Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Agaricus Mushroom
Growing
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A concrete slab, referred to as a wharf, Conventional Phase I composting
Making a Composted is required for composting (Figure 1). begins by mixing and wetting the
Substrate In addition, a compost turner to ingredients as they are stacked. Most
aerate and water the ingredients and a farms have a preconditioning phase in
Many agricultural by-products are tractor-loader to move the ingredients which bulk ingredients and some
used to make mushroom substrate. to the turner are needed. Water used supplements are watered and stacked
Straw-bedded horse manure and hay during a substrate preparation opera- in a large pile for several days to
or wheat straw are the common bulk tion can be recycled back into the soften, making them more receptive
ingredients. “Synthetic” composts are process. It is, in a sense, a closed to water. This preconditioning time
those in which the prime ingredient is system. Water runoff into the environ- may range from 3 to 15 days. The
not straw-bedded horse manure. If ment is nonexistent on a properly piles are turned daily or every other
bulk ingredients are high in nitrogen, managed substrate preparation wharf. day. After this pre-wet stage, the
other high-carbohydrate bulk ingredi- Water collected in concrete pits or a compost is formed into a rectangular
ents—such as corncobs, cottonseed sealed lagoon is aerated and recycled pile with tight sides and a loose center.
hulls, or cocoa bean hulls—are added to soak bulk ingredients before the A compost turner is typically used to
to the mix. All compost formulas composting process begins. form this pile. Water is sprayed onto
require the addition of nitrogen the horse manure or synthetic com-
supplements and gypsum. post as these materials move through
the turner. Nitrogen supplements and
Additional nitrogen-rich supplements gypsum can be spread over the top of
are added to composts to increase the the bulk ingredients and are thor-
nitrogen content to 1.5–1.7 percent oughly mixed by the turner.
for horse manure or 1.7–1.9 percent
for synthetic; both are computed on a
Figure 1. Traditional compost wharf, showing pre-wet pile on the right and the
dry weight basis. Poultry manure is
ricks or windrows on the left.
probably the most common and
economical source of nitrogen. A
variety of meals or seeds, such as
cottonseed meal, soybean meal, or
brewer’s grain may also be used.
Inorganic or nonprotein nitrogen
sources such as ammonia nitrate and
urea are also used, but only in small
amounts when high-carbohydrate
bulk ingredients are used. Gypsum is
added to minimize “greasiness” and to
buffer the pH of the compost.
Gypsum increases the flocculation of
colloids in the compost, which
prevents the straws from sticking
together and inhibiting air penetra-
tion. Air, which supplies oxygen to the
microbes and chemical reactions, is
essential to the composting process.
Gypsum may be added early in the
composting process, at 70–100 lbs per
ton of dry ingredients.
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Figure 2 is a close-up of a machine sufficient heat is generated to start the preparing substrate under aerobic
“eating” its way through a compost draw of air into the pile. Under conditions, where less offensive odors
pile. Once the pile is wetted and anaerobic conditions, organic acids are produced, is better for mushroom
formed, aerobic fermentation and other deleterious chemical growers.
(composting) commences as microbial compounds are formed. Therefore,
growth and reproduction naturally
occur in the bulk ingredients. Heat, Figure 2. Self-propelled compost turner moving through a compost rick or pile.
ammonia, and carbon dioxide (CO2)
are released as by-products during this
process. Compost activators, other
than those mentioned, are not needed.
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core gets larger, more offensive odors Aerated composting systems are
Aerated Phase I are produced. In order to maintain replacing conventional ricks through-
Composting aerobic conditions throughout the out Europe and are beginning to gain
entire substrate pile, supplemental acceptance in North America as the
Improving community relations has aeration is sometimes used. This quest to manage odors continues.
led to alterations in the way the Phase aeration is accomplished by using a Europeans were the first to regulate
I mushroom composting process is fan to force air up through a concrete emissions from their agricultural
carried out. As urban areas encroach pad with a series of evenly distributed operations. Therefore, most European
on rural farmland, residents have openings and into the substrate mushroom composting operations
made odor-related complaints and material. This design is referred to as have employed some type of enclosed
legal battles have ensued, which an aerated floor. Systems have been or environmentally controlled Phase I
suggest a need for more stringent built with structural sidewalls, usually system. In North America, a few
odor-management practices. of concrete and occasionally of wood, systems have been built to test the
to form the piles with a uniform technology. Eventually they may
If the pile is not turned and aerated height and depth (Figure 4). Aside become common at commercial
during Phase I composting, oxygen from aerated floors and structural operations. Unfortunately, little
may become limited and anaerobic sidewalls, there is great variation information is available to show how
conditions may develop along the among bunker systems currently being these systems reduce emissions.
bottom of the stack. As the anaerobic used for Phase I. Therefore, determining how effective
aerated systems are in reducing odors
Figure 4. This aerated substrate preparation system has a piped concrete floor is difficult.
under the substrate that forces air through the substrate to maintain aerobic
conditions during the composting process. Phase I is considered complete as soon
as the raw ingredients become pliable
and are capable of holding water, the
odor of ammonia is sharp, and the
dark-brown color indicates that
carmelization and browning reactions
have occurred. At the beginning of
Phase I, the substrate is bulky and
yellow. At the end of Phase I substrate
preparation, the substrate should be
dense, chocolate brown in color, and
have a strong odor of ammonia. The
substrate still has some structure so
aeration can be maintained during
Phase II composting. The potential
fresh mushroom yield depends on the
amount of dry weight filled. In order
to achieve a substrate density in the
growing structure necessary to support
an economical mushroom yield, the
substrate at fill has to be short or
dense enough to attain a high sub-
strate dry weight.
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Figure 5. A tunnel used for Phase II and/or Phase III (spawn-growing) systems.
Growing Systems
(Phase II)
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Figure 7. Trays used for a multizone system, moving through a tray-filling line.
Phase II: Finishing the
Compost
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Phase II objectives are possibly the going through this temperature range Near the completion of Phase II,
most difficult procedures in growing will produce the most protein or the growers check for ammonia in the
mushrooms. Because of a composting maximum amount of food for the compost. The nose is usually the best
or other cultural problem, growers mushroom. A good rule of thumb is tool. However, ammonia-testing kits
sometimes have to adjust Phase II not to drop the composted substrate and strips are available to supplement
programs. The Phase II process takes temperature more than 5ºF per 24 the nose test.
anywhere from 7 to 18 days, depend- hours, which maintains the compost
ing on how the air and compost substrate in the desired range for
temperatures are managed to control about 4 or more days.
microbial activity.
Figure 9. Handful of composted substrate showing the white-flecking (“firefang”)
During Phase II in standard bed or microbial growth.
tray systems, compost temperatures
are brought down through all tem-
perature ranges to ensure that all the
different species have a chance to
convert their specific source of
carbohydrates. The composted
substrate throughout Phase II should
appear to have moderate “firefang”—a
term referring to the white-flecking
microbial growth pattern of the
thermophilic microorganism (Figure 9).
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Many commercially prepared spawn
Spawn Maintenance strains are available to commercial and Spawn Production
noncommercial growers. All commer-
A desirable mycelial culture is pure— cially grown strains are pure culture of The process of making spawn remains
free of contaminants and of sectoring edible, fresh mushrooms; some may much the same as Penn State professor
of other abnormalities. Contaminants vary in texture and growing require- emeritus Dr. Sinden first developed in
include other fungi, bacteria, or ments. Mushroom spawn is produced the 1930s. Grain is mixed with a little
insects growing on or infesting the in several different strains or isolates. calcium carbonate, then cooked,
culture media along with the desired Hybrid White is a smooth-cap, high- sterilized, and cooled. Small pieces of
mycelial culture. When a culture is yield, excellent processing strain. pure-culture mycelium are placed in
first obtained, it should be transferred Hybrid Off-White has a cap that is small batches on the grain. Once the
several times to fresh media to check slightly scaly on first break and is a small batch is fully colonized, it is
for any form of contamination preferred fresh-market strain, and used to inoculate several larger batches
(Figure 10). Brown (Portabella, Crimini) produces of grain (Figure 11). This multiplying
a chocolate-brown, mature mushroom of the inoculated grain continues until
Sectoring is any type of mycelial that is fleshy and has a strong, mature the commercial-size containers—
growth that differs in appearance, flavor. usually plastic bags with breathable
growth rate, color, or in any other way filter patches—are inoculated. During
from the typical appearance of a given the colonization of each batch, the
strain. Sectoring is often observed as a containers are shaken every few days
more rapidly growing area near the to distribute actively growing mycelia
leading edge of growth, exhibiting a around the bag or bottle. During the
different growth habit from the rest of process, temperatures are maintained
the culture. Other abnormalities that at 74–76ºF (23–24ºC). Uniformity of
might appear in a culture are fluffy, the air circulating around the bags is
aerial mycelia, thick or rubbery important to ensure that all containers
textures, and color changes such as are kept within the desired tempera-
browning or darkening of the myce- ture range. Mycelium is sensitive and
lium. Sectors of other change in its fruiting mechanism can be easily
vegetative growth could affect the damaged at high temperatures.
productivity of the culture. Therefore,
recognizing and avoiding propagation
Figure 11. Spawn grains used to seed the compost with mushroom mycelia.
of abnormal mycelia to agar and
Spawn is cooked, sterilized, grain cooled, and inoculated with mushroom
further spawn production is very mycelia.
important.
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tures should be maintained at 75–
Spawning 77ºF and relative humidity should be Substrate Supplementa-
high to minimize drying of the tion
On bed farms, spawn and supplement substrate surface. Under proper
are broadcast over the surface of the conditions, the spawn will grow as a The compost has to provide the
substrate. Uniformity of this distribu- delicate network of mycelia through- mushroom mycelium with a smorgas-
tion is critical to achieve even spawn out the substrate. The mycelium bord of food. Not only is lignin-
growth and temperatures. On tray or grows in all directions from a spawn humus complex and cellulose impor-
bulk farms, spawn is usually metered grain. Eventually mycelia from tant, but protein, fat, and oils are also
into the substrate during the mixing different spawn grains fuse together, important. A good analogy is protein
operation. Spawning is the cleanest making a spawned bed appear as a serves as the mushroom’s “steak,”
operation performed on a mushroom white root-like network throughout carbohydrates its “potatoes,” and
farm. All equipment, baskets, tools, the compost (Figure 12). As the lipids (fats and oils) its “butter.” Like
and so forth should be thoroughly spawn grows, it generates heat. If the people, mushrooms should eat a
cleaned and disinfected before spawn- compost temperature increases to balance of all these food types. The
ing. above 80° or 85°F, depending on the main source of “steak and butter” for
cultivar, the heat may kill or damage the mushroom is from Phase II
The amount of spawn used depends the mycelia, reducing crop yield and/ microbes. The dead cells of thermo-
on the length of the spawn-growing or mushroom quality. The time philic fungi, bacteria, and actino-
period and compost fill weights. The needed for spawn to colonize the mycetes “firefang” are the packages
use of more spawn will result in a compost depends on the spawning that deliver protein and fat to the
quicker colonization and more rate and its distribution, the compost mushroom (Figure 9). The addition of
efficient use of substrate nutrients. moisture and temperature, and the delayed-release supplements further
Improved colonization of substrate nature or quality of the compost. A enhances the protein and lipid
will help ensure that the mushroom complete spawn run usually requires content of the compost for the
mycelia will grow quicker than other 14 to 21 days. The spawn-growing mushroom. Many of these supple-
fungal competitors. period is considered complete when ments consist of a high-protein oil
spawn has completely colonized the material, such as soybean meal,
During the spawn-growing period,
substrate and the metabolic heat surge cornmeal, or feather meal, that has
heat is generated and supplemental
is subsiding. been treated to delay the availability of
cooling is required. Substrate tempera-
the nutrient for the mushroom. If an
untreated supplement is added to the
Figure 12. Handful of mushroom substrate showing fully colonized spawn compost at this time, it often becomes
growth.
a “candy bar” to other microbes,
weeds, or competitor molds. These
molds grow more rapidly than the
mushroom mycelium and can quickly
colonize the compost, competing with
the mushroom for nutrients. The oils
or lipids in these supplements are used
by the mushroom to stimulate the
fruiting mechanism and increase yield
by having more mushrooms initiate
and develop. Yields can be increased
from 0.25 to 1.5 lbs/sq ft of growing
space. In addition, mushroom size
may also be improved in compost
with higher spawning-moisture
content. However, in substrate that is
not selectively prepared, these nutri-
ents become more available to com-
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petitor molds. Often, if a farm is Figure 13. Spawn growth in the casing and its thicker rhizomorph growth.
having composting problems, not
supplementing until the problems are
corrected is more economical.
Casing
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time. Mycelial growth is uniform on Although much has been written
the surface, which encourages the Watering or Irrigation about when and how much water to
mushrooms to form on the surface as apply at certain stages in the crop’s
well. Therefore, they are cleaner. The moisture content of the casing development, most growers rely on
Yields are improved since the mush- often determines the uniformity of the their ability to “read” the crop and
room growth is uniform and crop casing depth. Casing, both by equip- determine how the mushrooms look
management is easier. In addition, ment and by hand, becomes more from day to day. Water constantly
more mushrooms are produced from difficult as the casing material in- moves throughout the cropping
areas that may have less nutrition. creases in moisture (Figure 15). Peat period: water is lost through evapora-
moss casing will lump up or adhere to tion and transpiration, and the
Managing the crop after casing the different parts of the equipment, mushroom takes up water into its
requires that the compost tempera- making the flow of the material uneven. cells; water is replaced when watering
tures until flushing be held at spawn- the casing layer. The increase in the
growing temperatures. After flushing, Knowing when, how, and how much weight of the mushroom from
compost temperatures are lowered and water to apply to casing is an art form pinning to maturing is related to the
air temperature becomes the primary that readily separates experienced rapid uptake of water from the casing
control point. Throughout the period growers from beginners. Watering the and compost. The mushroom doubles
following casing, water must be crop is the most delicate operation in in size 2 days before harvest, putting
applied intermittently to raise the mushroom growing. Although each more strain on the pipe system in the
moisture level to field capacity before grower may have his or her own compost and casing. As the mush-
the mushroom pins form. preference, no specific casing-manage- room matures during a flush, its
ment practice and casing material are weight gain is attributed to the
universally accepted. Despite so much accumulation of nutrients and water
diversity, many growers are still able to from the substrate.
harvest good crops with good fresh-
market quality.
Figure 14. Difference in time when CAC or CI is added to Figure 15. Most watering is done by hand, although newer
the casing. The two figures on the left and the two on the farms use hand-propelled watering trees.
right show the difference in spawn growth over time into
the casing.
Mycelium
3 days 3 days
Casting
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and expand, they are called primordia composting started. The cultural
Pinning or pins (Figure 16). Mushroom pins practices used during pin develop-
continue to grow larger through a pre- ment and cropping include the
Mushroom initials develop after button stage and ultimately enlarge to management of air and compost
rhizomorphs have formed in the mature mushrooms. Mushroom temperatures and CO2 content of
casing. The initials are extremely small harvesting begins 15–21 days after room air, and is often dependent on
but can be seen as clumps on a casing, which is normally 10–12 days the strain and number of pins the
rhizomorph. As these structures grow after flushing and 7–8 weeks after grower wishes to form and develop.
Mycelium Initials—Clumping
Pre-Button
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Air-handling systems regulate the Stage (RES), when the mushroom
amount of fresh air entering the room doubles in size every 24 hours (Figure Harvesting
and temperatures within the room. 17). This expansion stage depends on
Ventilation requirements depend on temperature, moisture of the compost, Mushrooms are harvested over a 2–4-
the amount of mushrooms to be and casing. The environment inside a day period in a 7–10-day cycle called
grown on the beds, heat, and CO2 production room determines the rate flushes or breaks. When mature
production, which increases with of transpiration, which aids in the mushrooms are picked, an inhibitor to
temperature. Uniform air movement flow of nutrients and moisture into mushroom development is removed
and circulation is important to the mushrooms. and the next flush moves toward
prevent stale air with high CO2 levels maturity. Timing of the breaks or
from building up around the mush- Mushroom size is dependent on the flushes is managed by control of the
rooms, which lowers fresh quality. Air number of pins that develop for a watering, CO2, and temperatures. The
temperature is maintained in a range break or flush and by how the crop is first two flushes account for the
of 60–66ºF (15–17ºC); CO2 levels prepared and managed. Portabella majority of the total yield, with the
range from 1,000 to 2,500 ppm (1– mushroom growers have learned to subsequent flushes tapering off to
2.5 percent) during the pinning and manage the pin set to achieve enough relatively low levels of production.
cropping stages. The most critical pins for good yield, yet, more impor- Mushrooms are harvested by hand
stage of the mushroom’s development tant, to attain the right amount of and are picked at a time before the cap
for fresh quality and yield improve- pins to produce the large mature becomes soft, indicating the mush-
ment is during the Rapidly Expanding mushrooms for the Portabella market. room is past prime fresh-quality
potential (Figure 18). Harvesting rates
Figure 17. Mature mushrooms ready for harvesting. depend mainly on the amount of crop
on the beds and size of the mush-
rooms. Rates vary from 30 to 80 lbs/
hour.
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While mushroom yields vary, the neighboring house or subsequent
average yield for the United States in Post-Crop Pasteurization crop. The steaming-off procedure is
2001 was about 5.75 lbs/sq ft. With and Spent Mushroom accomplished by maintaining a
improving technology, such as air- Substrate (SMS) compost temperature of 140–150ºF
handling systems, heavier compost dry (60–70ºC) for anywhere from 8 to 24
weights, supplementation, and When a house becomes unproductive, hours. The spent compost should be
improved strains, growers have the crop is usually terminated. Before removed from the farm to reduce the
achieved yields higher than 8.0 lbs./sq. removing the spent substrate from the chances of contaminating the subse-
ft. However, these high yields are only mushroom house, the grower “pas- quent mushroom crops at the farm
achieved on farms that are properly teurizes” it with steam to kill any (Figure 19).
equipped and have very experienced diseases, pests or other biological
growers. activity that could interfere with a Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is
the soil-like material remaining after a
crop of mushrooms has been har-
Figure 18. Mushrooms for the fresh market are only harvested by hand. The
stem with some of the “root” attached is trimmed before the mushroom is vested. Spent substrate is high in
placed in a market container. organic matter, making it desirable for
use as a soil amendment or soil
conditioner. Sometimes this material
is called spent mushroom compost.
SMS still has some nutrients available
for the mushroom. However, replac-
ing the substrate and starting a new
crop is more economical. Users should
consider spent substrate clean of weed
seeds and insects.
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salt content in soils, avoid using fresh Prepared by David M. Beyer, associate
spent substrate around those plants. Related Readings professor and mushroom extension
You may use spent substrate weath- specialist.
ered for 6 months or longer in all Atkins, Fred C. 1974. Guide to
Visit Penn State’s College of Agricultural Sciences on
gardens and with most plants. Ob- Mushroom Growing. London: Faber
the Web: www.cas.psu.edu
taining spent substrate in the fall or and Faber Ltd.
winter and allowing it to weather will Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences research,
Blui-n, H. 1977. The Mushroom extension, and resident education programs are
make it ready for use in a garden the funded in part by Pennsylvania counties, the
following spring. SMS can be applied Industry in Ontario. Toronto, Ontario: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and the U.S.
as mulch in small amounts on turf all Economic Branch, Ontario Ministry Department of Agriculture.