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The significance of disaster in today¶s environment

sometimes comes under question. Why do we need to bother so

much? After all, disaster has been with us as long as recorded

history, and presumably even longer. Generations of people have

had to withstand disaster. They have suffered the consequences

and recovered from them, and life has continued on. Basically, this

is true. However, there are certain factors which need to be

considered in relation to the modern challenges which face disaster

management. Natural phenomena such as earthquakes, cyclones,

volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, wildfires, floods, landslides and

droughts still persist. So do their basic man-made counterparts,

such as major accidents. These disasters continue to cause

grievous human casualties, economic and social loss, and damage

to the environment. It is certainly true that we have learned to

cope with these problems to some extent. But we have neither

eliminated nor contained them. So, whilst we may have modified

their effects in various ways, they continue to inflict unacceptable

pressure on a world population which, in terms of total

subsistence, is already finding it difficult to make ends meet. These

disasters are inevitable situations and can occur unpredictably.

When disasters strikes, healthcare professionals, specially nurses,

are the ones who respond immediately. It is certainly important for

nursing students to gain adequate knowledge and appropriate skills

on disaster management for they are future disaster responders in

the country. Incorporating basic life supports and first aids to the

curriculum among level four nursing students in giving emergent

care, seminars attended by the level four students improve their

knowledge and skills. However, enhancements seminars on the

said activity are necessary to increase the degree of retention

among students and boost their confidence in performing these

procedures without mistakes in times of disasters.

Regional situation update as of January 19,2011, Siquijor

was reported to have 21 diarrhea cases in the municipality of San

Enrique due to contaminated water source caused by heavy rains.

In Cebu, flooding incident occurred in Brgy. Poblacion II and III,

Carcar with fifty families affected. One, identified as Sherwin

Tejada was reported missing in Brgy. Poblacion II, believed to be

drowned. And nine road sections in Mactan were flooded which

either incurred washed out surfacing materials and with massive

debris along the road way and potholes. In Bohol, water released

from Ewon Hydro Dam in Brgy. Ewon and the Hanopol Hydro Dam

in Brgy. Hanopol, all in Sevilla. Brgys Bugang and Cambangay,

Brgys. Napo and Camba in Alicia and Brgys. Canawa and Cambani

in Candijay were heavily flooded.

As a result of the continuous heavy rains prevailing in Cebu

province three (3) landslides, two (2) flashfloods and one riprap

cave-in occurred on October 16, 2010, affecting the following

barangays in Cebu City: Landslides-Brgy. Lahug, Guadalupe, and

Kalunasan with five (5) houses damaged. Five (5) families were

evacuated to Brgy. Halls, relatives and friends. Flashflood- Brgy.

Sapangdaku and Sitio Prensa, Brgy. Tikoy, Argao, Cebu. One

school was damaged in Brgy. Sapangdaku, Cebu City. Rip-rap

Cave-in - Sitio Mahayahay, Brgy. Apas, Cebu City with one (1)

house/shanty damaged.
 On or about 9:10 A.M more or less of October 04, 2010, a

fire broke out in Urgello St. Sitio Atis and Sitio Upper Kawayan,

Brgy. Sambag I, Cebu City. Fire spread rapidly due to the densely

structures in Sitio Atis mostly made of light materials and reach to

Sitio Upper Kalubihan. Fire continues to spread through radiation to

the four-storey Engineering Building of Southwestern University.

The fourth floor of the said building composed of twenty rooms

more or less including an AVR room were totally burn in this

particular fire incident. Involved were estimated eighty five

structures and shanties of residential occupancy and the four

storey building of Southwestern University.

(RESEARCH ON % OF TRAINED HEALTH CARE

PROFESSIONALS)

The researchers are competent enough to conduct the study

since they have undergone seminars such as Advance Cardiac Life

Support (ACLS), Basic Life Support and First aid training. They

have also completed a course on Nursing Care II and passed the

TESDA assessment examination for Caregivers. They were able to

serve community extensions and hospital duties. Furthermore, the

researchers are currently enrolled in Southwestern University, 3rd

year, taking this opportunity to assess the knowledge and skills of

level - IV nursing students of the said school on Disaster

Management.

For medical personnel and organization to be aware of the level of

knowledge and skills that any individual has acquired, an

evaluation needs to be done. The researchers aspire to gain an

understanding of the level of retention of knowledge and

competence in the skills of the Level IV students at Southwestern

University on Disaster Management in order to have an idea of

whether a Disaster Management Seminar is needed. The necessity

of knowledge and skills on Disaster Management has been noted to

be important for future nurses today because of the increasing

incidences of calamities and accidents. Being equipped with the

right skills and knowledge, the researchers can make the difference

between life and death and thus lessen further sufferings.

 

This is anchored on Benjamin Bloom¶s Taxonomy of Learning

Domains; he identified three domains of educational activities

namely: Cognitive domain, Affective domain and Psychomotor

domain. This taxonomy was adapted and refined by the former

students of Bloom, Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl or labeled

as Anderson and Krathwohl as recently 2005, whose theories

extended Bloom¶s work to far more complex.

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the

development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or

recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and the concepts

that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills.

There are six major categories starting from the simplest behavior

to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees

of difficulties. This is, the first one must be mastered before the

next one can take place. The six major categories includes: first is

Knowledge which Recall data or information. Second is

Comprehension which understands the meaning, translation,

interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems and

state a problem in one¶s own words. Third is Application, it use a

concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction

and applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations

in the work place. Fourth is Analysis, it separates material or

concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure

may be understood and distinguishes between facts and

inferences. Fifth is Synthesis, it builds a structure or a pattern from

diverse elements and put parts together to form a whole, with

emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. And sixth is

Evaluation, it makes judgments about the value of idea or

materials.

The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal

with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation,

enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories

are listed from the simplest behavior to the mist complex: First is

Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected

attention. Second is Responding to Phenomena: Active

participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a

particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize

compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in

responding (motivation). Third is Valuing: The worth or value a

person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior.

This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of

commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of

specified values, which clues to these values are expressed in the

earner¶s overt behavior and are often identifiable. Fourth is

Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting

different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating a

unique value system. The emphasis on comparing, relating, and

synthesizing values and fifth is Internalizing values

(characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior.

The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most

importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives

are concerned with the student¶s general patterns of adjustments

(personal, social, emotional).

The psychomotor domain includes physical movements,

coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of

these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed,

precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The

seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the

most complex: First is Perception: The ability to use sensory cues

to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation,

though cue selection, to translation. Second is Set: Readiness to

act. It includes mental, physical and emotional sets. These three

sets are dispositions that predetermine a person¶s response to

different situations (sometimes called mindsets). Third is Guided

Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes

imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved

by practicing. Fourth is Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage

in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become

habitual and the movements can be performed with some

confidence and proficiency. Fifth is Complex Overt Response: The

skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement

patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly

coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This

category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic

performance. For example, players often utter sounds of

satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw

a football, because they can tell by the feel or the act what the

result will produce. Sixth is Adaptation: skills are well developed

and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special

requirements and seventh is Origination: Creating new movement

patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning

outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.

 According to Stenberg¶s definition of Human Intelligence, it is

a mental activity directed towards purposive adaption to, selection

and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one¶s life

which means that intelligence is how well an individual deals with

environmental changes throughout their lifespan. Sternberg¶s

theory comprises three parts: componential, experimental, and

practical (Sternberg, 2005).

Analytic or Componential Dimension is the methods people

use to process and analyze information. Also known as the critical

portion of intelligence. Creative or Experimental Dimension ± This

aspect of intelligence examines how people approach new and

unfamiliar tasks. This is also considered the insightful dimension to

a person¶s intelligence. Practical or Contextual Dimension ± The

individual¶s intelligence as it relates to their

environment/sociocultural context. How an individual adapts to

their current environment, shapes their current environment, and

selects a better environment all make up this practical aspect of

intelligence. (Sternberg, 2011).

Knowledge is the culmination of the integration of what is

known theoretically, experimentally, and intuitively. Therefore,

nursing knowledge is the culmination of the integration of what is

known theoretically, experimentally, and intuitively about nursing.

Nursing knowledge encompasses not only information this is

epistemologically significant to nursing, but also knowledge from

related disciplines that may influence nursing practices.

Development of nursing knowledge is influenced by ongoing formal

education and enhancement of nursing skills, values, meanings,

and experiences as well as the knowledge, skills, values, meanings,

and experience of others, including patients, families, and others

involved in providing health care (Stenberg, 2007).

According to Bandura (1997), although observation starts the

learning process, expertise is developed through practice with

internal and external feedback (DeYoung, 2007). Sheer repetition

without indications of improvement of or any kind of reinforcement

is a poor way attempt to learn. Most nurse educators have had

experience with a learner who is spending a great deal of time

practicing on their own and yet on performing them incorrectly

when being observed or evaluated (DeYoung, 2007).

Nurses are knowledge workers. Ducker¶s conceptualization of

knowledge on workers requires specialized training to do work that

requires judgment. The way in which nursing students where once

traditionally taught implies that for nurses, knowledge is a

necessary burden. In 1991, Barium and Chrisman stated that

nursing professions admonish students to learn so that patient will

not be harmed and killed, whereas their medical counter parts

teach their students knowledge that enables to do something and

subsequently, that knowledge is power (Bautista et al., 2005). Just

as the goals of the practice arises from the beliefs and values

adopted by the occupation, the knowledge and skills needed by the

practitioners are determined by the stated goals of the models.

Once a discipline which involves practice has identified its beliefs

and values and what is trying to achieved, it becomes relatively

easy to identify the knowledge and skills required for practice.

In an emergency care setting, the basic views had been

related to the belief that people are biological who can be affected

by illness or injury during an accident, and the goals have been

grounded in a desire to revive or give an immediate first aid care

for a particular victim. This has therefore leaded to a need of

knowledge based in the biological sciences an emergency care,

supported by technical skills and confidence when giving immediate

emergency care. It is recognized that there must be alternative or

additional knowledge related to together aspects of human

behavior which is required for practice (Bastatle; 2005).

Nursing is a vocation and an occupation, and nurses need

knowledge, skills and methods based on research to carry out in

effective practice. Nurses also possess special knowledge and skills

that are directed to the care of the client in Emergency situations.

These characteristics are learned both in the classroom setting and

in the clinical area, the very reason for incorporating lectures,

laboratories and related learning experiences in the curriculum of

nursing students today (Craven; 2006).

The ultimate purpose of knowledge is to improve nursing

practice personal knowledge incorporates experience, knowing,

encountering, and actualizing the self within the practice. Personal

maturity and freedom are components of personal knowledge.

Clinical knowledge refers to the individual nurse¶s personal

knowledge. It results from using multiple ways of knowing while

solving problems during client care provision. Clinical knowledge is

manifested in the acts of practicing nurses and results from

combining personal knowledge and empirical knowledge (Jones and

Barlette, 2007).

Wills (2002) stated that theory-based practice is ³the

application to clinical practice of knowledge of various theories,

models and principles from the scientific, behavioral, humanistic,

and nursing disciplines´. Practice is the basis for nursing theory

development, and nursing theory must be validated in practice,

and it should be reapplied in practice (Pearson, 2005).

According to Johnson (2005), practice is a complex activity

and the theory practice relationship is sustained when theory

informs the practitioner to do what is right and just (good

practice). In nursing, practice without theory becomes the role

performance of activities based on tradition and following orders.

With increasing clinical knowledge with critical thinking skills to

make better clinical decisions and thereby improved practice.

Nursing, like all practice disciplines, uses a special combination of

theory and practice grounds theory. Nurses rely heavenly on

theoretical understanding and practice will be improved not just by

experience, but by understanding of theory. The application of

theory in practice requires an understanding of concepts and

principles associated with the needs of a particular client, group of

clients, or community, and recognition of when and how to use

these concepts and principles when planning and implementing

nursing care.

Maintaining the knowledge and skills is a substantial

responsibility. Knowledge and skills that are learned in any

profession decay and weaken when they are not used on a

continual basis. Consider CPR. If these skills are not used since the

original training, it is likely that the nurse will perform CPR in a way

that is less than desirable. Continuing education and refresher

courses are one way by which one can maintain skills and

knowledge. According to Gordon (1995), the more individuals

connect new information to old, the more individuals ruminate the

new information and the more frequently we recall and think about

it, the more lasting it would be (DeYoung, 2006).

Nursing practice in all settings involves a wide range of skills,

many of which are used in the care of most patients. Nursing care

throughout the nursing process depends on effective skills, which

are the basis for communication among health care professionals.

Skills are essential for providing care for all clients with

physiological illness and other health needs (Benner, 2005).

Skills are deliberate acts or activities in the cognitive and

psychomotor domain that operationalize nursing knowledge,

values, meaning, and experiences in practice. Nursing skills are

selected, performed, and evaluated for, with , or on behalf of those

for whom we care, and require reasoning that reflects nursing

knowledge; values, meanings, and experience. Skills have

historically been viewed as technical, psychomotor acts, such as

hand washing and the implementation of sterile technique. Nursing

skill, however, include much more, such as communication,

management, intuitiveness and experimental knowing critical

thinking, and reasoning. The selection implementation and

evaluation of nursing skills require the utilization of intentional

reasoning skill and the integration of relevant nursing knowledge,

values, meaning, and experience (Bevis, 2006).

Students generally have an experimental void in practice,

which is compensated for by gathering and relying in theoretical

knowledge and by maintaining a certain degree of scientific rigidity

in your reasoning. As the student moves toward competency, more

confidence is developed and experimental knowing is acknowledge

and integrated into the practice. However, clinical decisions are still

guided primarily by scientific evidence. One purpose of studying

theory as an undergraduate nursing student is to gain an

appreciation of the role that theory plays in advancing nursing

practice. To advance as a nurse, scholarly activities need to be

incorporated into the practice in an attempt to improve reasoning

and decision making skills.

A concept often associated with experience is competency. It

is not synonymous with experience and is not limited to

performance of psychomotor skills. Competency in nursing includes

the progressive development of cognitive reasoning ability as well.

The quality, accuracy and effectiveness of nursing practice vary

depending on the nurse¶s level of education and experience

(Benner, 1984). Nurses move through clearly delineated stages as

they progress toward expert practice. Skills are done so

automatically by experience nurses that they¶re knowledge and

observation skills used are often not made explicit. Skills need to

be built on a practice based on a variety of experiences and linked

to theory. These skills include observation, intuition, questioning

and comparing and contrasting.

Learning specific skills that we needed to provide appropriate

care for victims of sudden illness or injury is important. An

emergency can happen at any time or at any place. An emergency

is a situation demanding immediate action. The goal of training in

the basics of first aid is to help students recognize and respond to

any emergency appropriately and help save life (WHO, 2008).

Kholberg¶s Moral Development Theory, states that

adolescents become capable of abstract thought, that are capable

of internalizing standards of conduct (they do what they think is

right regardless of whether they have social rules). This is termed

as post conventional development (Pilliteri, 2005).

According to the American Red Cross, trainings/seminars is

very important in order to provide a quality respond to the

individual in an emergency situation. They had established different

levels of training to meet the needs of different categories of

responders.
 Disasters are often very different from one another, and each

may beget very unique demands and create very specific needs.

However, as in observing unending fractals, the closer we look, the

more detail surfaces-and the more a reliably repeating pattern

emerges as well. When construed from tenets of social and

community psychologies, the crux of disaster experience is the

dynamic interplan of individual and community experiences (Brown

and Perkins, 2006).

According to American Red Cross, Disaster Management

refers to the range of activities designed to maintain control over

disaster and emergency situation and to provide a framework for

helping at risk persons to avoid or recover from the impact of

disaster. Disaster management is an enormous task. They are not

confined to any particular location; neither do they disappear as

quickly as they appear. Therefore, it is imperative that there is

proper management to optimize efficiency of planning and

response. Due to limited resources, collaborative efforts at the

governmental, private and community levels are necessary. This

level of collaboration requires a coordinated and organized effort to

migrate against, prepare for, respond to, and recover from

emergencies and their effects in the shortest possible time.

Objectives of Disaster Management were reduce/avoid loss, reduce

impact and rapid and sustainable recovery.

Disaster Management has Disaster Continuum. First is the

Disaster, it is series disruption of the functioning of society, causing

widespread human, material, or environment losses which exceed

the ability of the affected society to cope within its own resources.

Next is the Emergency Response, it is an activity undertaken

immediately following a disaster. It includes damage and needs

assessment, immediate relief, rescue, and debris clearance. Next is

the Rehabilitation, it is an activity that are undertaken to Help the

Victims return to ³normal life´ and be re-integrated into the regular

community functions. It includes replacement of repairable public

utilities, housing, and settlement inclusive of provision of new

livelihood activities.

Next is the Reconstruction, it is the return of community to

pre-disaster situation which includes replacement of

infrastructures, lifeline facilities and putting order in the physical

environment, utilizing post-disaster assistance to improve long-

term development prospects. The activities that would be carried

out during reconstruction are essentially development oriented

since they not only reduce the disaster impact but also provide

socio-economic benefits.

Next is the Development, it is relationship of disaster-related

factors with national development planning. This planning should

include mitigation measures and should consider students

potentials for increased disaster risk. (e.g., building in vulnerable

area). Next is the Prevention, it measures that actually stop

disasters from occurring (e.g., moving away from a hazardous

location).

Next is Mitigation, it measures to reduce the impact of

disaster (e.g., constructing dams to control flood). Next is

Preparedness, it measures taken to be able to deal with threat

when it occurs. (e.g., having enough supplies of basic necessities).

And lastly, Warning is information given to the public when a threat

has been identified and assessed as about to affect a particular

area. (e.g., Storm warning signals) (National Red Cross).

Elements of Disaster Management includes Risk

Management, this consist of identifying threats/hazards their

probability of occurrence, estimating potential impact of the threat

in the communities at risk, determining measures that can reduce

the risk, and taking action to reduce the threat. This includes

hazard mapping, vulnerability mapping, estimation of potential

losses (housing and physical structures, agricultural, economic and

infrastructure), and development of appropriate disaster

prevention and mitigation strategies.

Next is Loss Management, this addresses the human,

structural, and economic losses through both pre-and-post-disaster

designed to keep the losses to minimum. Another element of

disaster management is Control of Events; this is the most critical

element of disaster management. Control is maintained through

the following measures: a.) anticipation of disaster and the cause-

effect relationship b.) mitigation or reduction of the scope of

disaster c.) disaster preparedness. d.) accurate information

collection and assessment e.) balanced response f.) timely action

g.) effective leadership h.) discipline among people involved.

Disaster assistance should be provided in equitable and fair

manner. Fairness must underlie relief and reconstruction policies in

order to ensure that disaster victims receive fair treatment and

obtain adequate access to resources available.

 The element of disaster management is called Equity of

Assistance. Another type of element of disaster management is

Resource Management, in order to meet all competing needs and

demands of a post disaster environment, resource management

becomes essential. The use of available resources should be

maximized to the greatest advantage. And the latest element of

disaster management is Impact Reduction; disasters can have

impacts far beyond the immediate human, physical or economic

losses. Disasters represent a loss of opportunity not only to

individuals but also to the entire community. They can be a serious

setback to the countries entire development.

According to Corina Warfield, Disaster management aims to

reduce, or avoid the potential losses from hazards, assure prompt

and appropriate assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve rapid

and effective recovery. The Disaster management cycle illustrates

the ongoing process by which governments, business, and civil

society plan for reduce and the impact of disasters, react during

and immediately following a disaster, and take steps to recover

after a disaster occurred. Appropriate actions at all points in the

cycle lead to greater preparedness, better warnings, reduced

vulnerability or the prevention of disasters during the next iteration

of the cycle. The complete disaster management cycle includes

shaping of public policies and plans that either modify the causes

of disasters or mitigate their effects on people, property, and

infrastructure.

The mitigation and preparedness phases occur as disaster

management improvements are made in anticipation of disaster

event. Development considerations play a key role in contributing

to the mitigation and preparation of a community to effectively

confront a disaster. As a disaster occurs, disaster management

actors, in particular humanitarian organizations become involved in

the immediate response and long-term recovery phases. The four

disaster management phases do not always, or even generally,

occur in isolation or in the precise order. Often phases of the cycle

overlap and the length of each phase greatly depends on the

severity of the disaster. Mitigation is minimizing the effects of

disaster e.g. building codes and zoning; vulnerability analyses;

public education. Preparedness is planning how to respond. Such

as preparedness plans; emergency exercises/ training; warning

systems. Response is efforts to minimize the hazards created by a

disaster such as search and rescue; emergency relief. Recovery-

Returning the community to normal like temporary housing;

grants; medical care.

Sustainable Developments is developmental considerations

contribute to all aspects of the disaster management cycle. One of

the main goals of disaster management, and one of its strongest

links with development, is the promotion of sustainable livelihoods

and their protection and recovery during disasters and

emergencies. Where this goal is achieved, people have a greater

capacity to deal with disasters and their recovery is more rapid and

long lasting. In a development oriented disaster management

approach, the objectives are to reduce hazards, prevent disasters,

and prepare for emergencies. Therefore, developmental

considerations are strongly represented in the mitigation and

preparedness phases of the disaster management cycle.

Inappropriate development processes can lead to increased

vulnerability to disasters and loss of preparedness for emergency

situations.

Mitigation activities actually eliminate or reduce the

probability of disaster occurrence, or reduce the effects of

unavoidable disasters. Mitigation measures include building codes;

vulnerability analyses updates; zoning and land use management;

building use regulations and safety codes; preventive health care;

and public education. Mitigation will depend on the incorporation of

appropriate measures in national and regional development

planning. Its effectiveness will also depend on the availability of

information on hazards, emergency risks, and the countermeasures

to be taken. The mitigation phase, and indeed the whole disaster

management cycle, includes the shaping of public policies and

plans that either notify the causes of disasters or mitigate their

effects on people, property, and infrastructure.

Preparedness its goal is to achieve a satisfactory level of

readiness to respond to any emergency situation through programs

that strengthen the technical and managerial capacity of

governments, organizations and, communities. These measures

can be described as logistical readiness to deal with disaster and

can be enhanced by having response mechanisms and procedures,

rehearsals, developing long-term and short-term strategies, public

education and building early warning systems.

 Preparedness can also take the form of ensuring that

strategic reserves of food, equipment, water, medicines and other

essentials are maintained in cases of national or local catastrophes.

During the preparedness phase, governments, organizations, and

individuals develop plans to save lives, minimize disaster damage,

and enhance disaster response operations. Preparedness measures

include preparedness plans; emergency exercises or training;

warning systems; emergency personnel/contact lists; mutual aid

agreements; and public information/education. As with mitigation

efforts, preparedness actions depend on the incorporation of

appropriate measures in national and regional development plans.

In addition, their effectiveness depends on the availability of

information on hazards, emergency risks and the countermeasures

to be taken, and on the degree to which government agencies,

non-governmental organizations and the general public are able to

make use of this information. Humanitarian Action during a

disaster, humanitarian agencies are often called upon to deal with

immediate response and recovery. To be able to respond

effectively, these agencies must have experienced leaders, trained

personnel, adequate transport and logistic support, appropriate

communications, and guidelines for working in emergencies. If the

necessary preparations have not been made, the humanitarian

agencies will not be able to meet the immediate needs of the

people.

Response aims to provide immediate assistance to maintain

life, improve health and support the morale of the affected

population. Such assistance may range from providing specific but

limited aid, such as assisting refugees with transport, temporary

shelter, and food, to establishing semi-permanent settlement in

camps and other locations. It may also involve initial repairs to

damaged infrastructure. The focus in the response phase is on

meeting the basic needs of the people until more permanent and

sustainable solutions can be found. Humanitarian organizations are

often strongly present in this phase of the disaster management

cycle.

Recovery, as the emergency is brought under control, the

affected population is capable of undertaking a growing number of

activities aimed at restoring their lives and the infrastructure that

supports them. There is no distinct point at which immediate relief

changes into recovery and then into long-term sustainable

development. There will be many opportunities during the recovery

period to enhance prevention and increase preparedness, thus

reducing vulnerability. Ideally, there should be a smooth transition

from recovery to on-going development. Recovery activities

continue until all systems return to normal or better.

The establishment of the National Disaster Coordinating

Council is embodied in Sec. 2 of PD 1566. The Secretary of

National Defense heads the NDCC with the heads of 18

departments/ agencies as members. These include the Chief of

Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines; Secretary-General,

Philippine National Red Cross; Philippine Information Agency;

Executive Secretary and the Administrator, Office of Civil Defense

who is the Executive Officer of the Council. It is through the NDCC

member-agencies that disaster preparedness, prevention,

mitigation and response carry out its corresponding tasks and

responsibilities under the NDCC system.

At the national level, the National Disaster Coordinating

Council serves as the President¶s adviser on disaster preparedness

programs, disaster operations and rehabilitation efforts undertaken

by the government and the private sector. It acts as the top

coordinator of all disaster management and the highest allocator of

resources in the country to support the efforts of the lower NDCC

level. In the discharge of its functions, the NDCC utilizes the

facilities and services of the Office of Civil Defense as its operating

arm.

Lack of knowledge and skills about disaster management is

one of the factors why lots of people experience longer sufferings

in a devastating tragedy happened in our lives, just like what

happened in our lives, just like what happened last year 2009 in

Manila from typhoon Ondoy and Peping. If only people at that time

are prepared, knowledgeable and skillfulled enough on managing a

disaster, maybe they could easily recovered or perhaps lessen their

suffering on that particular area. Seminars and lectures about

disaster management are very helpful to all individuals especially

students like us t better understand the importance of disaster

management in our everyday life, because we don¶t know what will

happen every second, every minute and every hour in a day and

thus sufficient knowledge and skills on Disaster Management will

serve as everybody¶s greatest weapon.

p
p This study is also anchored in the theory of Ernestine

Wiedenbach ³The Prescriptive Theory´. She wrote Clinical nursing²

A helping art, in which she described her ideas about nursing as a

³concept and philosophy´. According to her, nursing is nurturing

and caring for someone in a motherly fashion. That care is given in

the immediate present and can be given by any caring person.

Nursing is a helping service that is rendered with compassion, skill,

and understanding to those in need of care, counsel, and

confidence in the area of health (Wiedenbach, 1977).

Nursing wisdom is acquired through meaningful experience

(Wiedenbach, 1964). Sensitivity alerts the nurse to an awareness

of inconsistencies in a situation that might signify a problem. It is a

key factor in assisting the nurse to identify the patient¶s need for

help (Wiedenbach, 1977).

The nurse¶s beliefs in values regarding reverence for the gift

of life, the worth of the individual, in the inspirations of each

human being determine the quality of the nursing care. The nurse¶s
purpose in nursing represents a professional commitment

(Wiedenbach, 1970)

Wiedenbach (1964) states the characteristics of a

professional person that are essential for the professional nurse

include the following: (a)Clarity of purpose; (b)Mastery of skills

and knowledge essential for fulfilling the purpose; (c)Ability to

establish and sustain purposeful working relationship with others,

both professional and non-professional individuals; (d)Interest in

advancing knowledge in the area of interest and in creating new

knowledge; (e)Dedication to furthering the good of mankind rather

than to self-aggrandizement.

The practice of nursing comprises a wide variety if services,

each directed toward the attainment of one of its three

components: (1) identification of the patient¶s need for help, (2)

ministration of the help needed, and (3) validation that the help

provided was indeed helpful to the patient (Wiedenbach, 1977).

Within Wiedenbach¶s (1964) ³identification of the patient¶s need for

help,´ she presents three principles of helping: (1) the principle of

inconsistency/consistency, (2) the principle of purposeful

perseverance, and (3) the principle of self-extension. The principle

of inconsistency/consistency refers to the assessment of the

patient to determine some action, word, or appearance that is

different from the expected²that is, something out of the ordinary

for this patient. It is important for the nurse to observe the patient

as astutely and then critically analyze her observations. The

principle of purposeful perseverance is based on the nurse¶s sincere

desire to help the patient. The nurse needs to strive to continue

her efforts to identify and meet the patient¶s need for help in spite

of difficulties she encounters while seeking to use her resources

and capabilities effectively and sensitivity. The principle of self-

extension recognizes that each nurse has limitations that are both

personal and situational. It is important that she recognize when

these limitations are reached and that she seek help from others

including through prayer.

The Prescriptive Theory of Wiedenbach may be described as

a system of conceptualizations invented to some purpose.

Prescriptive theory (a situation-producing theory) may be

described as one that conceptualizes both a desired situation and

the prescription by which it is to be brought about. Thus, a

prescriptive theory directs action toward an explicit goal.

Wiedenbach¶s (1969) prescriptive theory is made up of three

factors, or concepts: (1) The central purpose which the practitioner

recognizes as essential to the particular discipline; (2) The

prescription for the fulfilment of the central purpose; (3) The

realities in the immediate situation that influence the fulfilment of

the central purpose.

The nurse¶s central purpose defines the quality of health she

desires to effort or sustains in her patient and specifies what she

recognizes to be her special responsibility in caring for the patient

(Wiedenbach, 1970). This central purpose (or commitment) is

based on the individual nurse¶s philosophy. Wiedenbach (1964)

states: Purpose and philosophy are, respectively, goal and guide of

clinical nursing. Purpose ± that which the nurse wants to

accomplish through watch she does ± is the overall goal toward

which she is striving, and so is constant. It is her reason for being

and doing. Philosophy, an attitude toward life and reality that

evolves from each nurse¶s beliefs and code of conducts, motivates

the nurse to act, guides her thinking about what she to do and

influences her decisions. It stems from both her culture and

subculture, and is an integral part of her. It is personal in

character, unique to each nurse, and expresses in her way of

nursing. Philosophy underlies purpose, and purpose reflects

philosophy.

Wiedenbach (1970) identifies three essential components for

a nursing philosophy: (1) a reverence for the gift of life, (2) a

respect for the dignity, worth, autonomy, and individuality of each

human being, and (3) a resolution to act dynamically in relation to

one¶s beliefs. Any of these concepts might be further developed.

However, Wiedenbach (1964-1970) emphasizes the second in her

work, formulating the following beliefs about the individual: (1)

human beings are endowed with unique potential to develop with

in themselves the resources that enable them to maintain and

sustain themselves; (2) Human beings basically strive toward self-

direction and relative independence, and desire not only to make

the best use of their capabilities and potentialities but also to fulfil

their responsibilities; (3) Human beings need stimulation in order

to make the best use of their capabilities and realize their self-

worth; (4) Whatever individuals do represents their best judgment

at the moment of doing it; (5) Self-awareness and self-acceptance

are essential to the individual¶s sense of integrity and self-worth.

Thus, the central purpose is a concept the nurse has thought

through ± one she has put into words, then believes in, and

accepts as a standard against which to measure the value of her

action to patient. It is based in her philosophy and suggests the

nurse¶s reason for being, the mission she believes is hers to

accomplish (Wiedenbach, 1970).

Once the nurse identified her own philosophy and recognizes

that the patient has autonomy and individuality, she can work with

the individual to develop a prescription or plan for his or her care.

A prescription is directive to activity ( Wiedenbach, 1969). It

³ specifies both the nature of the action that will most likely lead to
fulfilment of the nurse¶s central purpose and the thinking purpose

that determines it´ (Wiedenbach, 1970). A prescription may

indicate the broad general action appropriate of the basic concepts

as well as suggest the kind of behavior needed to carry out these

actions in accordance with the central purpose. These actions may

be voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary action is an intended

response, where as involuntary action is an intended response.

A prescription is directive to at least three kinds of voluntary

action: (1) mutually understood and agreed upon action (³the

practitioner has. . . evidence that the recipient understands the

implication of the intended action and is psychologically, physically

and/or physiologically receptive to it.´ ); (2) recipient-directed

action (³the recipient of the action essentially directs the way it is

to be carried out.´); and (3) practitioner-directed action (³ the

practitioner carries out the action. . . .´) (Wiedenbach, 1969). Once

the nurse has formulated a central purpose and has accepted it as

a personal commitment, she not only has establish the prescription

for her nursing but also is ready to implement it (Wiedenbach,

1970).
 When the nurse has determined her central purpose and has

developed the prescription, she must then consider the realities of

the situation in which she is to provide nursing care. Realities

consist of all factors ± physical, physiological, psychological,

emotional and spiritual ± that are at play in a situation in which

nursing action occur at any given moment. Wiedenbach (1970)

defines the fiver realities as: (1) the agent, (2) the recipient, (3)

the goal, (4) the means, and (5) the framework.

The agent, who practicing nurse or her delegate, is

characterize by personal attributes, capacities, capabilities, and

most importantly, commitment and competence in nursing. As the

agent, the nurse is the propelling force that moves her practice

toward its goal. In the course of this goal-directed movement, she

may engage in innumerable acts cold forth by her encounter with

actual or discrepant factors in situations within the realities of

which she herself is a part (Wiedenbach, 1967). The agent orders

has the following four basic responsibilities: (1) to reconcile her

assumption about the realties with her central purpose; (2) to

specify the objectives of her practice in terms of behavioral

outcomes that are realistically attainable; (3) to practice nursing in

accordance with her objectives; (4) to engage in related activities

which contribute to her self-realization and to the improvement of

nursing practice (Wiedenbach, 1970).

The recipient, the patient, is characterized by personal

attributes, problems, capacities, aspirations, and most important,

the ability to cope with the concerns or problems being

experienced (Wiedenbach, 1967). The patient is the recipient of

the nurse¶s action or the one on whose behalf the action is taken.

The patient is vulnerable, dependent on others for help and risks

loosing individuality, dignity, worth, and autonomy (Wiedenbach,

1970).

The goal is the desired outcome the nurse wishes to achieve.

The goal is the end result to be attained by nursing action. The

stipulation of an activity¶s goal gives focus to the nurse¶s action and

implies her reason for taking it (Wiedenbach, 1970).

 The means comprises the activities and devices through

which the practitioner is enabled to attain her goal. The means

includes, techniques, procedures, and devices that may be used to

facilitate nursing practice. The nurse¶s way of giving treatments, of

expressing concern, of using the means available is individual and

is determined by her central purpose and the prescription

(Wiedenbach, 1970).

The framework consists of the human, environmental,

professional, and organizational facilities that not only make up the

context within which nursing is practiced but also constitute its

currently existing limits (Wiedenbach, 1967). The framework is

composed of all the extraneous factors and facilities in the situation

that affect the nurse¶s ability to obtain desired results. It is a

conglomerate ³ objects, existing or missing, such as policies,

setting, atmosphere, time of day, humans, and happenings that

may be current, past, or anticipated (Wiedenbach, 1970)

 The realties offer uniqueness to every situation. The success

of professional nursing practice is dependent on them. Unless the

realities are recognized and dealt with, they may prevent

achievement of the goal.

The concepts of central purpose, prescription, and realities

are interdependent in Wiedenbach¶s theory of nursing. The nurse

develops a prescription for care that is based on her central

purpose, which is implemented in the realities of the situation.

Benner studies clinical nursing practice in an attempt to

discover and describe the knowledge embedded in nursing

practice; that is, knowledge accrues over time in a practice

discipline in is developed through dialogue in relationship in

situational context. She refers to this work as articulation research,

as noted earlier. One of the first philosophical distinctions that

Benner made was to differentiate between practical and theoretical

knowledge. Benner stated that knowledge development in practice

discipline ³consists of extending practical knowledge (know-how)

through theory-based scientific investigation in through the

charting of existence µknow-how¶ developed through clinical

experience in the practice of that discipline´. She believes that

nurses have been delinquent in documenting their clinical learning

and ³this lack of charting of our practices and clinical observation

deprives nursing theory of the uniqueness and richness of the

knowledge embedded in expert clinical practice´ (Benner, 1983).

Benner has contributed extensively to the description of the know-

how of nursing practice.

Scientists have long distinguished interactional causal

relationships as ³knowing that´ from ³knowing how´. Citing Kuhn

(1970) and Polanyi (1958), philosophers of science, Benner

(1984a) emphasizes the difference in knowing how, a practical

knowledge that may elude precise abstract for mutations, and

knowing that, which lends itself to theoretical explanations knowing

that is the way an individual comes to know by establishing causal

relationships between events. Knowing how is skill acquisition that

may defy knowing that; that is, an individual may know how before

the development of a theoretical explanation. Benner (1984a)

maintains that practical knowledge may extend theory or be

developed before scientific formulas. Clinical situations are always

more varied and complicated than theoretical accounts; therefore,

clinical practice is an area of inquiry and a source of knowledge

development. Clinical practice embodies the notion of excellence.

By studying practice, nurses can uncover new knowledge. Nursing

must develop the knowledge base of its practice (know-how) and,

through scientific investigation and observation, it must begin to

record and develop the know-how of clinical expertise. Ideally,

practice and theory set up a dialogue that creates new possibilities.

Theory is derived from practice and practice is altered or extended

by theory.

Benner (1984a) adopted Dreyfus model to clinical nursing

practice. The Dreyfus brothers develop the skills acquisition model

by studying the performance of chess masters and pilots in

emergency situations (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1980; Dreyfus &

Dreyfus, 1986). The model is situational and describes five levels

of skill acquisition and development: (1) novice, (2) advanced

beginner, (3) competent, (4) proficient, and (5) expert. The model
posits the changes in four aspects of performance occur in

movement through the levels of skill acquisition as follows: (1)

movement from a reliance on abstract principles and rules to use

of past, concrete experience, (2) shift from reliance on analytical,

rule-based thinking to intuition, (3) change in the learner¶s

perception of the situation from viewing it as a compilation of

equally relevant bits to viewing it as an increasingly complex whole

in which certain part stand out as more or less relevant, and (4)

passage from a detached observer, standing outside the situation,

to one of a position of involvement, fully engaged in the situation

(Benner, Tanner, & Chesla, 1992).

The performance level can be determined only by consensual

validation of expert judges and the assessment of the outcomes of

the situation (Benner, 1984a). In applying the model to nursing,

Benner noted ³experience-based skill acquisition is safer and

quicker when it rests upon a sound educational base´ (1984a,

p.xix). Benner (1984a) defines skill and skilled practice to mean

implementing skilled nursing interventions and clinical judgment

skills in actual clinical situations. In no case does this refer to

context-free psychomotor skills or other demonstrable enabling

skills outside the context of nursing practice.

In subsequent research further explicating the Dreyfus

model, Benner identified two interrelated aspects of practice that

also distinguish the level of practice from advanced beginner to

expert (Benner et.al., 1992, 1996). First, clinicians at different

levels of practice live in different clinical worlds, recognizing and

responding to different situated needs for action. Second, clinicians

develop what Benner terms Ô
, or the sense of responsibility

toward the patient, and evolve into fully participating members of

the health care team.

Benner attempted to highlight the growing edges of clinical

knowledge rather than to describe a typical nurse¶s day. Benner¶s

explanation of nursing practice goes beyond the rigid application of

rules and theories and is based on ³reasonable behaviour that

responds to the demands of given situation´ (1984a, p. xx). The

skills acquired through nursing experience and the perceptual

awareness that expert nurses develop as decision makers from the

³gestalt of the situation´ lead them to follow their hunches as they

search for evidence to confirm the subtle changes they observe in

patients (1984a, p. xviii).

The concept that experience is defined as the outcome when

preconceived notions are challenged, refined or refuted in actual

situations is based on Heidegger¶s (1962) and Gadamer¶s (1970)

work. As the nurse gains experience, clinical knowledge becomes

blend of practical and theoretical knowledge. Expertise develops as

the clinician tests and modifies principle-based expectation in the

actual situation. Heidegger¶s influence is evident in this and in

Benner¶s subsequent writings on the primacy of caring. Benner

refutes the dualistic Cartesian descriptions of mind minus body

person and espouses Heidegger¶s phenomenological description of

person as a self-interpreting being who is defined by concerns,

practices, and life experiences. Persons are always situated; that

is, they are engaged meaningfully in the context of where they are.

Persons come to situations with an understanding of the self in the

world. Heidegger (1962) termed practical knowledge as the kind of

knowing that occurs when a n individual is involved in the

situation. Persons share background meanings, skills, and habits

derived from their culture practices.

By virtue of being humans we have embodies intelligence, meaning

that we come to know things through being in situations. When a

familiar situation is encountered, there is embodies recognition of

its meaning. For example, once having witnessed someone develop

a pulmonary embolus, a nurse notices qualititative nuances and

has recognition ability for observing it prior to others who have

never seen it before. Benner and Wrubel (1989) stated, ³Skilled

activity, which is made possible by our embodied intelligence, has

been long regarded as µlower¶ than intellectual, reflective activity´

but argue than intellectual, reflective capacities are dependent on

embodied knowing. Embodied knowing and the meaning of being

our premises for the capacity to care; things matter and ³cause us

to be involved in and defined by our concerns´.

 ! 

This study will determine the knowledge and skills on

disaster management of Level IV students in Southwestern

University. The findings of this study will serve as a basis for a

proposed disaster management program.

In order for the main problem to be fully answered the following

subsidiary problems are presented:

1.p What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:

1.1p age

1.2p gender

1.3p seminars/training on disaster management attended

and:

_____ Basic Life Support

_____First Aid

_____None

1.4p number of previous experiences with disaster:

_____ Typhoon

_____ Earthquake

_____ Fire

_____Flood
 _____None

2.p What is the level of Knowledge of the Level IV Nursing

Students about Disaster Management?

3.p What is the level of Skills of the Level IV Nursing Students

about Disaster Management?

4.p Is there a significant relationship between the level of

knowledge on Disaster Management and profile of the

respondents?

5.p Is there a significant relationship between the level of skills

on Disaster Management and profile of the respondents?

6.p Is there a significant relationship between the level of

knowledge and level of skills of the respondents

7.p Based on the findings, what enhancement program may be

proposed?

  "##

HO1: There is no significant relationship between level of

Knowledge on Disaster Management and the profile of the

respondents.
 HO2: There is no significant relationship between the level of

Skills on Disaster Management and profile of the

respondents.

HO3: There is no significant relationship between the level of

Knowledge and the Level of Skills on Disaster Management of

the respondent.



The world is already facing a range of environmental and

subsistence crises. Disasters would just come like thieves in the

night and there is a great need for community involvement and

awareness to develop preparedness and self-reliance. It is about

time that we make actions that would help our country make a

change on this problem. The Researchers believe that the product

of this study can give answers to the ever changing needs of our

country especially on Disaster Management. The study will benefit

the following entities:

$  % #, who are the core beneficiaries of the

study, will develop knowledge and skills on disaster management

so that when disasters occur, the respondents will know how to

manage the situation with confidence, thus avoiding mistakes.

  c  #  &# '# will

benefit the fruit of this study. The study will serve as an evaluation

for the students and help the college determine if there is a need

for enhancement.

 c ## will gain additional knowledge and skills,

and it will be very useful if disaster occurs. Clinical Instructors can

also impart their knowledge and skills to their students.

( ## can utilize this study as a reference for

further researches. This will greatly benefit the Future Researchers

who wish to pursue a descriptive correlational study on the

knowledge and skills on disaster management among the level IV

nursing students of Southwestern University.

(      )# would

also benefit the study. The product of this study will serve as basis

for the organization to conduct further seminars to the different

institutions and enhanced their preparedness during emergency

call.
  * "   + will be able to develop new

ways on responding to disasters most especially in the aspects of

health.


c   
,-

 # #

 The research utilized the descriptive- correlational design. This

is non-experimental study that describes relationships among

variables rather than to infer cause-and-effect relationships. A

questionnaire will be distributed to selected level IV respondents.

The questionnaire has three parts. The first part contains the

respondent¶s profile. The second part contains the level of

knowledge on Disaster Management and the third part contains the

level of skills on Disaster Management.

##"#

The respondents of this study are the level IV Nursing students

who were presently at Southwestern University- 2nd semester of

the school year 2010-2011. The researcher used Convenience

sampling which entailed using the most conveniently available

individuals as study participants. The researcher utilized Slovin¶s

Formula in computing the number of respondents will represents

the whole population of BSN IV students:

n= __N___

1+ N(e)

Where: N= population of BSN IV students

n= sample population

e= margin of error (0.05)

#' 

*!# #+

## 

The researchers utilized an eight- page researcher-made

questionnaire to gather information relevant to the study. The first

part contains the respondents profile, where in the respondents will

fill-up the profile, the respondent¶s age, gender, and put a check
mark on the seminars/ training attended. The second part contains

Level of Knowledge on Disaster Management questionnaire. In

Knowledge questionnaire, the respondent will just put check mark

where in which 4 is highly knowledgeable where in the respondents

has a very good grasp idea on Disaster Management, 3 is

moderately knowledgeable where in the respondent has knowledge

but not entirely about Disaster Management, and 1 is not

knowledgeable where in the respondent has no idea about Disaster

Management. The third part is the Level of Skills on Disaster

Management questionnaire, the respondent will just put a check

mark where 4 is highly skillful if the respondent perform the said

disaster management skill at respondents best, 3 is moderately

skillful where in the respondents perform the said disaster

management skill but encounter minimal difficulty, 2 is less skilful

wherein the respondents needs improvement on the said disaster

management skill, and 1 is not skillful wherein the respondents

encounter great difficulty with the said disaster management skill.

#

 , 
 In order to facilitate the distribution of the questionnaire to the

selected level IV Nursing Students as respondents, permission from

the research adviser, the Level IV Chairperson, Dean of the College

of Nursing and the College of Registrar will first be secured. After

the approval, questionnaires will be distributed to the selected level

IV Nursing Students. The researchers will explain clearly contents

of the questionnaires upon distribution to the respondents.

  

After getting the number of respondents, we then use the

formula of the interval which is:

Interval= Highest-lowest score

Total no. of scores

Knowledge and Skills

Likert Scale

Knowledge Rating:

Highly knowledgeable

Moderately Knowledgeable

Fairly Knowledgeable

Not Knowledgeable

Skills Rating:

Highly Skillful

Moderately Skillful

Less Skillful

Not skillful

Using the weighted mean, the researchers come up with the

formula of

X= _™ fixi_
 N

Then the researchers used the percentage formula of:

P= ____f___x 100

Where fi = number of checkmarks

xi=class marks

N= Number of sample

Where P= is the percentage

F= is the total frequency

N= is the total number of correspondents

100= is the constant

The researchers will also use Chi Square to determine if

there is a significant relationship between the Level of Knowledge

and Skills on Disaster Management of Level IV Nursing students

and the factors include age, gender, previous experienced with

disasters and seminar/training on Disaster Management attended.

c .- Compares the tallies or counts of categorical

responses between two or more independent groups.

   
È
 


È = Chi-square

(a)= actual frequency or number of observations in a cell

(e)= expected frequency or number of observation in a cell on the

theoretical distribution

™= symbol for ³summation´ the differences are cumulative

 #
 In order to ensure proper appreciation of the information contained

herein, the following terms are defined according to their use throughout

the entire manuscript:

## / It is the ways on how the Level IV

Nursing students manage when a disaster happened. These are

activities where in the level IV does to maintain control over

disaster and emergency situations.

0&  ##  / This refers to the

Level I Nursing students on how knowledgeable on disaster

management.

# ## / This refers to the Level I

Nursing students on how skilful in managing when a disaster might

happen.

'  # ##/ Refers to a proposed program

on Disaster Management to enhance knowledge and skills of the

selected Level IV Nursing students

'#1"# ##/ Past Experiences of the

selected Level IV students about typhoons, fire, or earthquake.