MEEM4200 Part01 Energy Introduction S

Principles of Energy Conversion
Jeffrey S. Allen
jstallen@mtu.edu
Part 1. Introduction to Energy

August 30, 2010
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Introduction to Energy
We will examine basic energy conversion analysis, conversion efficiency, and system efficiency. The goal for this portion of the course
is to understand the language of energy and energy conversion, how energy can be converted and the efficiency of converting energy
from one form to another. To accomplish this we will address the following questions:
• What is energy?
• What are the units of energy?
• How do we compare forms of energies?
• How is energy converted from one form to another?
• How do we calculate efficiency of energy conversion?
What is Energy?
Energy is the common, uniting concept between engineering and science disciplines (along with math-
ematics)
Unifying concept in physical sciences:

“notion of invariance or constancy in the midst of change.”[1]
Types of Energy
Culp [2] defines two types and six major classifications, or forms, of energy. The first law of thermodynamics broadly states that energy
is neither destroyed or created, which implies that any form of energy is equally converted into another form. However, all forms of
energy are not of equal worth. Electrical and chemical energy are high value commodities, while thermal energy is typically of low value.
There is often confusion between energy and devices which convert or store energy. For example, when asked to define kinetic energy,
many times you will hear kinetic energy defined as a flywheel. Flywheels are simply a device that store a type of mechanical energy.
Similarly, batteries are a device which store a type of chemical energy.
1. Transitional: energy in motion, energy which crosses system boundaries; this is typically the energy we associate with work and
power.
• electrical current
• work
• heat
• electromagnetic radiation
2. Stored: energy which has a mass, a position in a force field, etc.

• electrical potential (voltage)
storage mechanisms: capacitor, inductor, superconductor, . . .
• gravitational potential (potential energy in engineering thermodynamics)
storage mechanisms: water tower, hydraulic dam, raised weight, . . .
• inertial potential (kinetic energy in engineering thermodynamics)
storage mechanisms: flywheel, fluid inertia, mass in motion, . . .
• fluid compression (flow energy or boundary work in thermodynamics)
storage mechanisms: gas cylinder, propane tank, piston-cylinder, . . .
• chemical potential: (internal energy, enthalpy in thermodynamics)
storage mechanisms: batteries, coal, petroleum, hydrogen, glucose, . . .
• thermal: (sensible & latent heat)
storage mechanisms: mass, phase-change material (PCM), . . .
Energy Classifications (Forms) & Units
Each energy form is measured in different units; sometimes units of energy, sometimes units of power, and sometimes both. Each
form of energy has a unique potential for conversion to another form.
Energy Type
Energy Form & Units Transitional Stored Conversion
Electrical
electrostatic field
power: W, kW, MW current easy & efficient conversion from
inductive field
power-time: Wh, kWh
Electromagnetic electromagnetic none

energy: eV, MeV radiation
Chemical chemical potential

easily converted to thermal, electrical and mechanical
energy/mass: kJ/kg none (+) exothermic
energy
energy/mole: kJ/kmol (−) endothermic
Nuclear none atomic mass easily converted to mechanical energy

energy: MeV
Mechanical position in force field
energy: ft⋅lbf, J • gravitational
power: hp, kW, • inertial
work easily converted to other forms of energy
Btu/hr • compressed fluid
• elastic-strain
• magnetic field
Thermal sensible heat

inefficient conversion to mechanical and electrical energy
latent heat
energy: Btu, kJ, cal heat conversion limited by 2nd law of thermodynamics
thermal energy can be
power: Btu/hr, W all other forms are easily converted into thermal energy
stored in everything
Energy Flow in an Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle
fu e l e n g in e d r iv e t r a in w h e e ls
c o m b u s t io n p o w e r w o rk
c h e m ic a l m e c h a n ic a l m e c h a n ic a l m e c h a n ic a l
p is t o n t r a n s m is s io n
c ra n k d if fe r e n t ia l
fly w h e e l
a u x ilia r y s y s t e m s
e n g in e a u x .
th e rm a l e le c t r ic a l
r a d ia t o r m e c h a n ic a l r a d io
e x h a u st w a te r p u m p c o m p u te r
o il p u m p se n so rs
sta rte r m e c h a n ic a l
m e c h a n ic a l e le c t r ic a l s y s t e m fu e l p u m p
p o w e r w in d o w s
b a tte ry e le c t r ic a l c u rre n t w in d s h ie ld w ip e r s
a lt e r n a t o r
c h e m ic a l c u rre n t c o n t r o l m o d u le
th e rm a l
e le c t r ic s e a t s
c u rre n t w in d o w d e f r o s t e r
e le c t r o m a g n e t ic
G P S
s a t e llit e r a d io
Units of Energy
British thermal unit [Btu]: energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68 ○ F by 1 ○ F.
⋅ 1 Btu ≡ 1055 J ≡ 778.16 ft⋅lbf ≡ 252 cal
⋅ 1 Btu/s ≡ 1.055 kW
⋅ 1 Btu/hr ≡ 3.798 MW
⋅ 1 therm ≡ 100,000 Btu
⋅ 1 quad ≡ 1015 Btu; note this is distinct from Q sometimes used as 1018 Btu.
Joule [J]: equivalent of 1 N of force exerted over a distance of 1 m.
⋅ 1 J ≡ 0.2388 cal (IT)
⋅ 1 J = 1 N⋅m ≡ 6.242×1018 eV ≡ 0.737 ft⋅lbf
⋅ 1 J/s = 1 W
⋅ 1 kWh = 3.6 ×106 J ≡ 3412 Btu
calorie [cal]: energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 ○ C.
⋅ This is the International Table (IT) definition used by engineers and 1 cal = 4.1868 J which corresponds to the specific heat of water
at 15○ . This definition is also referred to as the steam table definition.
⋅ Physicists use the thermochemical calorie which is equal to 4.184 J and corresponds to the specific heat of water at 20○ .
⋅ Calorie (capital C) is used by nutritionists and is equal to 1000 IT calories. Currently the standard is to use kilocalorie instead of Calorie,
but both are equivalent to 1000 IT calories.
mass, force, and volume: [kg, lbm, slug, mol, gallon, SCF, ton, tonne, lbf, N]
⋅ 1 lbm ≡ 0.454 kg
⋅ 1 slug = 32.174 lbm = 14.594 kg
⋅ 1 lbm = 7000 grains
⋅ 1 standard ton (short ton) = 2000 lbm = 907.2 kg = 0.9072 tonne
⋅ 1 long ton = 2240 lbm
⋅ 1 tonne = 1000 kg
⋅ 1 lbf ≡ 4.448 N
⋅ 1 imperial gallon ≡ 1.200 U.S. gallon
proportionality constant: gc
⋅ gc = 1 kg⋅m/N⋅s2 = 1 slug⋅ft/lbf⋅s2 = 32.2 lbm⋅ft/lbf⋅s2
Energy Scales
from Principles of Energy Conversion, 2nd ed., A. Culp, Jr., McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991.
Energy Equivalencies & Standard Values
Standard U.S. Fuel Values:
U.S. energy nominal equivalence values obtained from Culp [2], Society [3], Energy Information Agency [4]. The U.S. uses higher
heating values (HHV) for energy content of fuels.
Coal: energy content varies between 10 to 30 MBtu/ton
anthracite: HHV = 12,700 Btu/lbm = 29,540 kJ/kg = 25.4 × 106 Btu/short ton
bituminous: HHV = 11,750 Btu/lbm = 27,330 kJ/kg = 23.5 × 106 Btu/short ton
lignite: HHV = 11,400 Btu/lbm = 26,515 kJ/kg = 22.8 × 106 Btu/short ton
2007 average: HHV = 20.24 × 106 Btu/short ton
1 tonne of coal ≡ 7 × 109 cal

≡ 29.3 GJ ≡ 27.8 MBtu
1 ton of coal ≡ 26.6 GJ ≡ 25.2 MBtu
Crude Oil: energy content varies between 5.6 - 6.3 MBtu/bbl
nominal equivalence: HHV = 18,100 Btu/lbm = 42,100 kJ/kg = 138,100 Btu/U.S. gal
1 bbl crude oil ≡ 5.80 MBtu ≡ 6.12 GJ

≡ 460 lbm of coal
≡ 5680 SCF of natural gas
≡ 612 kWh of electricity (at ηth = 36%)
1 tonne crude oil 39.68 MBtu ≡ 41.87 GJ
1 million bbl/day (Mbd) ≡ 2.12 quad/yr ≈ 2 quad/yr

Natural Gas: mostly CH4 ; energy content varies between 900 - 1100 Btu/scf
nominal equivalence: HHV = 24,700 Btu/lbm = 57,450 kJ/kg = 1,021 Btu/scf
2007 average (dry): HHV = 1,028 Btu/scf
typical equivalence: HHV ≈ 1,000 Btu/scf ≡ 1.055 GJ/SCF
Energy Conversion Processes
Direct: Single-step conversion process
• photovoltaics: electromagnetic Ð→ electrical
• batteries: chemical ←→ electrical
• thermoelectric coolers (TEC): thermal ←→ electrical
• piezoelectric: mechanical ←→ electrical
Indirect: Multi-step conversion process
• Diesel cycle (gas): chemical Ð→ thermal Ð→ mechanical Ð→ mechanical
• Rankine cycle (liquid-vapor), steam turbine:
chemical ⎫ ⎪
⎪
⎪
nuclear ⎪ ⎪
⎬ Ð→ thermal Ð→ mechanical Ð→ electrical
solar ⎪
⎪
⎪
geothermal ⎪⎪
⎭
• Brayton cycle (gas), gas turbine, turbojets:
chemical ⎫⎪
⎪
⎪
nuclear ⎬ Ð→ thermal Ð→ mechanical Ð→ electrical
⎪
solar ⎪ ⎪
⎭
⎛ wind turbine ⎞
• ⎜ wave energy ⎟ mechanical Ð→ mechanical Ð→ mechanical Ð→ electrical
⎝ tidal energy ⎠
Energy Conversion Matrix
from Principles of Energy Conversion, 2nd ed., A. Culp, Jr., McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991.
Example – Energy Conversion
An electric commuter car requires 24 hp and is to have a photovoltaic array on the roof to charge the batteries both while moving and
parked. The overall electromagnetic-to-electrical-to-mechanical energy conversion is 13%. The average solar flux is 650 Wem /m2 .
For each hour of operation, you estimate that the vehicle will be parked for four hours during daylight hours. If the storage efficiency
of the batteries is 60%, determine the required area of the solar array.
The effective solar power with energy storage per hour of operation is:
⎡ We,out ⎤
650 Wem ⎢⎢ 1 hr + (0.60 We,in ) ⋅ 4 hr ⎥⎥ Wem
2
⎢ ⎥ = 2210 2
m ⎢
⎢ 1 hr ⎥
⎥ m
⎣ ⎦
The required area of solar array required to generate 24 hpem :
745.7 Wem m2
(24 hpem ) ( )( ) = 8.1 m2
hpem 2210 Wem
This area is only the area required to collect 24 hp worth of electromagnetic energy. The conversion of the electromagnetic energy to
mechanical energy (motion of vehicle) is 13%. Thus, the area required to generate 24 hpm from 650 Wem /m2 is:
Wem
8.1 m2 ( ) = 62.3 m2
0.13 Wm
Technologies - Advantages Chart Page
Energy Storage Systems
Discharge Time versus Power
Discharge Time versus Power
Conversion of Energy
How do we calculate conversion of energy?
∑ ∆ {transitional energy} = ∑ ∆ {stored energy}
First Law of Thermodynamics
For a steady-state, open system:
∆Q − ∆W = ∆E = (Ep + Ek + Ei + Ef )∣out − (Ep + Ek + Ei + Ef )∣in
∆Q: heat into system Ep : potential energy = mzg /gc

∆W : work produced by system Ek : kinetic energy = mV 2 /2gc
∆E : change in system energy Ei : internal energy = mu
Ef : flow energy = P∀ = mP/ρ
so the first law is really: change in transitional energy ⇐⇒ change in stored energy
The sign convention on heat (Q) and work (W ) may change. For example, some thermodynamic textbooks will write the first law
of thermodynamics as ∆Q + ∆W in which case ∆W is the work into the system. The choice of sign convention will vary between
engineering disciplines as well. It is not important which sign convention you use as long as you are consistent. The meaning of a
positive or negative work can always be ascertained by examining how the stored energy term (∆E ) changes.
Conservation of Energy:
∆ {transitional energy} = ∆ {stored energy}
1st Law of Thermodynamics: (subset of the general principle)

Q − W = ∆E
°
´¹¹ ¹ ¹¸¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¶ stored
transitional
volume
⎛internal ⎞ ⎛flow ©⎞
E ≡ energy [kJ] = ,U + , p∀
⎝ energy ⎠ ⎝energy ⎠
⎛chemical ⎞ ⎛potential ⎞
+ , Hf + , mgz
⎝ energy ⎠ ⎝energy ⎠
⎛inertial 1 2
⎞
+ , 2 mV ⋯
⎝ energy ⎠
How do we calculate conversion of energy?
From engineering thermodynamics:
Closed System – no mass flow in or out of system
h e a t w o rk
e n e rg y e n e rg y
sta te 1 sta te 2
t im e = t 1 t1 < t < t 2 t im e = t 2
Open System – mass flow in and/or out of system
h e a t flu x , Q
(1 ) (2 )
m 1 e 1 m e
2 2
p o w e r, W
Conservation of Energy
Steady, rate form of the 1st Law:
∑ Q̇ − ∑ Ẇ = ∑ ṁe − ∑ ṁe
out in
m 2 e 2
(2 )
(3 )
m 3 e 3
(1 )
m 1 e 1
h e a t flu x , Q p o w e r, W
transitional energy energy stored
∆{ } = ∆{ }
to & from fluid in fluid
⎧
⎪ transitional ⎫
⎪ energy
transitional ⎪ ⎪
∆{ } + ∆ ⎨energy to &⎬ = ∆ {stored }
energy lost ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩from system ⎪ ⎭ in fluid
Heat (Q̇) & Work (Ẇ ) are balanced by change in energy stored in a fluid.
´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¸¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
Not the same as useful heat and work
∆ {transitional energy} = ∆ {stored energy}
1st Law of Thermodynamics: (subset of the general principle)
Q − W = Eout − Ein
´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¶ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
transitional stored
volume
⎛internal ⎞ ⎛flow © ⎞ ⎛chemical ⎞
E ≡ energy [kJ] = , U + energy , p ∀ + , Hf
⎝energy ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝energy ⎠
Energy: Q ≡ [kJ] ⎛potential ⎞ ⎛inertial 1 ⎞

+ , mgz + , 2 mV 2 + ⋯
⎝energy ⎠ ⎝energy ⎠
Power: Q̇ ≡ [ kJs = kW]
kJ 1
specific energy: q ≡ kJ
[ kg ] e ≡ specific energy [ ] = u+Pv +hf +gz + V 2 +⋯
kg 2
kJ
specific power: q̇ ≡ [ kg⋅s ]
Power flux: q̇ ′′ ≡ [ mkJ2 s ]
Efficiency of Energy Conversion
energy sought
efficiency, η ≡
energy cost
Device Efficiency Definitions
Q heat released
combustion: η = ≡
HV heating value of fuel
h o t r e s e r v o ir
T QH heat into hot reservoir
H heat pump: COP ≡ ≡
WC compressor work
Q H
QC heat from cold reservoir

h e a t W
refrigeration: COP ≡ ≡
e n g in e
C WC compressor work
c o m p re sso r
Q L
T C
c o ld r e s e r v o ir
Ẇe electrical energy out
alternator: η ≡ ≡
Ẇm mechanical energy in

battery: η = ≡
Ẇc chemical energy in
Ẇm mechanical energy out

IC engine: η = ≡
Ẇc chemical energy in
Ẇm mechanical energy out

automotive transmission: η = ≡
Ẇm mechanical energy in

electrical transmission: η = ≡
Ẇe electrical energy in
Typical Conversion Efficiencies
1st & 2nd Laws – Words of Wisdom
1st Law: You can never win. The

best you will ever do is break even.
2nd Law: You can never break even.
kJ
Ẇin > Ẇout,useful [ , kW]
s
Ẇin = Ẇout,useful + Ẇout,lost
Ẇout,useful Ẇout,lost
η= =1−
Ẇin Ẇin
Serial Efficiency
Individual
E 0 system efficiency = Π ( )
Efficiencies
h p ro c e ss 1
1 E 1 = h 1E 0
lo s t w o r k
h 2
p ro c e ss 2 E = h 2E
2 1
lo s t w o r k
h 3 p ro c e ss 3 E 3 = h 3E 2
E1 = η1 ⋅ E0
lo s t w o r k
E2 = η2 ⋅ E1 = η2 ⋅ η1 ⋅ E0
E3 = η3 ⋅ η2 ⋅ η1 ⋅ E0
Example – Serial Efficiency
You are developing a hybrid motorbike using a 2-hp, 2-stroke gasoline engine to drive a generator which powers an electric motor.
There is a small lead acid battery used for storing energy. The thermal efficiency of the engine is 25%. The generator is 60%
efficient. The electric drive motor is 50% efficient. The battery storage system is 75% efficient.
(a) With battery system by-passed, what is the power delivered to the wheels?
(b) Power delivered using batteries?

The motor is rated at 2-hp which is the output power. Thus, for a 25% efficient engine, 8-hp of chemical energy required to
generate this 2-hp.
(a ) e n g in e g e n e ra to r m o to r w h e e ls
0.60 hpe
2 hpm Ð→ generator Ð→ 2 hpm ( ) = 1.2 hpe
hpm
0.50 hpm
1.2 hpe Ð→ drive motor Ð→ 1.2 hpe ( ) = 0.6 hpm
hpe
0.7459 kW
power delivered = 0.6 hpm × ( ) = 0.45 kWm
hp
system efficiency 0.25 Wm 0.60 We 0.50 Wm Wm

when starting = ( )( )( ) = 7.5%
Wc Wm We Wc
with the fuel!
Example 1 (cont.)
(b ) e n g in e g e n e ra to r m o to r w h e e ls
b a tte ry
0.60 hpe 0.75 hpe,b 0.50 hpm

2 hpm ( )( )( ) = 0.45 hpm = 0.34 kWm
hpm hpe hpe,b
Wm mechanical energy out

ηsystem = 5.6% = 0.056 ( )
Wc chemical energy in
1.0
0.9
Carnot Efficiency
0.8 o
Tlow = 20 C = 293 K
0.7
efficiency
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Thot [K]
Example 2
A coal burning power plant produces a net power of 200 MWe with an overall efficiency of 32 percent. The gravimetric air-fuel ratio
in the furnace is calculated to be 12 kg air/kg fuel. The heating value of the coal is 28,000 kJ/kg.
(a) How much fuel is consumed in 24 hours?
(b) What is the air flow rate?
(a) The amount of fuel consumed is proportional to the heat input.
Ẇe 300 MWe

Q̇in = = MWe
= 937.5 MWth = ṁcoal ⋅ HV
ηth 0.32 MW
th
-1
937.5 MWth (937.5 ⋅ 106 Wth) (Js /W)
ṁcoal = = = 33.48 kg/s
28, 000 kJ/kg 28 ⋅ 106 J/kg
over a 24-hour period:
mcoal
= 2.86 ⋅ 106 kg/day
day
Example 2 (cont.)
(b) The air flow rate is determined from the air-fuel ratio:
12 kgair
ṁair = ṁcoal ⋅ AF = (33.48 kgcoal/s) ( ) = 401.8 kgair/s
kgcoal
References
[1] R. B. Lindsay. The concept of energy and its early historical development. Foundations of Physics, 1(4):383–393, December 1971. doi:
10.1007/BF00708586.
[2] Archie Culp, Jr. Principles of Energy Conversion, 2nd ed. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1991.
[3] American Physcial Society, January 2010. URL http://www.aps.org/policy/reports/popa-reports/energy/units.cfm. APS web
site on energy units.
[4] Energy Information Agency. Annual Energy Review 2008. Technical report, U.S. Department of Energy, June 2009. URL
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pdf/aer.pdf.

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Principles of Energy Conversion

Part 1. Introduction to Energy

Unifying concept in physical sciences:

2. Stored: energy which has a mass, a position in a force field, etc.

Electromagnetic electromagnetic none

Chemical chemical potential

Nuclear none atomic mass easily converted to mechanical energy

Thermal sensible heat

1 tonne of coal ≡ 7 × 109 cal

1 bbl crude oil ≡ 5.80 MBtu ≡ 6.12 GJ

1 tonne crude oil 39.68 MBtu ≡ 41.87 GJ

1 million bbl/day (Mbd) ≡ 2.12 quad/yr ≈ 2 quad/yr

The required area of solar array required to generate 24 hpem :

∑ ∆ {transitional energy} = ∑ ∆ {stored energy}

First Law of Thermodynamics

For a steady-state, open system:

∆Q − ∆W = ∆E = (Ep + Ek + Ei + Ef )∣out − (Ep + Ek + Ei + Ef )∣in

∆Q: heat into system Ep : potential energy = mzg /gc

∆ {transitional energy} = ∆ {stored energy}

1st Law of Thermodynamics: (subset of the general principle)

Steady, rate form of the 1st Law:

Energy: Q ≡ [kJ] ⎛potential ⎞ ⎛inertial 1 ⎞

Power flux: q̇ ′′ ≡ [ mkJ2 s ]

QC heat from cold reservoir

Ẇe electrical energy out

Ẇm mechanical energy out

Ẇm mechanical energy out

Ẇe electrical energy out

1st & 2nd Laws – Words of Wisdom

1st Law: You can never win. The

Ẇin = Ẇout,useful + Ẇout,lost

(b) Power delivered using batteries?

system efficiency 0.25 Wm 0.60 We 0.50 Wm Wm

0.60 hpe 0.75 hpe,b 0.50 hpm

Wm mechanical energy out

(a) The amount of fuel consumed is proportional to the heat input.

Ẇe 300 MWe

over a 24-hour period:

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