Doklady Biological Sciences, Vol. 383, 2002, pp. 141–143. Translated from Doklady Akademii Nauk, Vol.
383, No. 4, 2002, pp. 571–573.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2002 by Ostroumov.
GENERAL BIOLOGY
New Definitions of the Concepts and Terms Ecosystem
and Biogeocenosis
S. A. Ostroumov
Presented by Academician L.M. Sushchenya November 14, 2001
Received December 6, 2001
The terms ecosystem and biogeocenosis were
coined by Tansley in 1935 [1] and by Sukachev in the
1940s [2], respectively. These terms are widely used in
biological research [3–10], and there are several defini-
tions of the term ecosystem [4–8]. However, a large
body of new biological information has been accumu-
lated since the time of introduction of these terms.
Therefore, a revision of the currently accepted concepts
of natural objects and interpretation of basic ecological
terms (e.g., ecosystem and biogeocenosis) may be pro-
posed. It seems reasonable to continue the search for
new variants of definitions of these terms.
The goal of this work was to contribute to this
search by suggesting and substantiating specific defini-
tions of two basic ecological terms. I certainly realize
that this problem is very complex and its exhaustive
solution is practically unattainable, because it is impos-
sible to find an ideal definition that would be adequate
to all imaginable situations or satisfy all experts. Nev-
ertheless, it is worth trying to propose modern variants
of refined definitions capable of taking into account
large volumes of new information concerning aquatic
[6, 11–15] and terrestrial [7, 9, 10, 14] ecosystems.
Sometimes, the terms used in the definition require
additional explanation themselves (e.g., trophic struc-
ture, biocenosis, community, etc.) [3]. For example,
according to a typical definition, ecosystem is a biolog-
ical community together with its physical environment
(see p. 679 in [5]). However, this definition by no
means reflects the whole body of experimental findings
and theoretical concepts accumulated in ecology dur-
ing the past decades. Given the remarks made above in
this work, the following variant of definition can be
suggested:
Ecosystem is the complex of interconnected living
organisms inhabiting particular area or unit of space,
together with their environment and all their interrela-
tionships and relationships with the environment. Eco-
system is characterized by the description of popula-
Moscow State University, Vorob’evy gory, Moscow,
119899 Russia
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tions (abundance) of individual species; interspecies
relationships; activity of organisms; physical and
chemical characteristics of environment; flows of mat-
ter, energy, and information; and description of changes
of these parameters with time.
This definition does not contain terms such as
trophic structure, trophic levels, biocenosis, biotope,
community, components, systems, and succession.
Because this definition is applicable to both aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems, as well as to natural or model
systems of various ranges and degrees of complexity, it
seems to be quite universal. Specific features of this
definition and their substantiation are briefly summa-
rized in Table 1.
The term biogeocenosis, suggested in the early
1940s by Sukachev [2], has gained wide recognition [7,
8]. This term is widely used in ecological research. The
classical definition given by Sukachev is cited in many
manuals and textbooks. However, a large body of new
ecological information accumulated since the time of
introduction of the term makes it reasonable to consider
new variants of the definition. These definitions should
take into account both recent progress in biological
research and specific features of the current practice of
the use of this term. For example, many researchers
apply this term to aquatic ecosystems. To be applicable
to aquatic ecosystems, the original definition of this
term should be revised. According to the modern taxo-
nomic system, fungi are excluded from the plant king-
dom. New findings show that the information flow
plays a significant role in the organization of superor-
ganism structures [9, 14]. Based on a modified defini-
tion of V.N. Sukachev, the following definition of bio-
geocenosis can be suggested:
Biogeocenosis is an aggregate of natural compo-
nents (atmosphere, rocks, plants, animals, representa-
tives of microorganisms and fungi, soil and hydrologi-
cal conditions, and bottom sediments in the case of
aquatic systems) in a particular area of land or water.
Biogeocenosis is characterized by specific relation-
ships between components; specific types of matter,
energy, and information flows providing a certain
degree of integrity (unity of components, indivisibility)
142 OSTROUMOV

Table 1. Specific features of the definition of ecosystem proposed in this work

Examples and comment

No. Specific feature of the definition Brief substantiation
on the preceding column

1 Indication that “living organisms The universality of the definition is Biological organisms may inhabit a conside-
inhabit a particular area or unit of increased to include situations with rable fraction (in terms of size and environmen-
space” aquatic and soil systems in which tal diversity) of the system volume in the bulk
organisms inhabit the bulk of the of the water [6] and the bulk of the soil [10]
water or the bulk of the soil

2 Direct indication to the ecosystem The definition is more plain and The following characteristics have been shown
characteristics that are important specific; the importance of biolo- to be necessary: abundance of individual spe-
for its description gical and nonbiological (physical cies, interrelationships between them [4, 7, 8],
and chemical) characteristics of the specific physical and chemical environmental
system is emphasized parameters [6, 10], seasonal and succession
changes and their dynamics with time

3 Activity of organisms is put on
the list of ecosystem characteris-
tics required for its description
The importance of the physiological
activity of organisms (e.g., the rate of
photosynthesis, primary productivity,
community respiration rate, rate of
water filtration by hydrobionts, etc.)
Type and functions of ecosystem are mainly
determined by its productivity [5], which
depends on the physiological activity of
organisms. The rate of water filtration by
hydrobionts is important to maintain the
water quality in aquatic ecosystems at a
sufficiently high level [11, 15]

4 Flows of matter and energy have
been introduced instead of the
terms “turnover of matter and
energy” or “exchange of matter
and energy between system
components”
The essence of the processes of matter
and energy transfer is defined more
accurately; because some of these pro-
cesses are unidirectional, the term flow
is more correct than the term exchange
Transfer of pollutants (including radionu-
clides) along the trophic chain is unidirec-
tional [13]. Transfer of matter and some
chemical elements (C, N, P, Si, Al)
by pellets settling in water [12] is also an
example of unidirectional transfer (along
the vector of gravity force)

5 Flows of information have been Flows of information are important to There are many examples of information
introduced in addition to flows provide contact between organisms, transfer by pheromones [9], attractants,
of matter and energy regulation of their interaction in the deterrents, and other ecologically important
ecosystem, and ecosystem stability substances produced by organisms [14]

and their changes with time. Organisms usually con-
tribute to environment formation or modification.
Specific features of the new definition and its com-
parison with the classical Sukachev’s definition [2] are
briefly described in Table 2. The following specific fea-
tures of the variant should be emphasized.
(1) Taking into consideration the modern concept of
natural systems called biogeocenoses, the words about
water surface; fungi; and flows of matter, energy, and
information have been added; a new conclusion was
added.
(2) The word “uniformity” is omitted (in the defini-
tion by Sukachev it was used in the context of uniform
natural phenomena); the word “exchange” (in the con-
text of energy and matter exchange) has been replaced
by “flows”; the last part of the definition has been omit-
ted (replaced by a new variant discussed above).
(3) It has been noted that living organisms usually
contribute to environment formation or modification.
(4) The problem of unity of the system’s compo-
nents is considered as adequately and carefully as pos-
sible (“a certain degree of integrity” has been
included).
(5) It is noted that biogeocenoses tend to change
with time.
I realize that the variant of definition suggested in
this work is far from ideal. In many cases other variants
of definition of the term ecosystem are more useful [3–
8]. I hope that the use and discussion of different vari-
ants will promote further progress in the development
of the definitions of these basic terms. The evolution of
the terms inevitably occurs as new ecological data, are
accumulated.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to V.D Fedorov, G.V. Dobrovol’skii,
E.A. Kriksunov, V.L. Kontrimavichus, V.N. Maksimov,
A.S. Vladychenskii, A.P. Melikyan and many other col-
leagues from Moscow State University and Russian
Academy of Sciences for stimulating discussion of
general ecological problems. I am also grateful to Aca-

DOKLADY BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Vol. 383 2002

 NEW DEFINITIONS OF THE CONCEPTS AND TERMS ECOSYSTEM AND BIOGEOCENOSIS 143

Table 2. Specific features of the definition of biogeocenosis proposed in this work (see the text)
Difference from the classical The universality of the definition and its
No.
definition by Sukachev (1972) [2] applicability to aquatic systems is emphasized
1 “Land and water surface” is used instead of “land The universality of the definition and its applicability to aquatic
surface” systems is emphasized
2 The term “uniform phenomena” is omitted Studies performed in the past decades gave many examples of
heterogeneity of some parameters (temperature, illuminance, etc.)
and variability of these parameters within the biogeocenosis.
Synusias and consortiums are other examples of heterogeneity [8]
3 Fungi are added to the list of biotic components Fungi were previously assigned to plants; however, according to the
modern taxonomic system, they are excluded from the plant kingdom
4 Bottom sediments are added to the list of The universality of the definition and its applicability to aquatic
biogeocenosis components systems is emphasized
5 The word “exchange” in the expression “exchange of This substitution is required to provide higher accuracy, because, in
matter and energy” is replaced by the word “flows” many cases, unidirectional flows rather than bidirectional exchange
take place
6 The word “information” is added to the expression Studies performed in the past decades gave many examples of the
“flows of matter and energy” important role of information transfer in the processes of formation
of multiple connections and interactions between the components
of biogeocenoses [8, 9, 14]
7 It is noted that living organisms usually contribute It is emphasized that living organisms are involved in environment
to environment formation or modification formation and modification. The examples of this involvement have
been presented by many authors in studies on terrestrial (soil) [10]
and aquatic [11, 15] systems
8 The last part of the definition is omitted and re- More specific expressions are used; the possibility of changes with
placed by a new variant time is emphasized. Specific features of community dynamics (re-
versible and irreversible changes, including seasonal and circadian
rhythms, fluctuations, successions, etc.) were extensively discussed
in ecological literature [2–5, 7, 8]

demician L.M. Sushchenya for reviewing the manu-
script, to V.L. Kas’yanov, V.N. Pavlov, and A.I. Azovskii
for valuable criticism of the preliminary version of the
manuscript, and to Dr. Peter J. Wangersky for useful
advise.
This study was supported by IBG.
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DOKLADY BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Vol. 383 2002