Proceedings of Asian Joint Conference on Propulsion and Power 2006

Beijing, China, April 20-23, 2006

AJCPP2006-22084

NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE 3D FLOW STRUCTURES NEARBY

COOLING HOLES

Shun KANG
Key Laboratory of Condition Monitor and Control for Power Plant Equipments
Dept. of Power Engineering
North China Electric Power University, 102206 Beijing, P.R. China

ABSTRACT
This paper presents detailed investigations of the flow
structure adjacent to cooling holes, based on a simplified model
of a circular hole in flat plate. A brief review of literature on the
flow structure in the jet in crossflow fields is presented first.
Then, a comercial CFD software Fine/Turbo, which has been
validated by many users on different application cases and
could be considered as an accurate numerical wind tunnel, is
used with the one equation turbulence model of Spalart-
Allmaras as closure. The investigation is done, under steady
flow condition, for two different geometries, straight and
inclined holes, for three blowing ratios which are frenquently
met in turbine film cooling application. It is observed that with
either of hole geometries, the flow structure in the vicinity of a
cooling hole is mainly domainated by a pair of counter-rotated
kidney vortices. Based on the observations, for weakening the
kidney vortex pair, a curved hole is designed and numerically Fig.1 Schematic illustration depicting
demonstrated that it can cancel one of the sources and weaken four types of vortical structures, from
the kidney vortex pair. Margason(1993)

INTRODUCTION fluid, the ratio of jet flow speed to the cross flow speed, or
In order to raise the cycle efficiency, today’s gas turbine is named as blowing ratio (BR) or injection ratio, is often used
heading towards high pressure ratios and high turbine inlet instead of the momentum flux ratio.
temperature. Consequently, thermo and mechanical loadings of Interaction of the jet flow issued from a cooling hole with
the turbine components exposed to the hot gas will be increased the cross shear flow creates a localized, very complex flow
as well, leading to the necessity of applying extremely efficient phenomenon, which is inherently characterized by a series of
cooling techniques in order to guarantee acceptable lifetimes. vortex structure. It may include a kidney shaped counter-
Downstream of each cooling hole, the coolant air will be mixed rotating vortex pair, horseshoe vortex, wake vortices and shear
with hot gas, leading to the effective cooling being only limited
in a short range. Hence, especially in the application of high
pressure turbine, several cooling hole arrays are set along the
streamwise direction to form a perfect coolant film layer
covering the solid walls. Since the extraction of air from the
compressor incurs a penalty to the thermo efficiency, and
ejection of coolant air into the blade passage, and its mixing
with the hot gas as well, introduce additional energy losses, it is
therefore necessary to get more insight into the local flow field
and then find a way to optimise the cooling hole design.
The essential features of such film-cooling flows are
present in a more generic flow situation of jets-in-crossflow, or
JICF. The main parameters effecting JICF are jet flow
Reynolds number, hole geometry (such as angle of inclination), Fig.2 Schematic illustration depicting four
and the momentum flux ratio of jet and main flows. Under the types of vortical structures, from Fric &
condition that the jet fluid is the same as the main cross flow Roshko (1994), Cunningham et al. (2005)

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layer vortices, etc. The dominated kidney vortex pair tends to
move the coolant fluids far away from blade surface, resulting
in a reduction of film cooling efficiency. To improve the
cooling efficiency, a deep insight into the localized flow
physics around cooling holes is imminently requested by gas
turbine designers.
In order to get insight into the flow mechanism nearby a
cooling hole, this author attempts to numerically investigate the
influence of blowing ratio and cooling hole geometry on the
flow structure under steady flow condition. This study is based
on the consideration that the CFD tools used is reliable and the
CFD results are accurate, although several questionable sources
may exist, such as mesh dependence, turbulence model used
and the inherent flow unsteadiness.
NOMENCLATURE
BR Blowing Ratio
R Hole radius
A BRIEF REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Flow adjacent to cooling holes is one of the jet in cross
flows. Margason (1993) and many others had given a detailed
summary on the jet in cross flow. This paper does not intend to
represent it here but only briefly describes the flow field
structure to help the presentation and analysis.
Fig.3 Flow visualization picture of a square hole
jet in cross flow, from Fraticelli(2004)
Interaction of the jet flow issued from the cooling hole
with the cross main flow creates a localized, very complex flow
phenomenon and vortex structure. It makes the flow nearby a
cooling hole be evidently characterized by the following
features: 1) When the jet flow issues out from the cooling
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hole, the cross main flow close to the blade surface pushes the
jet flow inclined towards downstream, with a continous
variation of its cross section flow pattern. For circular cooling
holes, the main flow extends transversely nearby the hole and
forms an elliptical streamline partten. Simultaneously, the main
flow shears with the sides of the jet flow downstream, forming
the kidney like cross section. With increse of the distance along
jet trace line from the blade surface, shearing makes the stream
surface downstream rolls up and forms a pair of counter-
rotating vortex shaped in kidney near the jet exit. That is the
so-called kidney vortex pair. 2) Near the cooling hole exit, the
interaction between the jet flow and the main flow could be
analogised to the flow around a rigid cylinder. When cross flow
with shear layer approaches a cooling hole, a saddle separation
node will be formed on the blade surface a short distance in
front of the hole leading edge. Consequently, a horseshoe
vortex will be created around the cooling hole exit. Two legs of
the horsehoe vortex will extend downstream, respectiuvely by
two sides of the hole, with the main flow. However, strength of
the horseshoe vortex is much weeker than that of the kidney
vortex pair, and its size is much smaller as well. 3) The cross
main flow passing by the cooling jet flow will form a wake
range downstream. One analogy is to link it with the Karman-
Benard vortex street, the other concept is to describe it as an
unsteady separation zone. 4) Since in the jet in crossflow there
are certain features of free jet flow, some researchers
considered the vortex ring in a free jet as the fourth vortex
system in jet in crossflows.
Fig.4 Computation domain and grid
In summary, kidney vortex is the essential and domainated
feature nearby a cooling hole exit area. The other three vortex
systems (horseshoe vortex, free jet vortex ring and wake) are in
the secondary level, or to be considered as secondary vortices.
Figure 1 presents the explanantion of three vortex system by
Margason (1993), while Figure 2 shows the schematic
illustration depicting four types of vortical structures, including
the vortex ring in free jet, by Fric & Roshko (1994). It presents
the wake vortices in 3D, extending from the wall of the jet.
Shown in Fig.3 is the experimental visualization picture by
Fraticelli et al. (2004). Using flow visualization method,
Fraticelli et al. investigated the flow structure above a flat plat
with a jet of square section and perpendicular to the flat plat.
Shown in this figure is a 3D picture in which the colored fluids
were issued from position 1 to 4 simultaneously, under the
condition of blowing ratio of 1 and Reynolds number of 500. It
can be clearly observed the main jet flow (kidney vortex), the
horseshoe vortex, the wake vortices and the interaction of the
wake vortices with the kidney vortex pair.
L1
BR˙0.5
L3
INVESTIGATED MODEL AND NUMERICAL METHODS
Investigated Models
This paper investigates the localized flow of a shear flow
over flat plat around a jet with circular hole. The computational
domain is shown in Fig.4. The three dimensional flat plat is
circular with a jet hole located at its center. The coordinate
origin is set at the center of the jet hole exit. Length of the jet
hole is 5 times of its radius and the flat plat radius is 30 times
of the hole radius. Upper boundary of the computational
domain is 25 times of the jet hole radius above the plat.
Numerical Method
The flow solver EURANUS, integrated in the FINE/Turbo
interface, developed by NUMECA Int., is used in this
numerical simulation. This software, already presented in
Hirsch et al. (1992), solves the time-dependent Reynolds
averaged Navier-Stokes equations, with either the algebraic
turbulence model of Baldwin-Lomax, one equation model of
Spalart-Allmaras or two-equation NH models for closure. It is
based on a structured multiblock, multigrid approach, including
non-matching and full non-matching block boundaries and
incorporates various numerical schemes, based on either a
central or an upwind discretization (www.numeca.com).
For the present calculations, the one equation low
Reynolds number model of Spalart-Allmaras is selected and the
second-order centered scheme with addition of second and
fourth order artificial dissipation is used. A V-cycle multigrid
technique is employed for accelerating the convergence. The
time marching is performed in a four-stage Runge-Kutta
scheme, coupled with local time stepping and implicit residual
smoothing technologies.

BR˙1.0 Computational Grid

The structured grid generator IGG of NUMECA is used to
create a body-fitted, multi-block grid where butter-fly grid
topology is applied for both grids above the flat plat and inside
L3
the hole. Total grid number is about 780,000, with about 7,000
within the hole. Grid is clustered close to the solid boundaries,
with Yˇ of the first grid node above the plate being less than 5.

BR˙1.5 Boundary Conditions

Rienmann boundary condition is used for all the
L2 boundaries above the plate, with pressure and temperature
being of standard atmosphere. The flow is along x-axis, with a
N2 speed of 100 m/s in the far field. A turbulent boundary layer in
S1 N1 S2 power law is supposed, with a thickness of 1.5 times of the hole
S3 radius. At the inlet of jet hole, uniform velocity and
N3 L3
temperature is imposed.
L1
Convergence
The computations are performed at a CFL number of 2.5
and are converged to near machine accuracy, that is 5 to 6
Fig.5 Limiting streamline pattern at different orders of residual reduction.
blowing ratio, straight hole

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Three different holes in circular are investigated, straight,
45o inclined, and 60 curved, with three blowing ratios, 0.5, 1.0
and 1.5 which are most possible used in a practical gas turbine
film cooling. Following discussions are to be started from the
straight hole case. Comparisons are then presented for other
blowing ratios and geometries.

Straight Hole 3
Limiting Streamline Pattern ˖ Figure 5 shows the
limiting streamline pattern on the plat around the hole exit for
the three blowing ratios. (Note: lines in the hole exit section are
section streamlines) As seen from this figure, the flow patterns
are essentially the same for different blowing ratios studied.
There are six singular points, including three saddle points, S1,
S2 and S3, one attachment node N1, two spiral separation nodes,
N2 and N3, together with three separation lines L1, L2 and L3. It
is obvious that the saddle S1 corresponds to the generation of
horseshoe vortex. The two separation lines L1 and L2 issued a)
from the saddle approximately indicate the trace of the two legs
of horseshoe vortex. At low blowing ratio, the two separation
lines turn around the cooling hole and then stretch towards
downstream straightly. With increase of the blowing ratio,
these two lines tend to be converged towards the symmetric
plan. At the biggest blowing ratio in this study, they become
straight in about 4R downstream of the hole exit. Increasing of
blowing ratio from 0.5 to 1.0 and 1.5, location of the saddle
point moves forward upstream from 1.79R to 2.17R and 2.56R,
b)
with increase of the scale and strength of the horseshoe vortex.
The saddle point S2 downstream the hole exit analogizes to that Fig.7 a) Streamline patterns in cross-sections at
occurs behind a 2D cylinder at low Reynolds number and BR=1.5 (straight hole), b) definition of the
steady flow conditions. The two flow-in streamlines of the sections
saddle point are issued from the leading edge node N1, while separation nodes N2 and N3 from which fluids spirally move
one of its flow-out lines ended at the saddle point S3 and the upwards in a vortex motion and merged into the kidney vortex
other moves downstream. Part of the fluids from the node N1 pair, see late from the 3D structure for details. Besides, the
move around of the saddle points S2 and S3 into the two spiral streamline issued from the saddle S2 and stretched downstream

Fig.8 Flow pattern in cross-sections with

Fig.6 Streamline (red) and isolines of Vx/Vref streamlines in symmetric plane (red) all limiting
in the symmetric plane (straight hole) streamlines (pink)

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is always in the symmetric plan for blowing ratio 0.5 and 1.0.
At higher blowing ratio 1.5, however, it bifurcates at about 3R
downstream from the hole exit, and the bifurcated lines are then
merged together with the two separation lines of horseshoe
vortex. It is also observed that flow field on the flat plate
surface has three distinct zones divided by the separation lines
and the lines linking the singular points N1 and S2. One is the
zone outside the two separation lines L1 and L2, which is less
disturbed by the jet flow and should have the same boundary
layer property as that without cooling flow. The second zone is
between the separation lines L1 and L2, and the lines linking N1
and S2 and the line issued from S2 towards downstream. In this
zone the already formed vortices are interacting and evolving a˅3D View
downstream. The third zone is that encompassed by the lines
linking N1 and S2, with mainly the coolant fluids.
Flow in Symmetric Plane Figure 6 shows the patterns of
streamline and velocity isolines in the symmetric plane for the
straight hole case at the three blowing ratios. It is seen that Section lines
pushed by the crossflow moving from the left to right , the jet
turns towards the cross flow direction immediately out of the SV
hole with a reduction of cross section area. A short distance
downstream it trends to be parallel to the surface. At higher
blowing ratio, location where the jet starts being parallel to the
SLV
wall is farther downstream than that at lower ratios. Increasing
the blowing ratio, distance of the jet trace from the wall is
increased. At 5R downstream from the hole center, for
example, the trace center is at x=1.9R, 3.2R and 4.3R
respectively for blowing ratios 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5. Besides, the b˅ Zoom View
negative velocity range observed in Fig.6 corresponds to the
vortex breakdown, see more discussion late.
Flow in Cross-Sections In order to clearly visualize the
vortex structure, two families of cross sections are defined as
perpendicular to x-axis and to the jet center trace line, as shown
in Fig.7b in which they are named by 1, 2, …, and 10, and 1’,
2’, …, and 6’, respectively. Few of the section flow patterns at
are shown in Figs.7a and 8 for blowing ratio 1.5. As one has

c) XY Projection

Fig.10 3D streamlines (red, blue and yellow),

Fig.9 Isolines in cross-sections from 1 to 9 for
BL=1.5 (Straight hole)
with limiting streamlines (pink), BL=1.5,
Straight hole
seen, both type sections present well the kidney vortex pair but
with different pattern shapes in the section flow patterns. On
the contrary of increasing in size with the main flow, strength
of vorticity is increased only nearby the hole exit (section 1 and
2) due to the shear of jet with the cross flow, and then are
reducing with distance due to the viscous decay, as seen from
Fig.9. Figure 9 shows isolines of normalized streamwise
vorticity in the 9 sections. In addition, it is seen from Fig.8 that
the kidney vortex pair is always located underneath the jet
traces.

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 3D Structure Figure 10 presents the 3D streamline
pattern, exhibiting all the concentrated vortices, nearby the hole
exit at blowing ratio of 1.5 for the straight hole case. In this
figure the pink lines are limiting streamline, the same as in
Fig.5. The 3D yellow lines represent the horseshoe vortex; the
red lines are issued from the spiral nodes N2 and N3, and the 3D
blue lines come from the upstream boundary layer. It also
shows the 2D stream line pattern (blue) in a section cutting
through the hole center. As one can see, the 3D blue lines,
named as Shear Layer Vortex, SLV, form a vortex motion
when bypassing the jet exit and are gradually uplifted away
from the surface and engulfed into the kidney vortex pair
behind the section 1. It is well know that in a free jet, a series
of unsteady vortex rings will be generated, while in steady
condition only one vortex ring will be possibly generated
A y-plane
Section 5
Wall
A y-plan
a˅
A z-plane
Section 5
Wall
b˅
Section 5
Wall
c˅
Fig.11 Patterns showing vortex breakdown
bubble, a) in a y-plane, b) in a z-plane, and c) 3D
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around the jet exit. Hence, it could be concluded that under the
steady condition of present study, the vortex motion of the 3D
blue lines around the hole exit is attributed to the mechanism of
a vortex ring formed in a free jet, interacted with the shear
layer of shear cross flow. However, in the jet in cross flow, the
3D blue lines can not form a circular vortex ring but are
separated into two vortices from the leading edge of jet, due to
the existence of the separation node N1 (Fig.5), and
downstream of the jet due to the existence of saddle points S2,
S3 and the two spiral nodes N2 and N3. Two bundles of red
lines issued from the two separation spiral nodes, named as
Separation Vortex, SV in Fig.10, move upwards almost vertical
to the wall. At a certain distance from the wall, they, together
with SLV, are engulfed into the kidney vortex pair. As seen
from Figs.5 and 10, both SLV and SV (red and blue lines) are
rotating in the same sense. Hence, they all make the size and
strength of kidney vortex pair increase. In other words, the
kidney vortex pair is constituted of SLV and SV. Besides, as
the jet trace is above the kidney vortex (Fig.8) and the vortex
rotation sense, the kidney vortex trends to push the jet flow
upwards. Hence, in film cooling application, action of kidney
vortex would reduce the cooling efficiency. Based on the
observation above, to make film cooling more effective,
designers should do their best to reduce the size and strength of
kidney vortex, that is, to reduce the vortex motion of the red
and blue streamline bundles. In addition, it is also observed
from Fig.10 that size of the horseshoe vortex is much smaller
and remains on the wall towards downstream. Due to its
opposite sense to kidney vortex, horseshoe vortex trends to
weaken the kidney vortex. However, limited by its size and
strength, this weakening would be negligible in practice.
Vortex Breakdown
Each of the Kidney vortex pair has an axiswise flow
component along its axis which is curved. Due to the variation
of axiswise velocity component along the axis, the streamline
pattern at different cross-section may exhibit different flow
Fig.12 Visualized steady vortex-breakdown
bubble in a cylindrical container, made by
Softiropoulos et al. (2002)
patterns. As seen from Fig.7a, streamline near the vortex center one saddle, than those discussed above for straight hole. There
moves inward towards core center in section 1. In section 2, the is no saddle and node points in front of the hole exit, that is, no
streamline moves outward from the core center. In section 3 horseshoe vortex. There is no either the two spiral nodes, N2
and all others downstream, the streamline pattern is divided by and N3 (Fig.5). In the 3D view, there is no vortex motion
a closed line, named as limiting cycle in topology. Inside the generated according to the mechanism of free jet vortex ring.
cycle, the streamline (in red) moves inward towards the core Hence, the fluids engulfed into the cores of kidney vortex pair
center from the cycle, while outside the cycle, the streamline are mainly from the cooling hole. The jet trace viewed in the
(in blue) moves outwards away from the cycle. In other words, symmetric plane is much closer to the wall than in the straight
the kidney vortex is single-celled at its early stage, such as hole condition. At 5R downstream, for example, the distance of
sections 1 and 2, and two-celled in all other sections with the the trace center from the wall is 1.6R, 2.2R and 2.8R, compared
structure like Sullivan vortex or a tornado vortex. The to 1.9R, 3.2R and 4.3R in the straight hole case, for BR=0.5,
boundary between the single-celled and two-celled refers to the 1.0 and 1.5 respectively. Besides, no vortex breakdown is
location where vortex breakdown happens, which denotes a observed in the inclined hole cases.
very complex and abrupt transformation of a columnar vortex
into a much larger structure as observed in Fig.10. Various
modes of vortex breakdown were identified in the pioneering
flow visualization experiments by Sarpkaya (1971) and Faler
and Leibovich (1977) and essentially include the double helix,
bubble, and spiral forms. In the present case, the vortex
breakdown shows as a bubble. Saddle
A vortex breakdown bubble could involve recirculation Node
and unsteadiness. Figure 11 presents a 3D view of the
simulated vortex breakdown bubble in blowing ratio1.5 for the
straight hole case, with section streamline patterns (red) in two
sections perpendicular to each other and cutting through one
core of the kidney vortex pair shown with section streamline
pattern (blue) in section 5. Figure 12 shows Softiropoulos et al.
(2002)’s experiment picture which visualized a steady vortex
breakdown bubble in a cylindrical container. It is seen that the
recirculation viewed in a z-plane (Fig.11b) is nearly
axisymmetric, similar to that in Fig.12, but not in a y-plane due
to the influence of solid wall. Sarpkaya (1971), among others,
pointed out that: (i) the flow in the interior of the bubbles is
unsteady and is dominated by the gyrations of a tilted toroidal
ring; (ii) the bubbles exchange fluid with the ambient flow via
unsteady fluctuations through their open downstream end; and
(iii) certain combinations of swirl intensity and Reynolds
number yield smoother and more axisymmetric bubble shapes.
In addition, reducing the blowing ratios to 1.0 and 0.5,
vortex breakdown bubble is also formed, but with a slightly
smaller scale.

Inclined Hole
In modern film cooling techniques, straight holes are
commonly set around the blade leading edge range. In the other
portion of blade surface and endwalls, inclined cooling holes
are often designed with different inclination angles varied from
position to position. Hence, a hole with inclination of 45o is
also numerically investigated for the three blowing ratios. As
the flow structure does not vary a lot with the investigated Fig.13 Limiting streamline, jet trace in symmetric
blowing ratios, shown in Fig.13 are only the limiting plane and 3D streamline from the hole inclined
streamline, jet trace in the symmetric plane and 3D view of the
kidney vortex pair at blowing ratio 1.5. As seen from the Curved Hole
figure, the structure in both limiting streamline and 3D The ability of coolant jets to adhere to the blade surface is
streamline patterns are much simple, with only one node and of crucial importance for the effectiveness of film cooling. As

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observed above, the rotation sense of the kidney vortex pair is
such that it exerts two undesirable effects: 1) hot air is forced
down beneath the jet to the turbine wall, and 2) the vortices
tend to lift the jet off the blade surface by the mutual induction
between the vortex pair. Hence, a certain research work has
been done to weaken the kidney vortex through cancellation for
promoting jet attachment, such as Haven and Kurosaka (1997).
They introduced a vortex pair inside the jet passage, by
installing two vanes within the jet hole, which has a sense of
rotation opposite to the kidney vortices.
respectively. It is seen, by comparing with the straight hole
case in Fig.5, that curving the hole does cancel the two spiral
nodes N2 and N3 occurring in the straight hole configuration
and makes the limiting streamline pattern be simple, leading to
no visible vortex motion in the range immediately out of the
hole exit. In addition, curving the hole with 60o makes the jet
trace close to the surface. At x=5R downstream, for example,
the center trace line is 0.4R and 0.3R lower at curved hole case
for blowing ratio 1.5 and 1.0 than those at the straight hole
configuration. However, at the lowest blowing ratio studied,
there is no influence of the trace line position by curving the
hole. It can then be concluded that curving the hole could be
one effective way to raise the effectiveness of film cooling.
However, optimization of the turning angle and hole exit
configurations (such as elliptic and/or conic) for different
blowing ratios are further needed.

Fig.14 Streamline (red) and isolines of Vx/Vref in

the symmetric plane, curved hole, BL=1.5

Fig.15 Limiting streamline pattern, BR=1.5,

curved hole
As analyzed above, the kidney vortex pair is mainly
formed from two origins, one is from the interaction of the
coming shear flow with the shear of jet flow around it
boundary, that is, SLV in Fig.10, the other has root at two
spiral nodes N2 and N3 at jet exit (Figs.5 and 10), formed by the
interaction of jet flow with its surrounded crossflow, that is, SV
in Fig.10. Both of them tend to increase the strength and scale
of kidney vortices. Hence, cancellation or weakening either of
them would reduce the strength and scale of kidney vortices.
With this aim, a tentative test is conducted by shaping the jet
hole curved to create a secondary vortex pair inside the jet hole Fig.16 3D streamlines (red, blue and yellow),
near its exit, which rotates in opposite sense to SV. Figure 14 with limiting streamlines (pink), BR=1.5, curved
shows the curved hole with a turning angle of 60o with its axis hole
at the exit section perpendicular to the flat plate. Shown in
Fig.14 are also isolines of normalized x-velocity component CONCLUSIONS
and jet trace lines at blowing ratio 1.5. Figures 15 and 16 This paper presents detailed investigation of the flow
present the limiting streamline pattern and 3D streamline structure adjacent to cooling holes, based on a simplized model
patterns with the curved hole shape at blowing ratio 15, of a circular hole in flat plate, with numerical method for

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different hole geometries and blowing ratios. Although there
may exist several inaccurate sources, such as mesh dependence,
turbulence model used and the inherent flow unsteadiness,
following conclusions can be made.
It is observed that with either of hole geometries, the flow
structure in the vicinity of a cooling hole is mainly domainated
by a pair of counter-rotated kideny vortices. With inclined hole
the kideny vortex pair is mainly formed by the fluids issued
from the cooling hole. With straight hole, however, the vortex
pair has two sources: one is from the coming shear layer
bypassing the cooling jet in a vortex motion which is generated
due to the mechanisms of vortex ring in free jet exit under
steady flow condition; the other is from the cooling hole with
two spiral vortex motions which are formed in the hole exit
range. Both vortices are rotating in the same sense as kidney
vortices, resulting in increasing of the strength and size of the
kidney vortex pair which tends to lift the coolant fluids away
from the surface and reduces the effecincy of film cooling.
It is demonstrated that a proper design of curved hole
turning angle could weaken the kidney vortex pair and improve
the cooling efficiency.

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