Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AND V. A. SAULL
P. S. KUMARAPELI
Department of Geological Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec
Received June 9, 1966
ABSTRACT
The St. Lawrence valley system (including the St. Lawrence, Ottawa, and
Champlain valleys, and the St. Lawrence or Cabot trough) is coextensive with
a well-defined pattern of seismic activity. The valley system is in a region of
general updoming, normal faulting, and alkaline igneous activity of a distinctive
type. The main phase of tectonic activity probably dates back to Mesozoic time.
The above and other evidence presented in this paper indicate the existence of a
major rift valley system that may be called the St. Lawrence rift system.
The Rough Creek - Kentucky River fault zone, and the normal fault zones
in Texas and Oklahoma, and the Lake Superior fault zone probably represent
extensions of the St. Lawrence rift system. However, current seismicity indicates
that the present tectonic activity is along a straight zone running through
lakes Ontario and Erie into the Mississippi embayment. The St. Lawrence rift
system may also be connected with the mid-Atlantic rift, in the region of the
Azores plateau.
The rift hypothesis presented may be useful as a regional guide in the search
for niobium-bearing alkaline complexes and diamond-bearing kimberlites.
Crustal tension in the St. Lawrence region may be genetically related to the
opening of the Atlantic basin as postulated in the hypothesis of continental drift.
INTRODUCTION
The St. Lawrence valley system (including the St. Lawrence, Ottawa, and
Champlain valleys, and the St. Lawrence or the Cabot trough) (Fig. 1) has,
time and again, attracted the attention of geologists. Since 1900 alone, literally
hundreds of publications have referred to the distinctive physiography,
stratigraphy, and structural setting of this region, to the uncommon petro-
chemistry and mode of occurrence of the intrusive bodies it contains, and to
the nature and origin of its well-defined seismicity.
In this paper it is argued that a large body of evidence strongly supports a
rift origin for the St. Lawrence valley system. In view of the significance
presently attached to rift systems (Beloussov 1965) this suggestion is of
particular interest. The present views are based on a study of published
geological and geophysical data on the St. Lawrence region made in connection
with Ph.D. thesis research by Kumarapeli (1966).
639
640 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF EARTH SCIENCES. VOL. 3. 1966
KUMARAPELI AND SAULL: ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY SYSTEM 641
City. Beyond this point the valley floor is more or less fully occupied by the
St. Lawrence estuary.
Near the mouth of the Saguenay, the St. Lawrence estuary deepens rather
abruptly to form a steep-sided submarine trough with a nearly flat base. This
feature extends to the edge of the continental shelf and has a depth of over
200 m for a distance of nearly 1 200 km (Fig. 1). At two places it attains a depth
of about 550 m and in this region has a closed basin about 250 km long, lying
below the 400-m bathymetric contour. One large tributary of the trough runs
towards the Strait of Belle Isle and a minor branch extends along the north
side of Anticosti Island.
PREVIOUS WORK
The earliest attempt to account for the seismicity of the region was by
Laflamme (1908), who interpreted the St. Lawrence valley as a strip of land
sunk between parallel faults. Studies of the Grand Banks earthquake of 1929
led Gregory (1929), Keith (1930), and Hodgson and Doxee (1930) to suggest
a graben origin for the St. Lawrence trough. Kay (1942) recognized a graben
structure which runs along the Ottawa valley, and called it the Ottawa-Bonne-
chere graben. Dufresne (1948) recognized widespread normal faulting in the
St. Lawrence valley and concluded that the region as a whole had been de-
pressed. By means of a seismic survey, Press and Beckmann (1954) showed
that the St. Lawrence trough is of structural origin. Carey (1958) drew atten-
tion to the radial disposition of the St. Lawrence trough, and of the Rhine
graben, with respect to the Alaskan orocline.
The foregoing summary represents the views of those who based their
conclusions on structural and seismic evidence, and the common theme of these
opinions is that the region as a whole has dropped down. However, those who
attempted to account for the rather unusual shape of the valleys and troughs
in the region from a physiographic point of view, came to very different
conclusions.
For example, Spencer (1903) and later Johnson (1925) believed that the
St. Lawrence trough was formed by river erosion and subsequent drowning of
a lowland. Shepard (1931), after a careful study of the morphology of the
trough, concluded that it was primarily a result of glacial erosion. McNeil
(1956) suggested that turbidity currents running along the submerged channel
may have modified it to its present shape.
Shepard (1931) found good evidence for ice movement along the trough.
This, however, is not surprising because the area adjacent to the present shelf
in this region came under Pleistocene glaciation. The box-like shape of the
trough is compatible with a tectonic as well as a glacial origin, and Shepard
concedes that the great width of the trough is a little unusual for glacial
erosion. Shepard also marshalled several arguments against a tectonic origin.
Part of his argument is based on the fact that the detailed pattern of trans-
atlantic cable breaks caused by the Grand Banks earthquake of 1929 does not
bear out Gregory's (1929) contention that the breaks formed two lines which
were continuations of the sides of the trough. However, in the light of work
done by Heezen and Ewing (1952) on the role turbidity currents, initiated by
the earthquake, played in causing cable breaks, Shepard's argument has lost
its relevance.
Shepard (1931) also saw no reason to assume a connection between the
earthquakes in the St. Lawrence valley and those off the Grand Banks. Since
then, however, the shocks off Newfoundland have been recognized as eastern
members of the St. Lawrence group of shocks (Gutenberg and Richter 1949,
p. 81).
Yet another objection raised by Shepard was that the bend of the trough
below Anticosti Island is unusual for a graben. An examination of the rift
valley patterns of East Africa and elsewhere shows that this objection is not
valid: sharp deflections are characteristic features of rift valleys (Fig. 6).
coasts (as compared with the relatively smooth and sweeping curve of the north
coast, which for most part gives way directly to high land) is believed to be due
to drowning. Corroborative evidence for the southward tilting of Gasp6
Peninsula was found by Mattinson (1958), who recorded antecedent and
reversed drainage patterns in this region.
( C ) Structural Evidence
Studies of the East African rift valleys have shown that the basic graben-type
structure is too simple to represent the structural complexity of large graben
systems (UMC 1965). Some of the individual faults can be traced for long
distances and show parallelism with the general direction of the troughs, but
many others are shorter and commonly arranged en echelon a t considerable
angles with the valley margins. Faulting may be present only on one side of a
rift valley, the other side showing flexuring. A glance a t Fig. 2 shows that all
these characteristics are displayed by the'structure of the St. Lawrence region.
Kay (1942) described the normal faults associated with the Ottawa-Bonne-
chere graben and his estimates of vertical movements along some of the faults
FIG. 2. Structure map of the St. Lawrence, Ottawa, and Champlain valley region.
KUMARAPELI AND SAULL: ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY SYSTEM 645
St. P i e r r e
Cobot Stroit T r o u q h Bonk
tao ooo
Unconsolidated sediment Consolidated sediment
FIG. 3. Section across Cabot Strait based on seismic velocities. Modified slightly after Press
and Beckmann (1954).
been influenced unduly by some of the controversial and still unsolved problems
of the adjacent Appalachian region. This, in fact, is reflected in some of the
hypotheses that have been advanced to account for the downfaulted nature
of the St. Lawrence valley. For instance, Dufresne (1948) suggested that
loading of the region by nappes (from the Appalachian region) may have
tended to depress it. Numerous geologists (Bucher 1957; Craddock 1957) in
recent years have denied the existence of thrust sheets on the scale originally
postulated to explain some of the structural and stratigraphical peculiarities
of the Appalachian front adjacent to the Hudson, Champlain, and St. Lawrence
valleys.
(D)Earthquake Evidence
Shallow shocks are usually associated with rift zones in continents (Gutenberg
and Richter 1949).
The Dominion Observatory in Ottawa recently compiled earthquake
records of eastern Canada going back about 400 years (Smith 1962, 1964).
Records from long-period seismographs are available from about 1900, but
short-period instruments have been installed in the region only since 1928. The
records clearly show that the epicenters are closely concentrated along the
St. Lawrence and Ottawa valleys and the St. Lawrence trough. The seismicity
is low, but forms a well-defined pattern, which appears to be related a t least
in some places to the complex fault pattern in the region. Six large earthquakes
(Richter scale magnitude 5.5 to 7.2) have occurred in the region since the turn
of this century (Hodgson 1965) and on the average about 20 minor shocks
KUMARAPELI A N D SAULL: ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY SYSTEM 647
(magnitude 2 to 5) per year were recorded during the period 1954 to 1959
(Smith 1964). The earthquakes of eastern Canada can be felt for larger distances
compared with the shocks of the Pacific coast region. Therefore, the activity
of the former area used to be regarded as deep-seated. However, recent work
has shown that this is not the case: the depths of earthquake foci of eastern
Canada and the Pacific coast are comparable, being on the average about 15 km
(Hodgson 1965).
( E ) Evidence from the Association of Alkaline Intrusbes
Many writers (for example, Holmes 1964, p. 1053) have commented on the
worldwide association of alkaline rocks, carbonatites, and kimberlites with
continental rift valleys.
The Monteregian stocks together with their associated sills, dyke swarms,
and diatreme breccias make up a well-defined petrographic province extending
across the southern part of the St. Lawrence valley in a broad east-west
trending arcuate belt (Figs. 5 and 6A). The main rock types are nepheline
syenites, essexite, alnoite, other alkaline kindreds, and carbonatite (Gold 1963).
The roughly circular plugs appear to have punched through the crust (very
likely along a deep-seated fracture zone), probably by a process akin to jet
piercing and fluidization (Holmes 1964, p. 271). Evidence is present in some of
the associated breccias that gases a t high pressure (mainly COz and HzO) have
streamed through. The breccias contain angular as well as rounded fragments,
derived from widely separated stratigraphic horizons (Osborne and Grimes-
Graeme 1936), indicating agitation and considerable movement.
The volcanic activity associated with a rift may not be concentrated in the
valley itself, because the enormous weight of the rift block is likely to keep the
boundary faults tightly closed most of the time in most of the places (Holmes
1964, p. 1051). For example, in the Rhine graben the bulk of the volcanic
activity has broken through across the northern part of the rift zone and along
the southeast margin of the upwarped area.
Figures 6A and 6B illustrate the similarity in spatial distribution of igneous
activity in the St. Lawrence valley and in the Rhine graben. In the former,
intrusive activity is concentrated in the south. Alkaline complexes a t Meach
Lake near Ottawa (Bkland 1951), and on Manitou Islands (Rowe 1958) and
Iron Islands in Lake Nipissing are probably related to the Ottawa-Bonnechere
graben. However, these alkaline complexes are believed to be older (pre-
Ordovician) than the Monteregian intrusives, which are Mesozoic in age. The
alnoite, mica peridotite, and kimberlite dykes in New York State (Martens
1924) may be related to the uplift of the Adirondack massif.
( F ) Evidence from Gravity Anomalies
Bullard's (1936) gravity measurements in East Africa demonstrated for the
first time the presence of negative Bouguer anomalies over the rift valleys of
that region. Since then such anomalies have been found to be present over most
rift valleys.
648 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF EARTH SCIENCES. VOL. 3. 1966
Gravity measurements in the St. Lawrence valley region were carried out by
Thompson and Garland (1957), and their Bouguer anomaly map shows a
prominent change in the general gravity pattern of the region a t the St.
Lawrence valley. Here the trend shows a marked parallelism with the valley.
A gravity low can be traced from north of Lake Champlain northward to the
vicinity of the St. Lawrence river and thence northeastwards along the valley.
The amplitude of the anomaly in the vicinity of Lake Champlain is about 50
mgal. The overall gravity picture appears to be very similar to that of the East
African rift valleys and the Rhine graben. Thompson and Garland's map does
not cover the Ottawa-Bonnechere graben area fully.
p. 36). Glassy pseudotachylite from one of these faults has given a radio-
metric age of 975 f 45 m.y. (Philpotts and Miller 1963), indicating movements
going well back into the Precambrian. The above finding substantiates
Dufresne's conclusion that the faults of the St. Lawrence valley followed lines
of weakness determined by Precambrian faults.
There is a t present no way of dating precisely the beginning of the episode
of updoming and normal faulting in the St. Lawrence region. The youngest
rocks cut by the normal faults in the region are Silurian in age. Kay (1942),
using long distance correlations and assuming that the Monteregian igneous
activity and the normal faulting were synchronous, suggested a late Cretaceous
or early Tertiary age. Later, Dufresne (1948) came to similar conclusions.
Several radiometric ages are now available for the Monteregian intrusives and
these indicate a lower Cretaceous age for the igneous activity (Fairbairn et al.
1963). The widespread normal faulting in the region also is generally regarded
as dating back to the same period. The marked physiographic expression of
some of the fault-line scarps also indicates movements of a relatively recent
age. Miller (1913) found evidence for post-Pleistocene faulting in the Timiskam-
ing region. The current seismicity indicates that the rift zones are active a t
present.
( C ) Possible Extensions within the Continent
Hodgson (1964, p. 9) pointed out that a straight zone running from the New
Madrid area in Missouri along lakes Erie and Ontario to the St. Lawrence
valley includes the positions of many earthquakes in the eastern part of North
America (Fig. 5). This observation gives rise to the interesting possibility that
the tectonic trend of the St. Lawrence rift system may continue towards the
Mississippi embayment, and the geological evidence for this and other possible
extensions of the St. Lawrence rift system is discussed below.
The southwesterly continuation of the earthquake zone follows, more or less
closely, the upwarp of the Findlay Arch (Fig. 5). Although conspicuous fault
zones are lacking, three normal faults occur in the axial region of this upwarp
(Tectonic Map of United States, 1962). Farther south, the earthquake belt
is related to the fault zones just north of the Mississippi embayment in south-
west Kentucky. Two fault zones, one trending east-west and the other
northeast-southwest, intersect in this region. These are late Palaeozoic or,
probably, younger. The east-west zone consists of the Rough Creek and
Kentucky River fault zones and can be traced more or less continuously from
Llano uplift in Texas northward to Oklahoma, northeastwards to Ozark uplift,
and thence eastward to West Virginia (Fig. 5). They are zones of dominantly
normal faulting and contain graben and horst structures, particularly in the
southern part. As evidenced by the southwestward extension of the earthquake
belt, the northeast-southwest trending fault zone probably extends beneath
the recent sediments of the Mississippi embayment. This synclinal downwarp
may well have a rift valley structure. I t formed largely during the Eocene
period (Eardley 1962, p. 653). Does Hodgson's seismic trend define a zone of
crustal weakness between the rifts of the St. Lawrence region and the crustal
---
Scale in kilometers
_.--- 7
- -i
Base map offer Geological Map of Nwth America (l965),
struduml dab from Technic Maps d United SMes
(I9621 on6 Canado (l9BO).
FIG. 5. Map showing the possible extensions of the St. Lawrence rift system into the Continent.
KUMARAPELI A N D SAULL: ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY SYSTEM 651
0
4
-
Scale inKilometen
FIG. 6. Comparison of the St. Lawrence, East African, and Rhine rift zones. Note that the
scale of B is two and a half times that of the other maps.
KUMARAPELI AND SAULL: ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY SYSTEM 653
patterns formed on the two continents are very similar. The lengths of the two
rift systems are also comparable. The position of the Great Lakes (excluding
Lake Superior) with respect to the westerly and southerly extensions of the
St. Lawrence system are very similar to the positions occupied by lakes
Victoria and Kyoga between the eastern and western rifts of East Africa.
The St. Lawrence trough and its branch running towards the Strait of Belle
Isle are comparable in position with the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, respec-
tively. In this context Newfoundland occupies a position equivalent to that of
Arabia. The similar geographical relation of the St. Lawrence rift system and
the East African rift system to the mid-Atlantic and mid-Indian-Carlsberg
ridges, respectively, is also noteworthy, and is being studied further by the
authors.
( D ) The Possible Connection with the Global System of Rifts
The St. Lawrence trough can be traced eastwards to the edge of the con-
tinental shelf, where it loses its identity as a prominent physiographic feature.
However, what is probably a complementary ridge structure extends south-
eastward from the southern tip of the Grand Banks towards the mid-Atlantic
ridge. This is the southeast Newfoundland ridge, separated from the mid-
Atlantic ridge by a narrow abyssal gap (Heezen et al. 1959, p. 70). The profiles
of Press and Beckmann (Fig. 3) show that the St. Lawrence trough may be a
half graben, with the faulting largely restricted to the northeast side. This
probably explains why a ridge is present only on the north side. At this point
in the argument it is tempting to go one step further and suggest a possible
connection between the St. Lawrence rift - southeast Newfoundland ridge
system and the mid-Atlantic ridge (Fig. 7). This connection would be in the
region of the Azores plateau. If this be true, the St. Lawrence rift system is
connected with the world girdling ridge-rift system of which the mid-Atlantic
ridge is a part.
( E ) Implications in Continental Drift
Almost directly east of the southeast Newfoundland ridge an ill-defined
irregular ridge runs from the east margin of the Azores plateau to the Straits of
Gibraltar (Fig. 7). On the basis of its seismicity, Heezen, Tharp, and Ewing
(1959, p. 98) inferred that this feature is similar in structure and topography
to the mid-Atlantic ridge. The southeast Newfoundland and Azores-Gibraltar
ridges have equivalent positions on either side of the mid-Atlantic ridge. If one
assumes that the continents on either side of the Atlantic have drifted apart,
the question arises whether the shoreward ends of these ridges define two points
that were once in contact. These would then be the Cabot Strait and the Strait
of Gibraltar (Fig. 8). The shoreward ends of aseismic ridges have been used as
guides for locating conjugate points on continents (Wilson 1964). In the present
case, however, the Azores-Gibraltar ridge is not altogether aseismic.
I t is possible that the rift faulting in the St. Lawrence region may have had
some connection with the actual separation of Africa from North America.
The two events appear to date back to approximately the same time. Nairn
and-others (1959) compared palaeomagnetic data from Lower Carboniferous
654 CANADIAN JOURNAL O F EARTH SCIENCES. VOL. 3. 1966
FIG. 7. Possible connection of the St. Lawrence rift system with the global rift system.
Modified after Girdler (1964).
The above movements are similar to the movements of the African block
relative to North America (Carey 1958, p. 275), which, according to the
hypothesis of continental drift, led to the development of the Atlantic basin in
Mesozoic and later times.
( F ) Economic Implications
Kimberlites and carbonatites are genetically related to alkaline rocks, and
recent studies have shown a close relationship in space and time between these
rock types and rift valleys, more or less on a worldwide scale.
Kimberlite pipes are the chief primary source of diamonds in the world.
So far as is known, the North American continent is poorly endowed with
diamond resources. Several thousand small stones have been obtained from a
kimberlite intrusion in the alkaline petrographic province of Arkansas. Also,
good stones of fair size have been found from time to time in the region of the
Great Lakes of North America (Fig. 5). They are presumed to have come from
an unknown source in Canada which according to Hobbs (1899) is in the vicinity
of James Bay. However, since the Great Lakes region appears to have rift
structures, and intrusives genetically related to kimberlites, the interesting
possibility that the diamonds discovered in this region have not travelled far
from their source cannot be discounted.
656 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF EARTH SCIENCES. VOL. 3. 1966
Carbonatite is the principal source of niobium and the cerium group rare-
earth elements. Thorium also is produced from carbonatites as a by-product.
In the search for carbonatite complexes it may be possible to use the rift valley
hypothesis outlined in this paper as a regional guide.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writers are grateful to Dr. J . S. Stevenson and Dr. A. R. Philpotts, and
in particular to Dr. J. E. Gill, all of the Department of Geological Sciences,
McGill University, for critically reading the manuscript of this paper. Thanks
are also due to graduate students in the Department of Geological Sciences,
McGill University, for offering critical comments and helpful suggestions.
Financial assistance from McGill University is gratefully acknowledged.
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