2006-01-2905
Design of Chassis and Aerodynamic Improvements of a Solar
Energy Powered Vehicle
Copyright © 2006 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this research is the aerodynamic
study of a high efficiency chassis of a solar propulsion
vehicle. Experimental and numerical methodologies were
used. The experimental methodology was based on profile
studies in a subsonic wind tunnel using a 1:12 scale model
and wind velocities untill 35 m/s. The numeric study used
a 1:1scale prototype. A computational tool that simulates
CFD ambient was used. The validated mesh, contains
577969 elements and 135212 nodes. Visualization
techniques were used to study the current lines and
detachment areas, corresponding these with the numeric
study. Also the aerodynamic drag contribution of the
driver cabin and the drag variation due to floor effect was
studied.
SCOPES
The goals to achieve in this investigation work are:
• Determine the behaviour of the aerodynamics
coefficients of a model in order to calculate the forces
on it.
• Analyze scale effects like: limitations of the tunnel
area, use of a ground plane fixed and the variation of
Reynolds number.
• The aerodynamic drag contribution of the driver
cabin.
• Study of the pressure drag through the (momentum
method) wake and visualization of the airflow.
LIST OF SYMBOL
AFm = Model frontal area
AFp = Prototype frontal area
b = Prototype width ; 1,8m
c = length of the prototype; 5m
CD = Drag coefficient
Nelson Garcia
Assistant Professor. Simon Bolivar University
Javier Palencia
Assistant Professor. Simon Bolivar University
Jorge Clarembaux
Undergraduate Student. Simon Bolivar University
Yoana Milazzo
Undergraduate Student. Simon Bolivar University
CL = Lift coeffcient
CM = Moment coeficient
D = Drag force
h = Gap model-ground plane
L = Lift force
M = Momentum
ρ = air density
Re = Reynolds number
V = air velocity
INTRODUCTION
The increasing interest in the use of clean energies, has
motivated to a group of the Simón Bolivar University, to
be interested in the use of the solar energy like alternative
source of vehicles propulsion. On this way, the
participation in the competition "Formulates Sun Grand
Prix 2006-Texas" is proposed. In it a group of conditions
are settle down to propose the design of an driven
automobile impelled by solar energy. The first estimations
made according to the desired necessities to cover during
the competition, presented a tendency to construct to
vehicles with an 5 HP electrical motor and a 350 kg
weight, at a 22 m/s cruise speed. The obtained results were
directed to consider the aerodynamic behavior of the
vehicle USB-Solar 2006, specifically focused in areas like
velocity profile in different positions; zones of the flow
stagnation; flow deattachment and vorticities generation;
characterization of the prototype wake at different
experimental speeds; pressures profile produced under the
prototype; verify the similarity of the flow lines between
the wind tunnel model and the prototype used in CFX-
5.6TM.
The importance of this project is to promote ideas oriented
to the take advantage of alternative energies and design
oriented to environment conservation, using the solar
energy for the propulsion of the vehicle. Taking into
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account that this one is a resource that has taken more and
more importance in investigation subjects in our country
and the world.
This way the participation in the competition “Formulates
Sun Grand Prix 2006-Texas” is proposed. In this a series
of conditions are settles down to design an driven
automobile impelled by solar energy [1]. The first
estimations made according to the necessities to cover
during the competition, presented a tendency to construct
to vehicles with an electrical 5 HP motor and a 350 kg
weight, at a 22 m/s cruise speed. This way a study was
made previously to determine the size of the chassis of the
vehicle, so that it adapted to the established regulation.
The analysis of the characteristics of several aerofoil
profiles was made to adapt them to the adjustable body of
the chassis, looking for the lowest drag coefficient [3]. The
dimensions of the vehicle are 5.0x1.8x0.96 m of length,
wide and high respectively. Therefore a model on scale
1:12 was used to be adapted to the wind tunnel (opened
cycle, constructed by the company "Plint & Partners" in
Berkshire, England) at the Fluid Mechanics Laboratory in
Simón Bolívar University. Based on a study of similitud
[4]; that allow to validate a computatinal model of the
prototype on 1:1scale by the use of Computacional Fluid
Dynamics.
The drag, lift and moment aerodynamic forces, as an
airplane, have influence in the automotive vehicles since
this faces up an airflow which changes according to its
velocity. Nowdays, it is been used in the automotive field
in order to improve the performance in vehicles, like the
motorcycles of high performance used either in racing or
private use he great automovilistic racing competitions like
Formule 1, look for in theirs designs low the drag (D) and
get a negative lift (downforce) that improves the traction
of the wheels [1].
Figure 1. Chassis of Solar Car Prototype on selected
airfoil.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
For the aerodynamic study, we used a subsonic open-
circuit wind tunnel. Because of its dimensions, it was
necessary to do a similitude analysis in order to get the
dimensions of the model. The project included: the
developing of the experimental assembly and the obtention
of the characteristics curves. The values of drag, lift and
moment coefficients were quantified, definying them as:
D (1)
CD =
1
ρV A
2
2 this, to get good results it is recommended that the relation
L (2)
CL =
1
ρV A2
2
M (3)
CM =
1
ρV A * L
2
2
The figure 2 shows the drag, lift and moment forces on the
prototype.
Figure 2. Forces actuating on the prototype.
WIND TUNNEL. The experiments are made in a
subsonic open-circuit wind tunnel which it can reach
velocities between 30 and 35 m/s and has a test section of
120 cm length and 45x45 cm transverse area. It has a
balance of three components that allows to measure forces
in horizontal and vertical direction (lift and drag), besides
the par (moment) in the length plane symmetry of the
model.
A study of the variation of the velocity was done[2] with
regard to the average velocity of the test section, it can be
observed how the difference of velocity is not more than
0.25%.
SIMILITUDE ANALYSIS. The similitude analysis
included Geometric and Dynamic similitude. The
geometric similitude is related with the geometric
similarity that it must exist between the model and the
prototype. The dynamic similitude must guarantee that the
relation of forces which act on the model are the same
proportionaly to the forces acting on the prototype.
Due to the characteristics of the airflow (density,
cinematic viscosity) and the ranges of velocity where these
tests are made, the use of Reynolds number would be the
adequate to do the study of dynamic similitude. With
regard to this, the drag coefficient tends to have little
variation, being in some cases independent of the
Reynolds number from Re=2*105 to Re=6*105[3]
approximately. For this study Re of the model is between
103 and 104 while is 105 in the prototype.
Another factor in this type of tests is the flow blockage
produced by the walls of the tunnel, causing mistakes in
the results. To reduce the blockage effect of the walls, the
model must be the smallest possible. However, this would
bring another consequences, as getting far of the real
Reynolds number and have a model with less details. So,
there is a compromise between the accuracy level of the
model and the features the wind tunnel has. Because of
between the frontal and transverse area of the test section
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does not exceed 7,5% [4]. To fulfil this requirement, a
scale factor of 1:12 was taken, what gets a relation of
tunnel-model areas of 7,46%. According to this scale, the
model has 416 mm length, 150 mm width and 80 mm
height with a frontal area 0.01518 m2 roughly. The
blockage effect overestimates the aerodynamics
coefficients values. Therefore, it exist a correction factor
(FC) that involves the model area and the transverse
section of the wind tunnel (At).
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
1
FC = ⎢ ⎥ (5)
⎢⎛ 1 Am ⎞ ⎥
2
⎢ ⎜1 + * ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ 4 At ⎠ ⎦
The correction factor applied was 0.95.
VISUALIZATION. The fluorescent tufts and mini-tufts
visualization techniques permit to see the surface stream
lines and the potential presence of vortices. The tufts are
sticker to the model and are made highlighted by the
fluorescent light [6]. In this case we used a tuft of 0.16 mm
nylon thickness.
EXPERIMENTAL ASSEMBLY
MODEL. The wind tunnel used in the experiments it
is designed to study airfoils and not other kind of models.
So, the model needed to be attached like an airfoil did. The
main goal is that the model has the major geometric
accuracy possible, mainly in the frontal area since this is
which faces up the airflow directly. The construction was
made of several materials: wood, plaster, plastic putty,
copper, and others.
GROUND PLANE. The use of an elevated ground plane
is necessary to simulate the real conditions of the study. To
simulate the ground, it was used an elevated ground plane
of the kind flat plate. This one is easier to build than the
boundary layer suction grounds or a moving ground and
has an acceptable performance if it is studied the boundary
layer effect. Moreover, The gaps between the ground plane
and the model (h= 1, 3 mm) are done in order to determine
the effect that produces the boundary the ground plane
fullfilled the next characteristics: enough length and width
dimensions in order to avoid the effect of its edges on the
airflow around the model, heigth adaptation, smooth finish
Figure 3. Assembly of the model in the wind tunnel. A)
Model-Balance attach, B) Ground plane and C) Static
pressure lines.
(in order to get a thin boundary layer), stable behaviour
facing the airflow, totally flat an easy to attach to the wind
tunnel. The measures of the ground plane are: 600 mm
length, 270 mm width and 152 mm heigth [7]. In the Fig.
4, it can be observed the final assembly in the test section
of the wind tunnel.
EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
The study done included the next tests:
• Test where it is changed the gap between the ground
plane and the wheels of the model. (Fig. 4 y 5).
• Tests done with and without cabin (Fig. 7).
• Test with a wake rake behind the model to validate
with numerical prototype (Fig 8) .
• Visualization of the surface streamlines.
Figura 4. Gap of ground plane-model h.
layer in the measurement of the variables and to know
the error that this can lead up [8], besides taking into
account that it is impossible stick the model to the ground
plane since the balance could not measure the forces.
RESULTS
The errors obtained in the experimental study are
quantified using two methods: error propagation and
standard deviation. The error propagation gives the error
produced by the precision of the instruments used during
the data acquisition and it is calculated by the standard
propagation error. Otherwise, the standard deviation shows
the dispersion data got in each test. Like dispersion error is
defined once the standard deviation that corresponds to a
confidence level of 91%[9]. In this way we get a
maximum error in the values of CD=±0,11 CL=±0,24 y
CM=±0,10.
In order to use in the experimentation a model study with
and without cabin was defined, with the purpose of
perceiving the note the aerodynamic differences when the
cabin is used.
Additionally, two separation distances between the
artificial ground and the model of h=1 mm and h=3 mm
was settled down. The distances established between the
wheels and the artificial ground have great influence on
the results, because the components originated by
development of the boundary layer in the artificial ground
and the model are not the same that the ones for the
prototype of the solar car. By this reason the separation
between the wheels and the ground differs in how the
model is submerged in the thickness developed by the
boundary layer of the ground. In this way the next
graphics are presented with the pertinent analices.
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 Fig 6. Drag force vs. Velocity at different hegth
Once again its verifies that the drag is proportional to the
square of the speed with the tendencies obtained in the fig
12 and 13, in which the adjustments have a 99% of
reliability, this is because the values of the drag
coefficients obtained are closer.
The greater coefficient of reported drag was of 0.0232, and
corresponds to a terminal velocity condition (V=25 m/s),
with smaller wheels distance to the ground (h=1 mm) and
with the cabin, with a air density of 1.123 Kg/m3. At this
Fig 5. (Above) Experimental Model without cabin. condition with Ec. (1) in conditions of race a drag of 7.5
(Down) Assembly in the wind tunnel of the experimental kg could exist on the prototype and they are equivalent to a
model with cabin consumed power of 2.47 HP. Studying the conditions
without cabin, the force is now almost 4.7 kg, so, the
The curves tendency of the drag coefficient referred to the
cabin contribution is 2.8 kg (0.9 HP).
Reynolds number is related to the exposed surface and the
form of the car, approximately the surface of the model
without cabin is 1,426 cm2 and with cabin 1,464 cm2. This
difference is one of the reasons for which the CD is greater
in the second configuration that in first, because it
increases the drag due to the skin friction effect.
Another reasons of the drag force increases in the
configuration with cabin is the fact that just in front of it a
high pressure zone is generated because the air flow is
faced with an unexpected wall and reduces its speed,
behind the cabin the flow becomes to accelerate and this
differential pressure generates a drag force additional.
Additionally to the previous effect, the flow disturb due to
a cabin, originates different conditions at the exit of the
car; now the wake that could leave before this situation has
a greater effect due to the flow separation of the car
surface earlier than is espected and the vortices generated
due to the low pressure causes a i drag increase.
For a certain body there are a variety of flow situations Fig 7.Lift vs. Velocity with cabin..
that depend on the Reynolds number, also note in the fig 6 Respect to the sustenation the results were hoped. To
that for a case of 3 mm separation with the floor, exists a smaller separation distance between the inferior surface of
point in which the drag coefficient CD is greater than for 1 the car and ground, the positive sustenation becomes
mm case, this change is due to conditions of the flow. minor and is because the flow is accelerated by the reduce
The existence of a remarkable difference between the area, causing a pressure fall that diminishes the force, but
distances of the wheels to the ground and the drag, is due that nevertheless is very small to avoid that the car rises.
to the reduction in magnitude of the distance, increasing On the other hand,with referente to the differences in the
the cut force because the flow is now through a smaller sustenation of the two configurations of body proposed, is
area and in addition the boundary layers created by the observed that when the cabin is present the sustenation
model as by the plate disturb the flow still more. becomes a little greater than without it, is due the the
speed increases in the flow, and when increasing the speed

4
diminishes the pressure in the superior part causing that
the car experiences a vertical force in opposite direction of
the gravity.
This increase in the lift force is directly related to the
increase in the induced drag, because it allows that the
boundary layer is dettached more easily of the car surface.
In order to compare the magnitude of the lift force between
the model and the prototype in a race conditions, the
coefficient CL correspond to the greater registered speed,
the smaller separation between the wheels and the floor
and a configuration with cabin.
The data to consider were the following ones:
Table 1. Variables to find maximun lift
Velocidad [m/s] 25
CLmodelo 0,1436
With the previous values it is replaced in the Ec. (2),
obtaining itself that the force is equivalent to 46 kg that are
being diminished to him to the gross weight of the car. The
importance of this one force is not if it is the relation
between her and the gross weight of car is small, because
even being thus, the behavior of the prototype can be seen
affected before a relative wind considered, because the
location of the centre of pressure is placed in front of the
center of masses in almost 1.24 m/s and to 1.06 m/s of the
beginning of the prototype, which does not confirm the
fact that the car can raise the end, nevertheless, is due to
clarify that the calculation of the previous force is related
to the superficial area instead of the frontal.
With the previous values it is replaced in the Ec. (2),
obtaining that the force is equivalent to 46 kg, being those
diminished to the gross weight of the car. The importance
of this force is, not if it is the relation between it and the
gross weight of car is small, even beinglioke this, the
behavior of the prototype can be affected when faced a
relative wind not considered, due to the location of the
centre of pressure is placed in front of the center of masses
in almost 1.24 m and to 1.06 m of the front of the
prototype.This not confirm the fact that the car can raise,
nevertheless, there are the necesity of clarify that the
calculation of the previous force is related to the
superficial area instead of the frontal.
COMPARATIVE STUDY. The numeric study used a
1:1scale prototype. A computational tool that simulates
CFD ambient was used. The validated mesh, contains
577969 elements and 135212 nodes.
As the variables are dependant, the location of the lift
force in front of the center of masses is related to the
distribution of pressures found. As it were observed in the
graphs of pressure against distance, the greater tip is
positive, and it is like a pressure is being exerted on the
model in opposition to the gravity. The pressure depends
directly on the force but he is inversely proportional to the
area, whit this last one constant parameter, then it depends
solely on the force (Lift force).
Fig 8.Pressure variation under the solar car, numerical
and experimental with cabin
The reason for the reduction of the speed (increase of the
pressure) is due to the effect that has the artificial ground
in the experimental assembly, that is to say, the air in its
route through several stages, first with the aluminum
lamina, the flow that crosses are not dettached the lamina
because the sharping leading edge and the rugthness was
diminished when polishing the plate. At the second stage
the air must be divided in two parts, one will cross superior
half and the other inferior half of the model, being the
cross-sectional section of inferior half limited by the
presence of the flat earth and the curvature of the profile,
the air faces a front, reduces its speed and affect the area
where a gradient of thickness with respect to the
percentage of the cord is greater than the one that is
located until 15% of the chord lenght, the reason: the
curvature of the leading edge.
Third stage characterizes by diminution of cross-sectional
section and air acceleration, it causes that the suction
pressure stays constant thanks to the form of the selected
profile, finally the flow that crosses the inferior part of the
model is obtained with an increase of the pressure by the
diminution of the speed.
On the other hand, the presence of the back wheel
indicates the sudden increase of the pressure but, in
absence of it the curve would stay in negative values until
arriving at a point where the area causes the deceleration
of the flow (approximately to 86% of the length overall of
the model), hoping that this increase in the pressure is
much smaller to the one of the maximum value and that
the reduction is near zero, indicating that the pressure in
the final zone of the car is the atmospheric one, being able
to predict a typical wake of a configuration of aerofoil
profile.
5

Fig 9. Wake behind the model, experimental and
numerically.
Fig. 10 Upper view: results of numerical simulation and
visualization with black light.
Fig. 11 Side view: results of numerical simulation and
visualization with black light.
CONCLUSIONS
The experimental study allowed to know the aerodynamics
characteristics of the prototype through similitude analysis.
The most remarkable effect to consider in later studies, is
the diminution of the positive lift force, modifing the
inferior part of the body in the sense to diminish the
gradient of variation of thickness with respect to the cord
in the front part.
The calculated drag coefficient is small in comparison to
other automobiles, is not due to forget that it has not been
considered the effect that have revolving wheels on the
behavior of the flow in the inferior part of the car.
The comparison of the pressure profile between the
experimental datas and those of the numerical simulation
show a very significant similarity, because the behavior of
variation of the pressure as much on 1:12 scale was
practically reflected in the wind tunnel, like a scales 1:1 of
the prototype in CFX-5.6TM.
Comparing the behavior of the obtained streamlines in the
wind tunnel through the black light, and the images made
in the simulator, its verified that the similarity between
both was highly significant.
REFERENCES
[1] Potter, Merle C. y D.C. Wiggert, 1997, “Mecánica de
Fluidos”.Prentice Hall, México. Segunda Edición. pp
243-244.
[2] Atramiz, E., Tesis de Grado de Ingeniería Mecánica,
2004, “Estudio experimental de la aerodinámica de
un carro tipo fórmula”. Universidad Simón Bolívar.
6
[3] Munson, Young. 1998, “Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics”. Jhon Wiley, E.E.U.U., pp 610-714.

[4] Katz, Joseph, 1995, “Race Car Aerodynamics:

Designing for speed”. Robert Bentley Automotive
Publishers, E.E.U.U., pp 73-74, 81-84 .

[5] Rae, William H. Jr and Pope, Alan, “Low-speed Wind

Tunnel Testing ”. Jhon Wiley, E.E.U.U., pp 213-217.

[6] Atramiz E., García N., Díaz S., 2004, “Estudio

Experimental de la Aerodinámica de un Carro Tipo
Fórmula”. Memorias del CONIM, pp 157-162.

[7] Melo M., Díaz S., Moreno N., García N., Bastardo R.,
2004,“Estudio del Efecto Suelo de un Vehículo Tipo
Formula a través del uso de la DFC”. Memorias del
CIMENICS, pp MF-77 al MF-84.

[8] Hall, Carl W. 1977, “Errors in Experimentation”.

Matrix Publishers, E.E.U.U., pp 25- 34 .

[9] Boschetti P., Cardenas E., García N.,

2004,“Experimental Aerodynamic Study of UAV Wind
Túnel Model for Low Reynolds Number”. Proceeding
of 22nd Applied Aerodynamics Conference,
AIAA2004-4969.

AUTORS
Nelson R. García P. is an Assistant Professor at Simon
Bolivar University in Caracas, Venezuela. He is an
Applied Aerodynamic researcher at Fluid Mechanics
Laboratory and industrial consultant.
Laboratorio de Mecanica de Fluidos. Universidad Simon
Bolivar. Caracas, Venezuela. Apdo 89000. Phone: +58-
212-9064139. E-mail: ngarcia@usb.ve

Javier A. Palencia C. is an Assistant Professor at Simon

Bolivar University in Caracas, Venezuela. He is an
researcher at Mechanical Energy Convertion Laboratory
Mechanical Energy Convertion Laboratory. Universidad
Simon Bolivar. Caracas, Venezuela. Apdo 89000. Phone:
+58-212-9064134. E-mail: jpalenci@usb.ve