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航空宇航学院
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航空宇航学院
Introduction
• What’s Boundary layers ?
– A thin layer Appearing on the surface of bodies in viscous
flow because the fluid seems to "stick" to the surface.
– A thin layer of fluid with lower velocity than the outer flow
develops.
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Description of Boundary Layer
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Boundary layer on airfoil.
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laminar flow
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• Laminar flow
– Fluid moves in smooth layers or lamina.
– There is relatively little mixing and consequently the velocity
gradients are small and shear stresses are low.
– The thickness of the laminar boundary layer increases with
distance from the start of the boundary layer and decreases
with Reynolds number.
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Turbulent boundary layer 航空宇航学院
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Effects by viscosity
• Drag
• Pressure Distribution
• Flow Separation
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Viscous Drag 航空宇航学院
• Viscous Drag
– Skin Friction
Skin friction drag caused by shear stresses at the surface
contribute a majority of the drag of most airplanes
We define the skin friction coefficient, Cf, by
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Pressure Drag
航空宇航学院
– Pressure Drag
The presence of the boundary layer creates a
pressure or form drag on bodies
In an adverse pressure gradient, the skin friction
drag is reduced, but pressure drag increases.
This increase in pressure drag compensates for
some of the reduction in skin friction.
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Effect of Boundary Layers on
Pressures 航空宇航学院
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– The effective shape can be used to approximate the effect of
the boundary layer using inviscid analysis methods combined
with the boundary layer equations.
– Outside the boundary layer, the flow behaves much like an inviscid
(and usually irrotational) fluid.
– This leads to changes in the lift curve slope (up to a 10% reduction
in Cl at Reynolds numbers in the millions) and an aerodynamic
center that is usually farther forward than is predicted by inviscid
theory.
Angle of attack
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Separation
• Separation
– What is Separation
When the flow near the surface reverses its direction and flows
upstream, there must be a place, generally a bit farther upstream,
where streamlines meet and then leave the surface.
– Why ?
It’s caused by the presence of an adverse pressure gradient.
– Effects
When this occurs, the assumptions that the u component of
velocity is larger than the v component and that certain derivatives
in the x direction may be ignored, no longer are valid.
Thus, coupling an inviscid analysis with a simple boundary layer
calculation does not work.
One must resort to experiment or Navier-Stokes solutions.
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– Displacement thickness, δ *
• This is a measure of the outward displacement of the
streamlines from the solid surface as a result of the reduced
u- velocity within the boundary layer. This quantity is defined
as :
∞
⎡ ρu ⎤
δ = ∫ ⎢1−
*
⎣ ρu ⎥⎦dy
0 e e
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– Momentum Thickness, θ
– This is a measure of the momentum loss within the
boundary layer as a result of the reduced velocities within
the boundary layer.
∞
ρu ⎡ u⎤
θ=∫ 1−
⎢⎣ ue ⎥⎦ dy
0
ρe u e
H = δ /θ*
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Thwaites’ method
• This is an empirical method based on the observation
that most laminar boundary layers obey the following
relationship.
• Ref: Thawites, B., Incompressible Aerodynamics,
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1960:
ue d 2 θ due 2
ν dx
(θ )= A − B
ν dx
Thwaites recommends A = 0.45 and B = 6 as the best
empirical fit. 28
航空宇航学院
Thwaites’ method
• The above equation may be analytically
integrated yielding
0.45ν
x
⎡ u e ( x = 0)
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⎤ 0.45ν x
θ = 6 ∫x=0ue dx + ⎢⎣θ ( x = 0) ue6 ( x) ⎥⎦ = ue6 ∫ e dx
2 5 2 5
u
ue x =0
• For blunt bodies such as airfoils, the edge velocity ue is zero at x=0,
the stagnation point. For sharp nosed geometries such as a flat plate,
the momentum thickness θ is zero at the leading edge. Thus, the term
in the square bracket always vanishes.
• The integral may be evaluated, at least numerically, when ue is
known.
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航空宇航学院
Thwaites’ method
• After θ is found, the following relations are used to
compute the shape factor H.
For 0 ≤ λ ≤ 0.1
H = 2. 61 − 3. 75λ + 5.24 λ 2
For − 0.1 ≤ λ ≤ 0
0.0147
H = 2. 472 +
0.107 + λ
where,
θ 2 du e
λ=
ν dx 30
航空宇航学院
Thwaites’ method
After θ is found, we can also find skin friction coefficient
from the following empirical curve fits:
µue
τw = (λ + 0.09)0.62
θ
τw
Cf =
1 ρue2
2
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Thwaites’ method: MATLAB Code from PABLO
%--------Laminar boundary layer
if lambda < 0
if lambda==-0.14
lambda=-0.139;
end;
H = 2.088 + 0.0731./(lambda+0.14);
end;
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航空宇航学院
Skin Friction
function L = fL(lambda);
if lambda < 0
if lambda==-0.107
lambda=-0.106;
end;
end;
Transition prediction
• A number of methods are available for predicting
transition.
• Examples:
– Eppler’s method
– Michel’s method
Turbulent Flow
• A number of CFD methods, and integral
boundary layer methods exist.
• The most popular of these is Head’s method.
• This method is used in a number of computer
codes, including PABLO.
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航空宇航学院
Head’s Method
Von Karman Momentum Integral Equation:
dθ θ
dx
+
U
2+H
dU
dx
= (
cf
2
)
δ −δ *
A new shape parameter H1: H1 ≡
θ
Evolution of H1 along the boundary layer:
1 d
U dx
( )
UθH1 = 0.0306 H1 − 3
−0.6169
( )
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These two ODEs are solved by marching from transition location to trailing edge.
航空宇航学院
else
H1 = 3.3 + 1.5501(H − 0.6778)
−3.064
Ludwig-Tillman relationship:
C f = 0.246 10 ( −0.678 H
)Re θ
−0.268
function cf = cfturb(rtheta,H);
cf = 0.246*(10.^(-0.678*H))*rtheta.^(-0.268);
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航空宇航学院
Drag Prediction
Squire-Young Formula
Cd = Cd ,upper + Cd ,lower
H TrailingEdge ,upper + 5
θTrailingEdge ⎛ U E ,TrailingEdge ⎞ 2
Cd ,upper = 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
c ⎝ V∞ ⎠
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• Turbulent flows
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Effect of boundary-layer displacement
on the pressure distribution and lift of a modern airfoil
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Introduction to “Airfoil”
• It is an airfoil analysis program that is an adaptation of
the original program "mcarfa" .
• It can be used to predict the aerodynamic
characteristics of airfoils in subsonic, viscous flows.
• The computed aerodynamic characteristics include
pressure distributions, lift, drag, pitch moment,
transition position, and incipient separation on the
airfoils.
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Method
• The program combines the potential-flow solution with
boundary-layer theory in an iterative manner.
• The interrelationship between the potential-flow
solution and the boundary-layer effects is included .
• Providing significant improvements in prediction
accuracy.
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航空宇航学院
Modifications to "mcarfa"
• Simplification of the input data procedure
• Ability to generate NACA airfoil geometry data
• Compacting output file
• Displaying airfoil shape and pressure distributions in
a graphic manner
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航空宇航学院
Enter Parameters:
Reference chord length = ? (ft)
1.0 <--- input parameter
angle of attack = ? (in deg)
4.0 <--- input parameter
Mach number = ? ( 0.05 < M < Mcr)
0.1 <--- input parameter
Reynolds number = ? (in mllions)
0.8 <--- input parameter 53
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---- Output of Airfoil Program -----
Transition Point:
Upper x/c = 0.31117
Lower x/c = 0.95974
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---- Pressure Distribution on Upper Surface ----
x/c Zu Cp
0.00183 0.00980 -0.28680
0.00668 0.01780 -0.84013
0.01413 0.02571 -1.10247
0.02453 0.03365 -1.20144
0.03776 0.04147 -1.22130
0.05337 0.04900 -1.21070
0.07107 0.05615 -1.19384
0.09018 0.06281 -1.17700
0.11100 0.06907 -1.16577
0.13289 0.07489 -1.17068
0.15481 0.07992 -1.17141
0.17790 0.08437 -1.15723
0.20142 0.08822 -1.14189
……… …….. ………
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Limitations
• Only NACA 4-digit Airfoil and NACA
Standard 5 Digit Airfoil ordinates can be
generated automatically.
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Introduction to XFOIL
• XFOIL is a software which goal was to combine the
speed and accuracy of high-order panel methods
with the new fully-coupled viscous/inviscid interaction
methods.
• It was developed by Mark Drela, MIT and Harold
Youngren, Aerocraft, Inc.
• It consists of a collection of menu-driven routines
which perform various useful functions .
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Introduction to XFOIL
• Functions
– Viscous (or inviscid) analysis of an existing airfoil
– Airfoil design and redesign by interactive specification of a
surface speed distribution via screen cursor or mouse.
– Airfoil redesign by interactive specification of new geometric
parameters
– Blending of airfoils
– Drag polar calculation with fixed or varying Reynolds and/or
Mach numbers.
– Writing and reading of airfoil geometry and polar save files
– Plotting of geometry, pressure distributions, and polar.
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Homework
• Compare the results from using panel method program
PABLO for inviscid flows and viscous flows and using
Airfoil panel method coupled with boundary-layer
theory in an iterative manner.
– Lift coefficient
– Lift coefficient slope
– Drag coefficient
– Pressure distribution
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