resistance is measured using
British Pendulum Tester. The measurement gives the
value in term of British Pendulum Number (BPN).
British Pendulum Tester consists of spirit level,
leveling screw, pointer, vertical adjustment screw, C
unit scale, F unit scale, starting button and rubber
slider.
2.2.2 Infrared Temperature Gun
Infrared Temperature Gun was used to measure the
temperature of the sample during the skid resistance
measurement. It only measures the surface temperature
of the sample.
2.2.3 Dryer
Dryer was used to heat the surface of the samples
before the skid resistance test was carried out.
2.2.4 Water Spray
Water spray was used to wet the surface of the sample
before the skid resistance measurement was taken.
2.3 Testing Procedure
At heated temperature, the sample was heated using a
dryer at different temperature which is 28°C, 30°C,
35°C, 40°C, 45°C, 50°C, 55°C and 60°C. Then the skid
resistance test was carried out inside the laboratory. At
natural temperature, the test was carried out outside the
laboratory at different time in order to obtain different
temperature. It was done from 9.00 am to 4.00 pm. The
measurement of skid resistance is measured using
British Pendulum Tester based on BS EN 13036-
4:2003.
3.0 RESULT
3.1 Heated Temperature Method
Figure 1 show the graph of skid resistance test result the test, these temperatures occur around 11.00 AM to
for all type of mixtures using heated temperature 12.00 noon.
method. From the test, initially, the Pendulum Test
Value (PTV) decrease as temperature increased. After
Pendulum Test Value (PTV) versus 
a certain temperature, PTV increase as temperature
Temperature
increased. For ACW 10 mixture, the lowest PTV is 76 115
where it happened at the temperature of 36 °C. After
ACW 10
the temperature of 36°C, PTV show an increment as
the temperature increased. While, for ACW 14 105 ACW 14

Pendulum Test Value (PTV)
mixture, PTV begin to increase at the temperature of Porous Grade A
35 °C with the lowest PTV of 75. The lowest PTV for Porous Grade B
95
Porous Mix Grade A, Porous Mix Grade B and SMA SMA 14
14 mixtures are 83, 84 and 81 respectively. It
happened at the temperature of 28 °C, 35 °C and 34 °C. 85
Based on Figure 1, for all types of mixtures, generally
the turning point temperatures where PTV begins to
increase are around 28 °C to 36 °C. 75

Pendulum Test Value (PTV) versus  65
Temperature
105
55
ACW 10
100 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Pendulum Test Value

ACW 14
Temperature ° C
95 Porous Grade A
Porous Grade B Fig. 2. Graph of Pendulum Test Value (PTV) versus
90 SMA 14 Temperature for all types of mixtures using natural
temperature method.
85
4.0 DISCUSSION
80 Based on Figure 1 and Figure 2, generally, it shows
that the graph of Pendulum Test Value (PTV) versus
75 temperature can be represented using quadratic curve
where at the initial stage, PTV decrease as temperature
70 increased. After a certain temperature, PTV increase as
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 temperature increased. This phenomenon happened
Temperature ° C may be due to some of the bitumen was pill out at
Fig. 1. Graph of Pendulum Test Value (PTV) versus higher temperature. When some of the bitumen was
Temperature for all types of mixtures using heated pills out, it will leave the aggregate with rough surface.
temperature method The aggregate with rough surface will increase the
Pendulum Test Value (PTV).
3.2 Natural Temperature Method
The graph of skid resistance test result for all type of In this study, comparison between the result using
mixtures using natural temperature method is shown in heated temperature method and natural temperature
Figure 2. Similarly with the result of skid resistance method show that, PTV using heated temperature are
test using heated temperature method, the result of skid more consistent and have smoother curve pattern
resistance test using natural temperature method also compared with the result obtained using natural
shown the same patterns of curve where the graph for temperature method. This result happened may be due
Pendulum Test Value (PTV) versus temperature can be to the heated temperature method which has more
represented using quadratic curve. The lowest consistent temperature than natural temperature
Pendulum Test Value (PTV) for ACW 10, ACW 14, method. Furthermore, it is found that, based on
Porous Mix Grade A, Porous Mix Grade B and SMA temperature difference, the type of aggregate gradation
14 mixtures are 66, 62, 86, 75 and 79. While the has significant effect on the Pendulum Test Value
temperature where the PTV begin to increase are 38 (PTV) where Porous Mix Grade A has the highest PTV
°C, 42 °C, 39 °C, 39 °C and 36 °C respectively. From value followed by Porous Mix Grade B, SMA 14,
ACW 14 and ACW 10. In addition, type of aggregate
gradation has no significant effect on the pattern of the
graph (PTV versus Temperature). From the figure, it Gordon Wells. (1970). Traffic Engineering an
shows that the pattern of the graph, Pendulum Test Introduction. Great Britain: Charles Griffin and
Value (PTV) versus temperature almost similar for all Company Ltd.
types of mixtures. Ibrahim M. Asi (2007). Evaluating skid resistance of
different asphalt concrete mixes. Building and
5.0 CONCLUSION Environment, 42, 325–329. Elselvier Ltd.
The summaries of findings are: Pavement Management Committee. (1977). Pavement
i) The relationship between skid resistance value management guide. Canada: Roads and
(Pendulum Test Value (PTV)) and Transportation Association of Canada
temperature can be conclude as quadratic Subhi M. Bazlamit, Farhad Reza (2005). Changes in
curve where at early stage, skid resistance Asphalt Pavement Friction Components and
value will decrease as temperature increased Adjustment of Skid Number for Temperature.
but after certain temperature, skid resistance Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol.
value will increase as temperature increase. 131.ASCE
ii) The skid resistance test using heated Yingjian Luo (2003). Effect of Pavement Temperature
temperature method has more consistent value on Frictional Properties of Hot-Mix-Asphalt
compared to the result using natural Pavement Surfaces at the Virginia Smart Road.
temperature method as we can see from the Master of Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
graph of skid resistance value versus and State University, United State of America.
temperature where all type of mix using
heated temperature method has more than .
85% R2 value.
iii) Porous Mix Grade A and Porous Mix Grade B
has the highest Pendulum Test Value (PTV) at
the highest temperature where the PTV for
Porous Mix Grade A and Porous Mix Grade B
using heated temperature method are 103 and
97 respectively.
iv) Based on temperature difference, the type of
aggregate gradation (dense graded, open
graded and gap graded) has significant effect
on the Pendulum Test Value (PTV) but has no
significant effect on the pattern of the graph
where we can see the graph of Pendulum Test
Value (PTV) versus temperature for all type
of mixtures has similar shape (quadratic
curve).

From this study, it was concluded that temperature has

a significant effect on skid resistance value and the
relationship between skid resistance value and
temperature can be represent using quadratic curve.
But, based on temperature different, type of gradation
has significant effect to skid resistance value.

6.0 REFERENCES

British Standard Institution (2003). BS EN 13036-4.

Method for measurement of slip/skid resistance of
a surface-The pendulum test. London: British
Standard Institution
Burchett J. L and R. L. Rizenbergs (1980) “Seasonal
Variations in the Skid Resistance of Pavements in
Kentucky.” Transportation Research Record, No.
788, 12p.
DEVELOPMENT OF SOFTWARE FOR RIGID PAVEMENT THICKNESS DESIGN

Mohd Khairul Idham bin Mohd Satar

Faculty of Civil Engineering, University Technology of Malaysia
khairulidham@utm.my
Mohd Rosli bin Hainin
Faculty of Civil Engineering, University Technology of Malaysia
mrosli@utm.my
Haryati bt. Yaacob
Faculty of Civil Engineering, University Technology of Malaysia
haryatiyaacob@utm.my
Dorina anak Astana
Faculty of Civil Engineering, University Technology of Malaysia
dorina@utm.my
Nur Izzi bin Md. Yusoff
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, National University of Malaysia
evxnim@nottingham.ac.uk

ABSTRACT: Rigid pavement is a frequently misunderstood form of construction. Many people assume that the rigid pavement is costly
and not effective. However, it has been proved that it is good in term of the strength and ability to cater high traffic load compare to flexible
pavement. However, in order to have good rigid pavement, the design procedures of the pavement should be properly applied. The vital
issue in pavement design is thickness. There are two main approaches of design the rigid pavement thickness which are Portland Cement
Association (PCA) method and American Association of States Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) method. However, both
methods are difficult to conduct manually and produced inaccuracy result. The difficulties can be expressed in term of time consuming and
tedious calculation. Hence, it is very important to computerize the methods in order to make it more accurate and quicker. Although there
are available software in the market but the software may not be user-friendly enough. It also does not allow the user to compare between
the methods. Generally, both methods have their own concept but there are still several same parameters considered. Therefore, the
significance comparison between both methods can be done to select most economical pavement thickness design. Microsoft Visual Basic
6.0 was the tools used to develop the new software. Software named as AnP Pave was successfully developed and the verification result
shows that there are only small differences between the software and manual calculation. A part from that, by using this software, the most
economical method was easily obtained. AASHTO method is more economical for the lower traffic loading; otherwise PCA method is
more economical for the higher traffic loading.

Keywords: Rigid pavement thickness; PCA method; AASHTO method; software; Visual Basic (VB)

1. INTRODUCTION capital cost is balanced by the less cost of pavement

maintenance and longer design period. However, proper
In general, there are two main pavement types which are
design of rigid pavement needs to be emphasized in order to
flexible and rigid pavement. Rigid or concrete pavement is
avoid lack of performance of rigid pavement (Griffith and
more complex to build, which required more specialized
Thom, 2007). Moreover, time taken during design stage
equipment. The current preference within the road industry
may also increase the capital cost. Although, many software
is to flexible and composite road pavement. Flexible
application have been introduced to counter the problems,
pavement bituminous surfacing while rigid pavement
but it may be expensive, not user-friendly enough and not
consists of a thick concrete top surface. In addition,
allow the users to compare which is more economical in
composite pavement is where a flexible layer has been
term of the thickness between the design methods. Due to
added on top of the surface of a rigid road, or where a
that, this study will concentrate on the development of
concrete layer exists below a bitumen top surface (Smith,
software that may help the design engineer as well as the
2007).
contractor to choose the best pavement in term of design
Rigid pavement design has over the years become a more and cost.
important part for the promoting of concrete roads. High

1
1.1. Objectives of the Study
i) To analyze and recognize the difference between
Portland Cement Association (PCA) method and
American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) method in term of
the concept and parameters used. Eq. (1) is difficult to solve directly. The AASHTO provides
ii) To develop user-friendly software that allows the design a nomograph for determining the solution. However, the
engineer to compare the results between two methods. accuracy of the design may be query due to the human
error.
2. METHODOLOGY 2.2 Software Solution
To archive the objectives of the study, three major steps Programming software used in this study was Microsoft
need to be gone through which were preliminary study on Visual Basic 6.0. Selection of Microsoft Visual Basic as a
the manual design calculation, development of the software programming tool is because it can be integrated with other
and verification stage. Microsoft program especially Microsoft Excel. Moreover,
2.1 Manual Design Calculation programmers are able to create their own interface for the
software.
By manual design calculation, several parameters need to
be considered and carried out before calculate the thickness 2.3 Verification Stage
design. Based on PCA method the design procedures are as Verification of new design software is compulsory in order
follows: to ensure the software produce the same output compare
i) Designer assigns input parameters with manual design. The simple term is to ensure no
ii) Select trial thickness hesitation output by the software.
iii) Fatigue analysis
iv) Erosion analysis
v) Increase trial thickness minimum that just exceeds 3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
100% for both fatigue and erosion Table 1 shows the input variables or parameters required in
AASHTO and PCA methods. (Guell, 1985).
The fatigue and erosion analysis are carried out to
determine the equivalent stress, erosion factor, and stress
ratio factor for single and tandem axles. The parameters are Table 1. Input Parameters for AASHTO and PCA method
determined through specific tables and chart produced by AASHTO
PCA based on information such as type of pavement, sub- PARAMETER PCA METHOD
METHOD
base type, concrete modulus of rupture, modulus of sub- Total 18-kip
grade reaction, k and traffic data(Huang, 2004). It takes Traffic ESAL Total trucks
about 170 calculations (C&CA, 2008). Application, W18
Concrete Elastic 4x106 psi
User defined
Meanwhile, AASHTO method is established based on Eq. Modulus, Ec (27600 MPa)
(1) below: [2] Modulus of
Subgrade User defined User defined
Reaction, k
Modulus of
User defined User defined
Rupture, Sc
User defined User defined
• Coefficient, J • Dowel /
(Usually: 3.2 Aggregate-
Load Transfer
interlock
– 4.2)
• Shoulder / No
where: shoulder
= traffic carried in ESALs Drainage
User defined -
Coefficient, Cd
Design
Serviceability User defined -
Loss, ΔPSI
Overall Standard
User defined -
Deviation, So
Reliability, R or User defined -

2
 Standard Normal Overall Standard
0.29 -
Deviate, ZR Deviation, So
Based on type of Reliability, R or
Load Safety R = 95% or ZR =
- road and amount Standard Normal -
Factor (LSF) -1.645
of trucks (1 - 1.3) Deviate, ZR
Load Safety
- 1.2
Several parameters are also not considered in PCA method Factor (LSF)
which are:
i) Drainage Coefficient, Cd Other general data required are:
ii) Design Serviceability Loss, ΔPSI Design Period : 20 years
iii) Overall Standard Deviation, So Annual Growth Rate :5%
iv) Reliability, R or Percentage of Truck : 13 %
v) Standard Normal Deviate, ZR Proportion of truck in design lane : 0.81
3.1 AnP Pave Software Table 3 and Table 4 show all verification result done for
The new software was developed after recognized and AnP Pave Software.
distinguished the parameters in AASHTO and PCA method
The software called as AnP Pave Software developed Table 3. Comparison of for AASHTO and PCA method
comprises of several menus and forms. The menus and
forms are: AASHTO PCA
i) Design Method Selection Menu METHOD METHOD
ii) Traffic Input Data Form Using
9.49 9.29
iii) PCA Method - Input Data Form AASHTO data
SOFTWARE
iv) PCA Method - Axle Data Form Using
9.42 9.29
PCA data
v) PCA Method – Result
9.50
vi) AASHTO Method – Input Data Form (allowable
vii) ASHTO Method – Result MANUAL 9.50 fatigue and
viii) AASHTO And PCA Results Comparison erosion
<100)
3.2 Verification of AnP Pave Software
Validation of new design software is compulsory in order to
Table 4. Comparison of total fatigue and erosion for PCA method
ensure the software produce the same output compare with
using AnP Pave and manual calculation
manual design. The simple term is to ensure no hesitation
output by the software. In this verification stage, the data TRIAL THICKNESS = 9.5 in
FATIGUE EROSION
used are as shown in Table 2. (%) (%)
SOFTWARE 54.6 4.8
Table 2. Input parameters for verification
MANUAL 50.9 4.6
AASHTO PCA
PARAMETER
METHOD METHOD
ADTT = 117 3.3 Comparison of Thickness Due to Traffic
trucks/day/direction
Design ESAL Economical pavement thickness corresponded to the
Traffic or
=5.0 x106 thickness itself. The thicker the thickness means more
Design Traffic =
1.1 x 106 expensive the pavement. Therefore, to have an economical
Concrete Elastic
4x106 psi 4x106 psi thickness, comparison between the methods need to be
Modulus, Ec performed. According to Guell, it is difficult to compare
Modulus of between AASHTO and PCA method. However the most
Subgrade 100 pci 100 pci logical comparison can be expressed as shown in Figure 1
Reaction, k
and Figure 2 below. All the thickness values were obtained
Modulus of
Rupture, Sc
650 psi 650 psi from AnP Pave Software.
Dowelled joint
Load Transfer J = 3.2
without shoulder
Drainage
1.0 -
Coefficient, Cd
Design
Serviceability 1.7 -
Loss, ΔPSI

3
 the software can be used as tools to design concrete
pavement easier, faster and more accurate. Additionally,
comparison of the thickness due to traffic loading show
that, it is more economical to used AASHTO method if the
traffic is lower since the thickness is lower compare with
PCA method thickness. However, for higher traffic, it is
more economical to construct using PCA method because
the AASHTO will produce thicker pavement.

AASHTO  PCA
Dowelled
J= 3.2  Without Shoulder
Load Distribution = Category 3 
REFERENCES
Cement and Concrete Association Malaysia (C&CA),
Course on Concrete Road Pavement Design 2008, 17-
18th November 2008. Kuala Lumpur
David L. Guell, (1985). Comparison of Two Rigid
Pavement Design Methods. Journal of Transportation
Engineering. 111, 607-617.
Griffiths G. and Thom N. (2007). Concrete Pavement
Design Guidance Notes. United States. Taylor &
Francis.

Fig. 1. Comparison of thickness due to traffic for dowelled Huang, Y.H (2004). Pavement Analysis and Design.2nd Ed.
pavement Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Peter Smith (2007). http://incatrad.com, Road Structure.
Date accessed: 2nd March 2009.

AASHTO  PCA
Aggregate Interlocked
J= 4.2  Without Shoulder
Load Distribution = Category 3 

Fig. 2. Comparison of thickness due to traffic for aggregate

interlocked pavement

4. CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that although PCA and AASHTO have
their own concept and parameters, there are also same
parameters considered in the design. The parameters are
modulus of subgrade reaction (k), modulus of rupture (sc)
and traffic. Based on the verification result, it shows that

4
THE EFFECT OF EPOXY BITUMEN MODIFICATION ON HOT MIX ASPHALT
PROPERTIES AND RUT RESISTANCE
Dorina anak Astana
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
dorina@utm.my
Mohd Rosli bin Hainin
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
mrosli@utm.my
Che Ros bin Ismail
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
cheros@utm.my
Mohd. Khairul Idham bin Mohd Satar
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
khairulidham@utm.my

ABSTRACT: Currently, the studies on improvement of highway material quality have been done using bitumen modification since
bitumen is sensitive to temperature susceptibility and rate of loading. Thus, bitumen modification has become trigger factors to improve the
hot mix asphalt (HMA) properties and rut resistance. In this study, epoxy has been used as bitumen modifier. In this study, an attempt was
made to evaluate the relationships between Penetration, Softening Point and Penetration Index (PI) of the bitumen with the certain amount
of epoxy in bitumen. Besides, this study also determine the extent of epoxy in rut resistance of asphaltic concrete.

Keywords: Modified Bitumen, Polymer Modified Bitumen, Epoxy, Hot Mix Asphalt, Rut Resistance

1. INTRODUCTION order to reduce modification costs and obtain

Over the years, road structures have deteriorated more
rapidly than expected due to increases in traffic volume,
axle loading and tyre pressure and insufficient degree of
maintenance. In Malaysia, rutting is the dominant
deterioration problem because of hot climate. In majority of
local traffic and environmental conditions, the mixes using
unmodified asphalt show satisfactory performance.
However, under adverse traffic conditions and exacerbated
by high surfacing temperature experienced throughout the
year, surface distress become apparent in relatively short
period of time [1]. Therefore, the existing pavement should
be improved in terms of rutting resistance. In order to
counteract such deterioration such as rutting and fatigue
cracking, several measures are continuously taken, such as
improving the pavement quality and its structure design
methods. In order to obtain the better pavement, the
bitumen properties as one of the important component in
the mixture itself must be enhanced. One possible source of
improvement is provided by modifying present bitumen
properties which capable of incorporating weathering and
deformation problems, which may result in better road
surface layer.
Recently, the substitution of industrial material by industrial
by-product (recycled) polymers such as epoxy to modify
asphalt properties has been taken into consideration, in
environmental benefits. On the other hand, from an
environmental and economic standpoint, the use of a waste
material for replacing pure polymers is the most preferential
recycling method, resulting greater cost savings, lower
energy consumption and lower environmental pollution [2].
Study done by Downes et.al [3] shows that the epoxy
modified bitumen is twelve times the cost of normal
bitumen. However, the performance of the product in terms
of fatigue and permanent deformation would appear to be in
excess of ten times than normal AC. Recently, the
substitution of industrial material by industrial by-product
(recycled) polymers such as epoxy to modify bitumen and
ac properties has been taken into consideration, in order to
reduce modification costs and obtain environmental
benefits. Therefore, this study of bitumen modification was
carried out using epoxy by-product. The aim of this study is
to determine the extent of epoxy potential as bitumen
modifier.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
This study was conducted using bitumen 80/100 PEN. The
epoxy was grind to finer size of passing 0.15 mm to obtain
well-dispersed blend with bitumen. The method used to
accomplish the blend was a wet process. The epoxy was
blended for approximately 60 minutes at 160 °C.

1
2.1. Epoxy
The epoxy used in this study is a by-product from
electronic manufacturing process. The epoxy used in this
study is shown in figure 1 and 2 below. It is categorized as
thermoplastic polymer [4]. Epoxy exhibit hardness,
strength and heat resistance. Generally, thermoplastic
stiffen the bitumen. The physical properties of epoxy are
shown in Table 1 below.
with increment of 4% by weight of bitumen. In this study,
the following tests are conducted on both normal and
modified bitumen:
a) Penetration tests performed at different concentration
of epoxy with a 100 g load applied for 5 seconds
according to AASHTO T-49 procedures.
b) Softening points tests at different epoxy content based
on the ring and ball method. These tests were done
following the AASHTO T-53 procedures.

Each test is repeated at a least three times for each epoxy

contents. From these tests, the penetration index (PI) was
calculated by using the following equation:
.
(1)
.
where P is the penetration values and SP is softening point.

2.3 Testing Program Applied to the Asphaltic Concrete

AC should be design to meet the necessary properties based
on ACW14 mix design according to JKR/SPJ/2007. The
bitumen content used were 4.5% to 6.5% with increment of
0.5% by weight of mix. The amount of epoxy used were the
optimum epoxy content obtained from PI values. In this
Fig. 1. Epoxy (before grind) study, HMAs were characterised through Marshall test. The
dimensions of the cylindrical samples are 100 mm diameter
by 63.5 mm height. The samples were compacted by
applying 75 blows on each side at 135 °C in accordance
with ASTM D 1559 then stored at ambient temperature for
one day. Each test is repeated at a least three times for each
bitumen contents. The Marshall properties such as density,
VTM, VFB, stability, flow and stiffness then been obtained.
The optimum bitumen content also been obtained.

The three-wheel immersion tracking machine been used to

determine the rutting resistance at 60 °C. The bitumen and
epoxy content used were the optimum bitumen from
Marshall test and optimum epoxy content from PI values.
The dimensions of the samples are 407 x 90 x 137 mm. The
samples were compacted by applying 500 roller passes the
above surface of the samples. Each test is repeated at a least
Fig. 2. Fine epoxy (after grind) three times for each normal and epoxy modified ACs.

Table 1. Physical properties of epoxy 3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Property Unit Value The optimum bitumen content for Bit. A is 5.1% and Bit. B
Density mg/m3 2.100 is 5.0%. Meanwhile, the optimum epoxy content used in
Tensile Modulus GPa 14.3 this study are 29% by weight of Bit. A and 38% by weight
Tensile Strength MPa 39.4 of Bit B.
Service Temperature °C 260
Hardness - D55-65 3.1. Penetration and Softening Point
Linear Mold Shrinkage mm/mm 0.002 The standard penetration test was conducted on normal and
modified bitumen and the results are shown in Figure 3.
2.2. Testing Program Applied to the Bitumen Penetration for normal Bit. A and Bit. B are 81.1 and 81.2
The physical properties of bitumen that are most important PEN. The penetration value for modified bitumen for both
to hot mix paving are penetration and softening point. The sources decrease as the content of epoxy increases. The
tests were done at various epoxy concentration; 0% to 24% bitumen becomes more viscous and harder, which would be

2
useful to obtain stiffer AC. Therefore, the internal strength
of the bitumen increases. This is an indication of an
enhanced resistance against permanent deformation of the
modified AC during their service life in pavement. The
modified Bit. B is harder compared to modified Bit. A.
Therefore, it is expected that asphaltic concrete using
modified Bit. B is more resistance to rutting formation.

Fig. 4. Softening point versus epoxy content

Fig. 3. Penetration versus epoxy content

The results for softening point are shown in Figure 4. There

are almost linear relationship between the epoxy content
and softening point for both type of bitumen. As the epoxy
content increases, the softening point of bitumen also
increases. It shows that both of modified bitumen becomes
less susceptible to temperature changes as the content of Fig. 5. Penetration Index versus epoxy content
epoxy increases. The normal temperature in Malaysia is
23°C to 33°C with average of 27°C. But in the afternoon, 3.3. Marshall Mix Design Properties
the temperature of the pavement can reach around 50°C. The Marshall properties for normal and modified bitumen
According to Figure 2, the temperature of modified bitumen are as shown in Table 2. These results show that the
is above 52°C. Therefore, at 50°C, the bitumen still does addition of epoxy generally decreases the AC density, voids
not soften. Thus, the epoxy modified bitumen helps to filled with bitumen (VFB), stability and stiffness. However,
resist the deformation in pavement. it increases the voids in total mix (VTM) and flow. Only
slight differences are apparent in the density, VFB and
3.2 Penetration Index (PI) VTM properties of AC using modified bitumen compared
The suitable bitumen PI for construction is between -1 and to normal AC.
1. Figure 5 shows the PI pattern for both Bit. A and Bit. B.
There is significant increase of the PI as the epoxy content Table 2. Marshall properties of normal and modified bitumen
increases. The optimum epoxy content (when PI = 0) for Properties Bit. A Bit. B
Bit. A and Bit. B are 29% and 38% by weight of bitumen. N M N M
Density kg/cm3 2.326 2.321 2.323 2.313
The decrease in penetration and increase in softening point VFB % 78 76 77 75.5
indicate an increase in hardness of the modified bitumen. VTM % 3.2 3.5 3.4 3.7
Hence, in addition to the increase in hardness, the PI Flow mm 1.65 2.70 1.70 2.05
increases revealing that epoxy additions enhance the Stability N 15100 14200 14100 13500
Stiffness N/mm 9000 5600 8600 6530
temperature susceptibility of the bitumen.
Note: N – normal bitumen, M – modified bitumen

3
3.4. Rut Resistance
The graphs of rut depth against number of cycle are as
shown in Figure 6 and 7. Epoxy modified AC produce
lower rut depth compared to normal AC. This shows that
epoxy modified AC have higher rut resistance. Since the
epoxy offers greater hardness, the modified asphaltic
concrete generally will increased the rutting resistance. The
figures also show that normal and modified AC using Bit.
A have lower rut depth and higher rut resistance compared
to AC using Bit. B. The maximum rate of rutting for
modified AC is lower compared to normal AC.
In Figure 6, the rut depth of epoxy modified asphaltic
concrete A increased abruptly compared to normal
modified asphaltic concrete A. This might be due to the
problem during compaction, which affect to the
composition of mix particles.
Fig. 6. Rut depth versus no. of cycle for AC using Bit. A
Fig. 7. Rut depth versus no. of cycle for AC using Bit. B
5. CONCLUSION
The bitumen modifications using epoxy has been proven to
enhance performance in bitumen and AC. There is an
improvement in bitumen penetration index to make it more
preferable to be used during construction. Besides, the
epoxy offer improved rutting performance over the AC
using normal bitumen, which will increase life cycle.
4
However, there are only slight differences in terms of
Marshall properties between normal and modified AC.
Overall, epoxy is suitable to be used as bitumen modifier.
REFERENCES
1. Mohd Hizam Harun (1996). The Performance of
Bituminous Binders in Malaysia. Proceedings of
the 1996 Malaysian Road Congress on Innovation
in Road Building. 11 June. Malaysia, 55-62.
2. Low Kaw S., Cavaliere, M. G. Tan Nai L., and Mohd
Adib Awang Noh. (1995). Polymer Modified
Bituminous Binder for Road and Airfield
Construction. Proceedings of the 1995 8th
Conference of Road Engineering.. 17-21 April.
Association of Asia and Australasia. Taipei,
China: 295-300.
3. Downes, M. J. W., Koole, R. C., Mulder, E. A. and
Graham, W. E. (1988). Some Proven New Binders
and Their Cost-Effectiveness. Proceedings of the
1988 7th International Asphalt Conference on
Asphalt. 7-11 August. Brisbane, Australia: 119-
132.
4. Myer, K. (2002). Handbook of Materials Selection:
Chapter 11. New York: John Wiley & Sons
Publisher.
EXPLORING THE USAGE OF NANOPARTICLES IN PAVEMENT ENGINEERING

Mohd Ezree Abdullah*, K.A. Zamhari**, M.K. Shamshuddin***

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Malaysia
*ezree@uthm.edu.my, **kemas@uthm.edu.my, ***mkamal@uthm.edu.my
Nafarizal Nayan
Faculty of Electric and Electronic Engineering,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Malaysia
nafa@uthm.edu.my
Mohd Rosli Hainin
Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Malaysia
roslihainin@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Recently, nanotechnology has become a great interest among researchers to explore into new areas with high growth
potential and competitive edge. Nanotechnology deals with blending, processing and applying of particles with microscopic scale smaller
than 100 nanometer into current construction material and practices. This paper explains an overview of nanotechnology and its historical
development, structural characterization, types of nanoparticles used as well as the applications of nanoparticles in pavement pavement
engineering. It is believed that advances usage in nanotechnology promise to have major impacts on pavement sustainability in future.

Keywords: Nanotechnology, nanoparticles, pavement engineering

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Nanotechnology has recently become one of the major
interests among experts, engineers, media as well as public
community. It is essentially about new ways of making
things through understanding and control over the
fundamental building blocks (i.e. atoms, molecules and
nanostructures) of all physical things. This is likely to
change the way almost everything is designed and made.
With the backing of unprecedented funding,
nanotechnology is fast emerging as the industrial revolution
of the 21st century (Zhu, W., Bartos, P. and Porro, A.,
2004, Glenn, J. C., 2006, Mamalis, A. G., 2007).
Advances in nanotechnology promise to have major
impacts on our life in the coming decades. Since the 1990s
there has been a very rapid increase in the implementation
of nanotechnologies and promises breakthroughs in such
areas as materials and construction, manufacturing,
nanoelectronics and computer information technology,
OPPP
medicine and healthcare, aeronautics and space exploration,
environment and energy, biotechnology and agriculture,
national security, and science and education (Zhu, W.,
Bartos, P. and Porro, A., 2004, Konstantin Sobolev, I. F.,
Roman Hermosillo, Leticia M. Torres-Martínez, 2006,
Sahoo, S. K., Parveen, S. and Panda, J. J., 2007, Salerno,
M., Landoni, P. and Verganti, R., 2008, Tegart, G., 2009).
1.1 Overview of nanotechnology
Even though addition of polymers is a common method
applied for pavement improvement; it will be an eager
among experts and engineers to explore the performance of
pavement properties ranging from macro and meso scales
down to the nano scales. Figure 1 illustrates the evolution
of length scales of flexible pavement material in macro
scale and to quantum scales (You, Z., Mills-Beale, J.,
Foley, J. M. et al., 2010).

Fig. 1. Evolution image of different asphalt dimensions (You, Z., Mills-Beale, J., Foley, J. M. et al., 2010).

1
Nanotechnology can be defined as the science and
engineering involved in the design, synthesis,
characterization and application of materials and devices
whose smallest functional organization in at least one
dimension is on the nanometer scale which is one billionth
of a meter (10-9 m) (Sahoo, S. K., Parveen, S. and Panda, J.
J., 2007). In general, nanomaterials may have globular,
plate-like, rod like or more complex geometries. Near-
spherical particles which are smaller than 10 nm are
typically called clusters. The number of atoms in a cluster
increases greatly with its diameter. At 1 nm diameter there
are 13 atoms in a cluster and at 100 nm diameter the cluster
that can accommodate more than 107 atoms. Clusters may
have a symmetrical structure which is, however, often
different in symmetry from that of the bulk. They may also
have an irregular or amorphous shape. As the number of
atoms in a cluster increases, there is a critical size which a
particular bond geometry that is characteristic of the
extended (bulk) solid (Glenn, J. C., 2006, Roduner, E.,
2006). Besides that, nanoparticles also have a high surface
area to volume ratio which providing the potential for
tremendous chemical reactivity. Figure 2 shows particle
size and specific surface area related to concrete materials
and the size of nanoparticles in comparison with other small
particles is shown in Figure 3.

Fig. 2. Particle size and specific surface area related to

concrete materials. Adapted from (Konstantin Sobolev, I.
F., Roman Hermosillo, Leticia M. Torres-Martínez, 2006)
More than anything else, nanotechnology is being
considered as a key technology and allowing us to do new
things in almost every conceivable technological discipline.
This transformation can change to almost all aspects of
human society due to the development of sustainability
material, construction and many other technological
advances (Zhu, W., Bartos, P. and Porro, A., 2004,
Miyazaki, K. and Islam, N., 2007, Sahoo, S. K., Parveen, S.
and Panda, J. J., 2007, Bystrzejewska-Piotrowska, G.,
Golimowski, J. and Urban, P. L., 2009, Sanchez, F. and
Sobolev, K., 2010).
Fig. 3. Size scale and examples of micro- and
nanocomponents. Adapted from (Mamalis, A. G., 2007)
1.2 Historical development of nanotechnology
The concept of nanotechnology came about by The Nobel
Prize winning physicist Richard Feynman’s lecture in 1959
called ‘There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom’. He said that
nothing in the laws of physics prevented us from arranging
atoms the way we want. He even pointed to a development
pathway: machines that would make smaller machines
suitable for making yet smaller machines, and the classic

2
‘top down’ approach. The term nanotechnology was first
introduced by a Japanese engineer, Norio Taniguchi. He
described the precision manufacture of parts with finishes
and tolerances in the range of 0.1 nm to 100 nm. The term
originally implied a new technology that went beyond
controlling materials and engineering on the micrometer
scale. Then, in 1981, Drexler pointed out a new approach
which is more relate with the meaning and application
today. He corresponds to the atom-by-atom manipulative,
hardtech processing methodology (Zhu, W., Bartos, P. and
Porro, A., 2004, Cao, G., 2006, Roduner, E., 2006, Sahoo,
S. K., Parveen, S. and Panda, J. J., 2007, Salerno, M.,
Landoni, P. and Verganti, R., 2008, Steyn, W. J. v., 2008,
Islam, N. and Miyazaki, K., 2010, Pacheco-Torgal, F. and
Jalali, S., 2010, Sanchez, F. and Sobolev, K., 2010).
Today, the growing interest in nanostructured materials is
the natural consequence of advances and refinements of
knowledge about the creative manipulation of materials on
the nanometer scale in order to perform functions or obtain
characteristics which could not otherwise be achieved.
(Zhu, W., Bartos, P. and Porro, A., 2004, Uskokovic, V.,
2007) stated that the more precisely nanomaterial properties
are magnified, the more unusual and unexpected features
emerge.
2.0 STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION OF
NANOPARTICLES
One of the critical challenges faced by researches in the
nanotechnology area is the understanding of
instrumentation with various potential of applications to
observe, measure and manipulate the individual
nanomaterials and nanostructures in pavement.
Characterization of nanomaterials and nanostructures has
been largely based on surface analysis technique and
conventional characterization methods developed for bulk
materials. The most widely used in characterizing
nanomaterials and nanostructures in pavement engineering
are X-ray diffraction (XRD), various electron microscopy
(EM) including scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM)
(Cao, G., 2006, Kostoff, R. N., Koytcheff, R. G. and Lau,
C. G. Y., 2007).
2.1 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis
XRD is a very important experiment technique that has
long been used to address all issues related to the crystal
structure of solids, including lattice constant and geometry,
identification of unknown materials, orientation of single
crystals, preferred orientation of polycrystals, defects,
stresses, etc. In XRD, a collimated beam of X-rays, with a
wavelength typically ranging from 0.7 - 2 A, is incident on
3
a specimen and is diffracted by the crystalline phases in the
specimen. This diffraction pattern is used to identify the
specimen’s crystalline phases and to measure its structural
properties (Cao, G., 2006). XRD is nondestructive and also
a powerful technique for investigating of the following
(Arkema, 2010):
• Crystallinity
• Polymorphism (crystalline phase identification)
• Additives, pigments and fillers identification
• Active compounds and excipients
• Preferred orientation or texture
• Residual stress and strain
The XRD analysis method can be applied to materials in
powder form, or to manufactured parts, films, plaques,
fibers, cured components, coatings, wafers or multilayer
systems. Measurements can be made in reflection,
transmission and grazing (glancing) angle
modes. Temperature experiments allow the study of phase
transitions for each crystalline structure present in the
material. Analysis of preferred orientation in plastics,
coatings, or metals can be studied by pole figure
measurements, through texture coefficient measurements,
or using camera attachment (Lee, S. L., Windover, D.,
Doxbeck, M. et al., 2000, Ortiz, A. L. and Shaw, L., 2004,
Pattanaik, S., Huffman, G. P., Sahu, S. et al., 2004, Faurie,
D., Renault, P. O., Le Bourhis, E. et al., 2006, Zhong, Y.,
Ping, D., Song, X. et al., 2009, Arkema, 2010).
2.2 Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
SEM is a type of electron microscope that images the
sample surface topography composition and other
properties by a source of focused electrons into a beam,
with a very fine spot size of 5 nm and having energy
ranging from a few hundred eV to 50 KeV, which is raster
over the surface of the specimen by deflection coils. As the
electrons strike and penetrate the surface, a number of
interactions occur that result in the emission of electron and
photons from sample, and SEM images are produced by
collecting the emitted electrons on a cathode ray tube
(CRT). The resolution of the SEM approaches a few
nanometers, and the instruments can operate at the
magnifications that are easily adjusted from ~ 10 to over
300,000 (Joy, D. C., 1997, Cao, G., 2006, Arkema, 2010).
The types of signals produced by SEM include secondary
electron images, back-scattered electron images and
elemental X-ray maps. When a high-energy primary
electron interacts with an atom, it undergoes either inelastic
scattering with atomic electrons or elastic scattering with
the atomic nucleus. Due to the very narrow electron beam,
SEM micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a
characteristic three-dimensional appearance useful for
understanding the surface structure of a sample. This is
exemplified by the micrograph of pollen shown to the right.
A wide range of magnifications is possible, from about 10
times (about equivalent to that of a powerful hand-lens) to
more than 500,000 times. Not only does the SEM produce
topographical information as optical microscopes do, it also
provides the chemical composition information near the
surface (Joy, D. C., 1997, Kalaitzidis, S. and Christanis, K.,
2003, Lim, S. C., Kim, K. S., Lee, I. B. et al., 2005, Cao,
G., 2006, Arkema, 2010).
2.3 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-
SEM)
Field emission (FE) is the emission of electrons from the
surface of a conductor caused by a strong electric field. An
extremely thin and sharp tungsten needle (tip diameter 10–
100 nm) works as a cathode. The FE source reasonably
combines with scanning electron microscopes (SEMs)
whose development has been supported by advances in
secondary electron detector technology. The acceleration
voltage between cathode and anode is commonly with
magnitude of 0.5 to 30 kV, and the apparatus requires an
extreme vacuum (~10–6 Pa) in the column of the
microscope. Because the electron beam produced by the FE
source is about 1000 times smaller than a standard
microscope with a thermal electron gun, the image quality
will be markedly improved. The main advantage of the FE-
SEM comes from its high resolution and long working
length between magnetic lens and sample, which is
unobtainable from a state-of-the-art optical microscope
(Lim, S. C., Kim, K. S., Lee, I. B. et al., 2005, Bazzana, S.,
Dumrul, S., Warzywoda, J. et al., 2006, Kimura, H. Y. a.
K., 2007, de Souza, W., Campanati, L. and Attias, M.,
2008).
The FE-SEM images a sample surface by raster scanning
over it with a high-energy beam of electrons. The electrons
interact with the atoms comprising the sample to produce
signals that contain information about surface topography,
composition and other properties, such as electrical
conductivity. Features can be characterized at length scales
from millimeters to around 10 nanometers. Therefore, the
FE-SEM is a very useful tool for high resolution surface
imaging in the fields of nanomaterials science and its
application include (Arkema, 2010):
• Thickness measurement of thin coatings and films
• Correlation of surface appearance and surface
morphology
• Characterization of size, size distribution, shape
and dispersion of additives, particulates and fibers
in composites and blends
• Measurement of height and lateral dimensions of
nanometer-sized objects
• Characterization of cell size and size distribution
in foam materials
• Elemental analysis of micron-sized features
4
• Fracture and failure analysis
• defect analysis
3.0 TYPES OF NANOPARTICLES USED IN
PAVEMENT
At present, nanoparticles are utilized extensively to improve
the performance of asphalt pavements by applying different
procedures, including modification of asphalt binder in
flexible pavement as well as modification of concrete in
rigid pavement. Much of the work to date in pavement
engineering has been deal with nanoclay and nano-titanium
oxide (nano-TiO2) (Jahromi, S. G. and Khodaii, A., 2009,
Pacheco-Torgal, F. and Jalali, S., 2010, Sanchez, F. and
Sobolev, K., 2010, You, Z., Mills-Beale, J., Foley, J. M. et
al., 2010)
3.1 Nanoclay
Nanoclays are naturally occurring minerals and subject to
natural variability in their constitution. The purity of the
clay can affect the final nanocomposite properties. Clay
mostly consist of alumina–silicates, which have a layered
structure, and consist of silica SiO4 tetrahedron bonded to
alumina AlO6 octahedron in a various ways. One of the
most frequently used layered silicates is montmorillonite
(MMT), which has a 2:1 layered structure with two silica
tetrahedron sandwiching an alumina octahedron. The
thickness of the MMT layers (platelets) is 1 nm with a large
active surface area can have an intensive interaction
between bitumen and depends upon the type of material
mixed. MMT is also commonly used because it is
environmentally friendly, readily available and its structure
and chemistry have been well studied.(Ghile, D., 2006,
Jahromi, S. G. and Khodaii, A., 2009, Yarahmadi, N.,
Jakubowicz, I. and Hjertberg, T., 2010, You, Z., Mills-
Beale, J., Foley, J. M. et al., 2010).
The proper selection of modified clay is essential to ensure
effective penetration of the polymer into the interlayer
spacing of the clay and so resulting in the desired exfoliated
product. An exfoliated morphology occurs when the clay
platelets are extensively delaminated and completely
separated due to thorough polymer penetration by various
dispersion techniques. To achieve fine dispersion,
mechanical forces alone are not sufficient; rather, there
should be a thermodynamic driving force to separate the
layers into the primary silicate sheets. This thermodynamic
driving force is being introduced by inserting a certain
coating of surfactants (an agent such as detergent, which
reduces surface tension) on each individual layer. These
surfactant molecules increase the layer distance. They,
moreover, improve the compatibility with the polymer and
can enhance the bonding of nanoclay because they can be
mixed with the polymer (Jahromi, S. G. and Khodaii, A.,
2009, You, Z., Mills-Beale, J., Foley, J. M. et al., 2010).
3.2 Titanium dioxide (TiO2)
TiO2 has been known as a useful photocatalytic material is
attributed to the following characteristics: (a) relatively
inexpensive, safe, chemically stable; (b) high photocatalytic
activity compared with other metal oxide photocatalysts; (c)
compatible with traditional construction materials, such as
cement, without changing any original performance; (d)
effective under weak solar irradiation in ambient
atmospheric environment. The concept of titanium dioxide
as a photocatalyst is similar to plant photosynthesis which
allows the decomposition of water into oxygen and
hydrogen in the presence of Ultra Violet (UV) rays (320–
400 nm). Based on this heterogeneous photocatalytic
oxidation process, nitrogen oxides are oxidized into water-
soluble nitrates while sulfur dioxide is oxidized into water-
soluble sulfates; these substances can be washed away by
rainfall (Kim, T. K., Lee, M. N., Lee, S. H. et al., 2005,
Chen, J. and Poon, C.-s., 2009, Hassan, M. M., Dylla, H.,
Mohammad, L. N. et al., 2010)
The bulk material of TiO2 is well known to have three
crystal structures: anatase, rutile and brookite. The anatase
type is more widely used because it has a higher
photoactivity than the other types of TiO2. Among them,
the TiO2 exists mostly as rutile and anatase phases and both
phases have tetragonal structures. Rutile is a high-
temperature stable phase and has an optical energy band
gap of 3.0 eV (415 nm), while anatase is formed at a lower
temperature with an optical energy band gap of 3.2 eV (380
nm) as well as refractive index of 2.3. It is well known that
generally, the TiO2-based photocatalyst with anatase phase
shows more excellent photocatalytic effect than that with
rutile phase, and the anatase phase can be transformed into
the rutile phase at above 800 oC (Kim, T. K., Lee, M. N.,
Lee, S. H. et al., 2005).
4.0 APPLICATIONS OF NANOPARTICLES IN
PAVEMENT
The most often used of pavement can be divided into two
main categories: flexible and rigid. The wearing surface of
flexible pavements is usually a mixture of sand, aggregate,
a filler material, and bitumen in a controlled process,
placed, and compacted. Flexible pavements have low
flexural strength and flexible in structural behavior under
traffic loads. On the other hand, rigid pavements are
normally constructed of Portland cement concrete which
consists of Portland cement, coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate and water. Rigid pavements have some flexural
strength and have a slab action which is capable of
transmitting the wheel loads to wider area.
5
4.1 Applications of nanoclay in flexible pavement
Many studies have been conducted and focused on
nanoclay modified bitumen. In Netherland, Ghile had
performed mechanical tests on asphalt mixture modified by
cloisite. The result showed that nanoclay modification
improves mechanical behavior properties of mixture such
as indirect tensile strength, creep and fatigue resistance
(Ghile, D., 2006). In China, Yu et al. have used different
contents of montmorillonite (MMT) and organomodified
montmorillonite (OMMT) in modified bitumen. Results
showed that the softening point and viscosity of the
modified bitumen were increased at high temperatures.
Furthermore, the modified bitumen exhibited higher
complex modulus and had lower phase angle. They also
claimed that the MMT and OMMT modified bitumen
enhanced viscoelastic properties, which improve its
resistance to rutting at high temperatures (Yu, J., Zeng, X.,
Wu, S. et al., 2007). Also, in a recent work, Yu et al. had
investigated the effect of OMMT on thermo-oxidative and
UV aging properties of asphalt. They showed that the MMT
and OMMT modified asphalts have higher rutting
resistance and very good storage stability (Yu, J.-Y., Feng,
P.-C., Zhang, H.-L. et al., 2009).
The effect of nanoclay (nanofil-15 and cloisite-15A) on
rheological properties of bitumen have been studied by
Jahromi, S. G., & Khodaii, A. Tests performed on bitumen
samples proved that the nanoclay modifications help to
increase the stiffness and ageing resistances (Jahromi, S. G.
and Khodaii, A., 2009). On the other research, Jahromi, S.
G., Andalibizade, B., and Vossough, S. had conducted a
rheological tests on binders and mechanical tests on asphalt
mixture. They also used the same types of nanoclay. Test
results showed that nanoclay can improve properties such
as stability, resilient modulus, and indirect tensile strength,
and result in superior performance under dynamic creep.
However, they stated that nanoclays did not have a
beneficial effect on fatigue behavior in low temperature.
Optimum binder content and void in total mixture (VTM)
increase by adding nanoclay to bitumen (Jahromi, S. G.,
Andalibizade, B., & Vossough, S, 2010).
In other research, the effect of styrene–butadiene–
rubber/montmorillonite (SBR/MMT) modification on the
characteristics and properties of asphalt were investigated
by Zhang et al. Results showed that the addition of
SBR/MMT increased both the softening point and viscosity
and decreased the penetration of the modified asphalts at
high temperatures. They also stated that modified asphalts
exhibited higher complex modulus (G*) and lower damping
factor (tan δ). It implies that SBR/MMT displays improved
viscoelastic properties, resulting in enhancing its resistance
to rutting at high temperature (Zhang, B., Xi, M., Zhang, D.
et al., 2009). Meanwhile, Galooyak et al had studied the
effect of styrene–butadiene–styrene/ organomodified
montmorillonite (SBS/OMMT) modified bitumen mixtures.
Results showed that the presence of nanoclay improves the
storage stability of PMB significantly without adverse
effect on other properties of it. (Galooyak, S. S., Dabir, B.,
Nazarbeygi, A. E. et al., 2010).
You et al. described that nanoclay improved the G*,
viscosity and has better low-temperature cracking resistance
(You, Z., Mills-Beale, J., Foley, J. M. et al., 2010). Besides
that, Zare-Shahabadi, A., Shokuhfar, A. & Ebrahimi-Nejad,
S. had studied the used of bentonite clay (BT) and
organically modified bentonite (OBT) to reinforce and
modify a bituminous paving asphalt binder. They found that
the modified asphalts have higher rutting resistance when
tested by dynamic shear rheological. It was found also
indicated that adding of BT and OBT can significantly
improve low temperature rheological properties and
cracking of asphalt (Zare-Shahabadi, A., Shokuhfar, A. and
Ebrahimi-Nejad, S., 2010).
4.2 Applications of TiO2 in rigid pavement
In China, the abrasion resistance and the flexural fatigue
performance of concrete containing nano-TiO2 as additives
for pavement is experimentally studied by Li et al. The test
results indicated that the abrasion resistance of modified
concrete pavement was increased with increasing
compressive strength and also improved the fatigue
performance. The sensitivity of their fatigue lives to the
change of stress is also increased. Besides that, the addition
of nano-TiO2 also refines the pore structure of concrete and
enhances the resistance to chloride penetration on concrete
(Li, H., Zhang, M.-h. and Ou, J.-p., 2006, Li, H., Zhang,
M.-h. and Ou, J.-p., 2007, Zhang, M.-h. and Li, H., 2010).
In other research, Hassan et al. investigated the used of
TiO2 particles as coating for concrete pavement where these
particles can trap and decompose organic and inorganic air
pollutants by a photocatalytic process. They stated that the
wearing of the samples with 3% TiO2 slightly improved the
nitrogen oxides, NOx (NO+NO2) removal efficiency. They
also claimed that the use of TiO2 coating as a photocatalytic
compound would provide acceptable durability and wear
resistance (Hassan, M. M., Dylla, H., Mohammad, L. N. et
al., 2010). In Tokyo, Fujishima et al. had coated several
road areas with cement mixtures containing TiO2 colloidal
solutions (Fig. 12). The results obtained in an area of 300
m2 showed 50–60 mg/day NOx degradation (Fujishima, A.,
Zhang, X. and Tryk, D. A., 2008).
Chen and Liu had reported the potential of heterogeneous
photocatalysis as an advanced oxidation technology for
NOX removal from vehicle emissions by using TiO2 as a
photocatalyst immobilized on the surface of asphalt road.
Based on asphalt road material porous characteristic, they
utilized permeability technology to make asphalt nano-TiO2
6
to be environmental protection materials. Results of
experiment revealed that decontaminating rate of the
productions ranged from 6% to 12% and this kind of
photochemical catalysis environmental protection material
has good environment purification function (Chen, M. and
Liu, Y., 2010).
5.0 CONCLUSION
Nanotechnology has the potential for improvements in the
field of pavement material and construction in future. In
flexible pavement, researchers are focused on the
modification of binder using nanoclay and with that
modified binder they evaluated the performance of the
mixtures. The engineering properties of modified binders
and mixtures are significantly improved, particularly in the
areas of stiffness, storage stability, rutting resistance, low-
temperature cracking resistance and ageing resistances. On
the other hand, the abrasion resistance and the flexural
fatigue performance of concrete containing nano-TiO2 as
additives for pavement is increased with increasing
compressive strength and also improved the fatigue
performance. The sensitivity of their fatigue lives to the
change of stress is also increased. Besides that, the use of
TiO2 photocatalyst in combination with rigid pavement had
shown an improved on NOx removal efficiency. The used
of TiO2 coating as a photocatalytic compound would also
provide acceptable durability and wear resistance. With the
advances in instrumentation and computational science, it is
believed that nanotechnology will exploit the improvement
of pavement material properties and construction process in
future.
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8
VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT OF UNDERSIDE SHAPED CONCRETE BLOCK
PAVEMENT
Azman Mohamed1
Researcher
az_man@ic.utm.my

Hasanan Md Nor2
Professor
hasanan@utm.my

Mohd Rosli Hainin2

Associate Professor
mrosli@utm.my
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Razak School of Engineering and Advanced Technology, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, International Campus, Jalan Semarak, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
2
Department of Geotechnics and Transportation, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81300 Skudai, Malaysia.

ABSTRACT: A new shaped block concept for Concrete Block Pavement (CBP) by introducing Underside Shaped Concrete
Block (USCB) to the road surface layer has the potential to enhance the road construction development in Malaysia. The
USCB concept utilizes the groove patterns to grip and produce resistance to the underside surface of block units onto the sand
bedding layer. This concept is in the early stage of laboratory study to build up the understanding of its behavior to produce
better pavement performance. The USCBs were manufactured in the laboratory with three different rectangular groove depths.
An average USCBs compressive strength of 25 MPa was produced. The compaction capability and settlement of the bedding
sand and vertical displacement USCBs were studied in the pavement model. Push in test was performed to determine the
resistance to vertical displacement of USCBs. Groove depth, groove size, underside surface area and volume of USCB have
significant influence on the vertical displacement of USCB pavement.

Keyword: Concrete Block Pavement; Underside Shaped Concrete Block; Groove; Vertical Displacement; Settlement; Push In

1. INTRODUCTION lighter weight and has more underside surface

Concrete Block Pavement (CBP) differs from other
forms of pavement in that the wearing surface is
made from small paving units bedded and jointed in
sand rather than continuous paving. According to
Panda and Ghosh (2001), beneath the bedding sand,
the substructure is similar to that of a conventional
flexible pavement. Sudip L. Adhikari 2008
mentioned that blocks are a major load-spreading
component which is comprised of concrete blocks
bedded and jointed in sand. Interlock has been
defined as the inability of an individual bock to move
independently of its neighbours and has been
categorized as having three components: horizontal,
rotational, vertical. Interlock is of major importance
for the prevention of movement of pavers
horizontally when trafficked
Various block parameters contribute to the structural
capacity of pavement. This study discusses
laboratory results relating the effect of changing
groove depth, groove size, area of underside surface
and volume of block to provide the basic
understanding of the groove effects. Generally,
Underside Shaped Concrete Block (USCB) has
contact area than normal concrete block.
2. BACKGROUND
In CBP the load spreading capacity of concrete
blocks layer depends on the interaction of individual
blocks with jointing sand to build up resistance
against applied load. The shape, size, thickness,
laying patterns, etc are importance block parameters,
these influence the overall performance of the
pavement. The shape of the block influences the
performance of the block pavement under load. It is
postulated that the effectiveness of load transfers
depends on the vertical surface area of the block
(Panda and Ghosh, 2001).
Many guidelines have been produced to provide
sufficient concrete block’s strength, thickness and
interlocking defined as the inability of an individual
block to move independently or its neighbors.
Concrete blocks have their own weight, thickness,
strength and shape to ensure the mechanism will
establish high performance. Concrete block can
sustain the load of vehicles, so it is used as the
material to construct pavement.

1

The laying course thickness differs from country to
country. Most countries require a 50 mm compacted
thickness. However, Australia has specified a
compacted thickness of 20 mm to 25 mm. This is a
very thin layer and will therefore require the surface
of the underlaying base to be very smooth (Beaty,
1992).
Adequate compaction is required to minimize the
settlement of CBP. The laying course material and
blocks should be compacted using a vibrating plate
compactor. Some blocks may require a rubber or
neoprene faced sole plate to prevent damage to the
block surfaces (Interpave, 2004). The block paved
area should be fully compacted as soon as possible
after the full blocks and cut blocks have been laid, to
achieve finished pavement tolerances from the design
level of ± 10 mm under a 3 m straightedge (ICPI,
2004). Normally two cycles of compaction are
applied. The first cycle compacts the bedding sand
and cause this material to rise up the joints and the
second cycle is applied once joint sand is brushed
into the joints.
C136-06 and CCAA (TN 56). The blocks were cured
by covered with wet gunnysacks for 28 days.
Concrete blocks (Fig. 2) were tested to ensure
concrete mix satisfies the specification. The blocks
were tested at the age of 28 days with average
compressive strength meeting the minimum
requirement of 25 MPa as suggested by Shackel,
1990. The length, width and thickness of rectangular
concrete blocks is 200 mm, 100 mm and 80 mm
respectively with the length to width ratio is 2 for
this study (BS 6717-1, 1993). Parameter studied in
this research were groove size, groove surface area
and block volume. The details of block shapes
studied are given in Fig. 1 and geometrical details are
given in Table 1.
Fig. 1. Details of blocks shapes used in this study

Panda and Ghosh (2002), reported that the strength

and laying pattern of blocks has no influence on the
vertical displacement of the block pavement.
However, the vertical displacement is highly
influenced by block thickness. Thus, block thickness
of 80 mm is sufficient for heavily trafficked roads.

Fig. 2. USCB –R(30/25)

3. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL
WORKS
3.2 Test Setup
3.1 Materials
The tests of USCB were carried out in a rigid steel
The USCBs were manufactured in the laboratory.
box of 1000 mm x 1000 mm square in plan. The grid
These were made using ordinary Portland cement
measurement points are as shown in Fig. 3. The
comply with MS 522 Part 1. The natural aggregates
points were marked on the steel box frame. A
used include natural river sand as the fine aggregate
reaction steel frame was used to apply static load on
and crushed granite with normal size less than 10
the 12 mm thick steel plate, hydraulic jack and load
mm as the coarse aggregate. The fine and coarse
cell of 200 kN capacity as shown in Fig. 4.
aggregate complied with the requirements of ASTM

Table 1. Details of blocks used in study

Distance Underside A% of V% of
Length, Height, Between Edge Shaped Different Different
Width, B L No of h No of Groove, No of Length, No of Area, Compare Volume, Compare to
Block type (mm) (mm) 'L' (mm) Groove d (mm) 'd' e (mm) 'e' A (cm2) to NB Multiplication V (cm3) NB
NB 200 0 1 1600 0
USCB - R(30/15) 100 30 3 15 3 30 2 25 2 290 45 1.45 1465 8.44
USCB - R(30/25) 100 30 3 25 3 30 2 25 2 350 75 1.75 1375 14.06
USCB - R(30/35) 100 30 3 35 3 30 2 25 2 410 105 2.05 1285 19.69

∗ NB – Normal

2

Fig. .3. Testing layout pelan
3.3 Construction of Test Sections
The test sections of USCB were constructed within
the steel box. The base of steel box is covered with
hard neoprene of a 3 mm thick which simulate the
subgrade layer. Over the hard neoprene, a plastic
sheet is used to cover it in order to avoid
contaminating the hard neoprene with bedding sand.
The bedding sand ( 4 % - 8 % moisture content) was
spread in a uniform layer to give a depth of 70 mm.
This value was selected to achieve an average of
50 mm thick of bedding sand after two cycles of
compaction process. Over the bedding sand, the
USCBs of 80 mm thick were laid in a basket weave
pattern. The joint width and quality of sand in
bedding and joints were kept constant for all the
experiments as according to CCAA, TN 56. The
whole USCBs were compacted by plate vibrator until
the compaction was completed. Finally, the
measurement points were marked on the USCB
block units as shown in Fig. 3.
3.4 Test Procedures
The measurements were made on bedding sand to
obtain the desired thickness and the level of USCBs
before and after compaction throughout the
measurement points. These measurements were taken
to measure the settlement of bedding sand and
USCBs.
A hydraulic jack fitted to the reaction frame was used
to apply a central load to the entire USCB units as
shown in Fig. 3, through a rigid rectangular steel
plate. This arrangement is call push in test. The load
was increased uniformly up to 25 kN. While the
loads were increased, the vertical displacement were
measured to an accuracy 0.01 mm using two Low
Voltage Displacement Transducer (LVDT)
connected to a data logger. The LVDTs were placed
3
on two opposite sides of the loading plate at equal
distance from the centre. The average value of the
two settlement readings was tabulated and drawn in
Fig. 5.
Fig. .4. Pavement model setup
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Effects of USCBs on bedding sand
The types of USCBs namely USCB-R(30/15),
USCB-R(30/25) and USCB-R(30/35) are referred to
the groove depths of 15 mm, 25 mm and 35 mm
respectively (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Figure 5 shows the
vertical displacement of USCBs on bedding sand of
the three types of USCBs and control blocks at
different grid numbers after compaction. Previous
study has also shown that settlement for normal
block is the range between 15mm to 20 mm.
From this study, the vertical displacement of USCB-
R(30/15), USCB-R(30/25) and USCB-R(30/35) were
18 mm, 15 mm and 20 mm respectively. For USCB-
R(30/15) the bedding sand has fully filled the 15 mm
groove depth. On the other hand, the of USCB-
R(30/25) and USCB-R(30/35) the bedding sand did
not fully fill into the 25 mm and 35 mm grooves.
This situation is proven by push in test result as
shown in Fig. 6. It shows the effect of loading to the
vertical displacement for different types of USCBs at
different location referring to the single block (block
No 24) and double blocks (block No 21 & 22 and No
27 & 28). It was observed that the vertical
displacement of blocks increased in nonlinear
manner with increasing loads. From Fig. 5, bedding
sand has been able to full fill the groove of USCB-
R(30/15) compared to other types at tested location
of block’s number. Additionally, for every type of
USCBs were observed to have almost uniform
vertical displacement at it selected position. From
this study the block type of USCB-R(30/15) has
shown lower vertical displacement at blocks location
(No.21 & No. 22), (No. 24), and (No.27 & No.28)
compared to other USCBs control blocks .
Fig. 5. The vertical displacement of USCBs and height
of sand filled into groove
4
Fig. 6. Comparisons of USCBs vertical displacement
under push in test
4.2 Effects of groove depth to the USCB
Fig. 7 shows areas and volumes of USCBs versus
displacements due to the applied vertical loads. The
relationship between vertical displacement and area
and volume of USCBs is moderate considering the
R2 value of 0.568. The above relationship can be
studied for others groove pattern in the future. This
value of R2 also can be used by comparing between
other underside surface patterns of groove in the
future.
This study is a one of the preliminary ways to have in
the selection of suitable groove depth for USCBs.
Besides that, further study is needed to investigate
the compatibility between various patterns of grooves
for USCBs pavement. One other way to recognize
their compatibility is through simulation study using
finite elements method.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7. The displacement relationship
5. CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions that can be drawn from this
study are as follow:
1. The block type USCB-R (30/15) is the best
among the tested block because it has lower
vertical displacement as the grooves were fully
filled with bedding sand.
2. The superiority of block type USCB-R (30/15)
is consistence when tested either in the middle
or at the edge of the pavement.
3. Groove area and groove volume of blocks are
moderately related to vertical displacement.
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