BASIC ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

DEFINITION OF TERMS:
PRINCIPLE- the fundamental law or truth upon which others are based; a moral standard

STEWARDSHIP- the individuals’ responsibility to manage his life and property regard to the right s of others;
the office, duties and obligation of a steward.

STEWARD- one employed in a large household or estate to manage domestic concerns such as keeping of
accounts and supervision of servants; one who actively directs affairs

TOTALITY- wholeness; sum; state/ quality of being total

COOPERATION- common effort; association of persons for common benefits

SOLIDARITY- unity as a group or class that produces or is based on community of interests, objectives an
standards

LEGITIMATE- lawfully begotten; accordant with law

(5) BASIC ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

1.Stewardship
>Our bodies, our life, our human nature & everything in this earth are gifts we have dominion over
>this means we are responsible for them. We should not harm them, but rather improve & care for them
>Ex.: Caring for one’s body is a sign of good stewardship

2. Totality
>Refers to the whole. Every person must develop, use for & preserve all his parts & functions for themselves
as well as the good of the whole.

3. Doubt Effect
>When an act is foreseen to have both good & bad effects, the principle of double effect is
applied.
>In order that such act be permissible, the following conditions should be met:

1. The action itself must be good or at least neutral

2. The good effects are the one directed intended by agent & not the evil effect
3. The good effect is not produced by means of the evil effect
4. The foreseen beneficial effect must be equal to or greater than the foreseen harmful effect

4. Cooperation
>The participation of one agent with another agent to produce a particular effect or joint effect
>Cooperation becomes a problem when the action of the primary agent is morally wrong
>Cooperation may be:

1. FORMAL

>When the 2nd agent willingly participates as when one agrees, advice, counsels, promotes or
condones

2. MATERIAL

>When the 2nd agent does not willingly participate

5. Solidarity
>Means to be one with others. In the provisions of health care, it is important for the provider to be in
solidarity with the patient when seeking the latter’s best interest
>this is most important when dealing with the poor, disadvantaged & marginalized
>Ex.: Should the strong help the
weak?
THE PRINCIPLE OF TOTALITY

An individual has the right to cut off, mutilate, or remove any defective or worn- out non- functioning
part of his body; to dispose of his organs or to destroy their capacity to function “only insofar as the general
well- being of the whole body requires it” (Pahl: 52)

Under natural law ethics, we have a natural obligation not only to preserve our lives, but also to
preserve the integrity of our bodies. Accordingly, a diseased organ may be amputated or excised for the good
of the whole organism. A gangrenous leg or arm or any other organ that is beyond being cured and threatens
the whole organism may be mutilated to save the person’s life. Healthy organs, however may not be cut off as
this would weaken a person’s health.

It seems then that the totality would forbid the donation of a healthy organ if such were to weaken the
health of the donor; it may conflict with the natural inclination toward self- preservation, and would seem to
violate the sanctity of the individual person. Its abuse and misuse may even be worse, such as in cases where
one sells one’s healthy organs and thereby treats oneself as a means rather than as an end.

THE DOUBLE EFFECT PRINCIPLE

The principle applies to a situation in which a good effect and an evil effect will result from good cause
(Pahl: 51-52; Bittle : 44-50; Reyes: 151- 155; Shannon 1987: 67). We may have a good action which will yield
two effects, a good one and an evil one. How are we to resolve this question? According to the principle,
under certain conditions, some evil effect—voluntary in cause—may be permitted to occur.

The classic example is the case of a woman who is three months pregnant and is [found to have
cancerous uterus. To save the woman’s life, her uterus must be removed at the earliest possible time, but to
do so, the life of the fetus must be sacrificed. In the resolution of these kinds of conflict, four conditions of the
issue must be met:

1. The action directly intended must be good in itself, or at least morally indifferent. First of all, the moral
action must be in itself good, otherwise it is an evil at the very outset. In the case cited above, the
surgical operation on the woman’s uterus is good per se bec. Of the condition mentioned.

2. The good effect must follow from the action at least as immediately as the evil effect; or the evil effect
may follow from the good effect. In other words, either both the good and the evil effect must occur
simultaneously ( they both follow from the operation w/ equal immediacy), or the good effect is
produced directly by the operation, and the evil effect (death of the fetus) follows from the good effect
(the mother’s life is saved). Both cases are morally legitimate. However, if the evil effect is produced
directly by the operation, and the good effect follows, the action must not be performed bec. Killing
the fetus would be the means used to save the woman’s life.

3. The foreseen evil effect may not be intended or approved, but merely permitted to occur. In other
words, the killing of the unborn child must not be directly intended but considered only as indirectly
intended and as secondary effect of the operation. If it is directly intended, then it becomes the direct
 and primary object of the operation, and hence it is evil. But since it is only indirectly intended, it
becomes the secondary object of the operation and hence, it is morally permissible.

4. There must be proportionate and sufficient reason for allowing the evil effect to occur while
performing the action. At stake, here is the life of a pregnant woman with a cancerous uterus who is
three months pregnant. At this stage of pregnancy, both lives cannot be saved – only that of the
mother’s – and the time element is very crucial. A delayed operation may mean the loss of both lives.