航空宇航学院

Viscosity and Boundary Layers

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How to investigate viscous effects

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Outline of the Boundary Layers

• Introduction
• Effects by Viscosity
– Drag
– Pressure Distribution
– Flow Separation
• Basic Boundary Layer Theory
– Basic Theory and Definitions
– Laminar Boundary layers
– Transition
– Turbulent boundary Layers
• Summary of Results 3
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Introduction
• What’s Boundary layers ?
– A thin layer Appearing on the surface of bodies in viscous
flow because the fluid seems to "stick" to the surface.
– A thin layer of fluid with lower velocity than the outer flow
develops.

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Description of Boundary Layer
航空宇航学院

• Description of Boundary Layer

– No slip condition: the flow at the surface has no relative motion.
– The velocity in the boundary layer slowly increases until it reaches
the outer flow velocity, Ue.
– The boundary layer thickness, δ , is defined as the distance
required for the flow to nearly reach Ue.
– Take an arbitrary number (say 99%) to define what we mean by
"nearly“.

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Boundary layer on airfoil.

• Boundary layer along surface of airfoil.

– Generally starting out as a laminar flow, the boundary layer
thickens, undergoes transition to turbulent flow, and then
continues to develop along the surface of the body, possibly
separating from the surface under certain conditions.

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laminar flow
航空宇航学院
• Laminar flow
– Fluid moves in smooth layers or lamina.
– There is relatively little mixing and consequently the velocity
gradients are small and shear stresses are low.
– The thickness of the laminar boundary layer increases with
distance from the start of the boundary layer and decreases
with Reynolds number.

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Turbulent boundary layer 航空宇航学院

• Turbulent boundary layer

– Flow is characterized by unsteady mixing due to eddies at
many scales. The result is higher shear stress at the wall, a
"fuller" velocity profile,and a greater boundary layer thickness.
– The wall shear stress is higher because the velocity gradient
near the wall is greater.

– The lower velocity fluid is

also transported outward with
the result that the distance to
the edge of the layer is larger.

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Effects by viscosity

• Drag
• Pressure Distribution
• Flow Separation

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Viscous Drag 航空宇航学院

• Viscous Drag
– Skin Friction
ƒ Skin friction drag caused by shear stresses at the surface
contribute a majority of the drag of most airplanes
ƒ We define the skin friction coefficient, Cf, by

ƒ The shear stress is then related to the viscosity by:

Cf is related to the drag coefficient by CD (skin friction) = Cf*Swetted/Sref.

where Swetted is the area "wetted" by the air and Sref is the reference
area used to define the drag coefficient. 10
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ƒ This expression applies to a flat plate.

ƒ When the body has thickness, the local velocities on the

surface may be higher than the freestream velocity and the
skin friction is increased.

ƒ We usually write: CD = k * Cf * Swetted / Sref where k is a "form

factor" that depends on the shape of the body.

ƒ The skin friction coefficient varies with Reynolds number,

Mach number, and the character of the boundary layer.

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ƒ The plot below shows how Reynolds number and the

location of the transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow,
affects the skin friction coefficient.

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ƒ From the basic boundary layer theory combined

with experimental fits, the following results are
obtained:
¾ For laminar boundary layers on flat plates:

¾ For fully-turbulent flat plate boundary layers:

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Pressure Drag
航空宇航学院

– Pressure Drag
ƒ The presence of the boundary layer creates a
pressure or form drag on bodies
ƒ In an adverse pressure gradient, the skin friction
drag is reduced, but pressure drag increases.
ƒ This increase in pressure drag compensates for
some of the reduction in skin friction.

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Effect of Boundary Layers on
Pressures 航空宇航学院

• Effect of Boundary Layers on Pressures

– The presence of the boundary layer changes the effective
shape of the body, leading to changes in the pressure
distribution and to the overall lift and drag.

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– The effective shape can be used to approximate the effect of
the boundary layer using inviscid analysis methods combined
with the boundary layer equations.
– Outside the boundary layer, the flow behaves much like an inviscid
(and usually irrotational) fluid.

– This leads to changes in the lift, drag, and moment compared

with the inviscid solution.
– This change in pressure distribution leads to a non-zero
pressure drag in addition to the skin friction drag
– The sum of the skin friction and pressure drag is often termed
“profile drag”.
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– As the angle of attack changes, the boundary layer shape

changes, with thicker boundary layers developing toward the
aft part of the airfoil at higher angles of attack (because of the
more severe adverse pressure gradients).

– The effective shape of the airfoil thus changes with angle of

attack.
– If we look at the mean line of the effective shapes, it is clear that
viscous effects cause an effective decambering of the airfoil
shape.
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– This leads to changes in the lift curve slope (up to a 10% reduction
in Cl at Reynolds numbers in the millions) and an aerodynamic
center that is usually farther forward than is predicted by inviscid
theory.

Separation causes large

changes in effective airfoil
shape here
Viscous result

Angle of attack

– The effect is of increasing importance as Reynolds number is

reduced.

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Separation

• Separation
– What is Separation
ƒ When the flow near the surface reverses its direction and flows
upstream, there must be a place, generally a bit farther upstream,
where streamlines meet and then leave the surface.

– Why ?
ƒ It’s caused by the presence of an adverse pressure gradient.
– Effects
ƒ When this occurs, the assumptions that the u component of
velocity is larger than the v component and that certain derivatives
in the x direction may be ignored, no longer are valid.
ƒ Thus, coupling an inviscid analysis with a simple boundary layer
calculation does not work.
ƒ One must resort to experiment or Navier-Stokes solutions.
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• Effects of the separation

– The changes in the flow pattern, and associated
forces and moments are large.
ƒ Drag usually increases substantially
ƒ Airfoil lift usually drops
ƒ The effect is generally Reynolds number dependent.

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• Detail explanation about separation

– The presence of an adverse pressure gradient (increasing
pressure) causes a deceleration of the fluid. Just as when one
coasts uphill, the fluid that starts up the (pressure) hill with little
speed, starts rolling backward after a while.

– This picture explains why flow does not separate as readily at

higher Reynolds numbers. In that case, the velocity profile is
"fuller" with the high external velocities extending down closer
to the surface.
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– Turbulent boundary layers also have greater velocity near the

surface and are therefore better able to handle adverse pressure
gradients.
– The laminar boundary layer is more likely to separate
ƒ When this occurs, the laminar boundary layer leaves the surface and
usually undergoes transition to turbulent flow away from the surface.
ƒ This process takes place over a certain distance that is inversely
related to the Reynolds number, but if it happens quickly enough, the
flow may reattach as a turbulent boundary layer and continue along
the surface.

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• The laminar separation on low Reynolds number airfoils

– The separation phenomenon has significant effects on airfoil
pressure distributions at low Reynolds numbers.

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• Comments on computing for separation

• To compute when separation will occur, we can
solve the N-S equations or apply one of several
separation criteria to solutions of the boundary layer
equations.
• Laminar Separation Criteria
• Turbulent Separation Criteria

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Basic boundary layer theory

• Boundary Layer Thickness
– Boundary layer thickness, δ
• This is defined as the y- location where u/ue reaches 99%,
that is the u- velocity becomes 99% of the edge velocity.

– Displacement thickness, δ *
• This is a measure of the outward displacement of the
streamlines from the solid surface as a result of the reduced
u- velocity within the boundary layer. This quantity is defined
as :
∞
⎡ ρu ⎤
δ = ∫ ⎢1−
*

⎣ ρu ⎥⎦dy
0 e e
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– Momentum Thickness, θ
– This is a measure of the momentum loss within the
boundary layer as a result of the reduced velocities within
the boundary layer.

∞
ρu ⎡ u⎤
θ=∫ 1−
⎢⎣ ue ⎥⎦ dy
0
ρe u e

– Shape factor, H is defined as the ratio of δ * to θ

H = δ /θ*

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Boundary Layer Analyses

• Thwaites Method for Computing Laminar
Boundary Layers
• Michel’s Transition Criterion
• Head’s method for Turbulent Flow
• Squire-Young Formula for Drag Prediction

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Thwaites’ method
• This is an empirical method based on the observation
that most laminar boundary layers obey the following
relationship.
• Ref: Thawites, B., Incompressible Aerodynamics,
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1960:

ue d 2 θ due 2

ν dx
(θ )= A − B
ν dx
Thwaites recommends A = 0.45 and B = 6 as the best
empirical fit. 28
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Thwaites’ method
• The above equation may be analytically
integrated yielding

0.45ν
x
⎡ u e ( x = 0)
6
⎤ 0.45ν x
θ = 6 ∫x=0ue dx + ⎢⎣θ ( x = 0) ue6 ( x) ⎥⎦ = ue6 ∫ e dx
2 5 2 5
u
ue x =0

• For blunt bodies such as airfoils, the edge velocity ue is zero at x=0,
the stagnation point. For sharp nosed geometries such as a flat plate,
the momentum thickness θ is zero at the leading edge. Thus, the term
in the square bracket always vanishes.
• The integral may be evaluated, at least numerically, when ue is
known.
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Thwaites’ method
• After θ is found, the following relations are used to
compute the shape factor H.

For 0 ≤ λ ≤ 0.1
H = 2. 61 − 3. 75λ + 5.24 λ 2

For − 0.1 ≤ λ ≤ 0
0.0147
H = 2. 472 +
0.107 + λ
where,
θ 2 du e
λ=
ν dx 30
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Thwaites’ method
After θ is found, we can also find skin friction coefficient
from the following empirical curve fits:

µue
τw = (λ + 0.09)0.62

θ
τw
Cf =
1 ρue2
2

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Thwaites’ method: MATLAB Code from PABLO
%--------Laminar boundary layer

lsep = 0; trans=0; endofsurf=0;

theta(1) = sqrt(0.075/(Re*dueds(1)));
i = 1;
while lsep ==0 & trans ==0 & endofsurf ==0
lambda = theta(i).^2*dueds(i)*Re;
% test for laminar separation
if lambda < -0.09
lsep = 1; itrans = i;
break;
end;
H(i) = fH(lambda); L = fL(lambda); cf(i) = 2*L./(Re*theta(i));
if i>1, cf(i) = cf(i)./ue(i); end;
i = i+1;
% test for end of surface
if i> n endofsurf = 1; itrans = n; break; end;
K = 0.45/Re; xm = (s(i)+s(i-1))/2; dx = (s(i)-s(i-1)); coeff = sqrt(3/5);
f1 = ppval(spues,xm-coeff*dx/2); f1 = f1^5; f2 = ppval(spues,xm); f2 = f2^5;
f3 = ppval(spues,xm+coeff*dx/2); f3 = f3^5; dth2ue6 = K*dx/18*(5*f1+8*f2+5*f3);
theta(i) = sqrt((theta(i-1).^2*ue(i-1).^6 + dth2ue6)./ue(i).^6);
% test for transition
rex = Re*s(i)*ue(i); ret = Re*theta(i)*ue(i); retmax = 1.174*(rex^0.46+22400*rex^(-0.54));
if ret>retmax
trans = 1; itrans = i;
end;
end; 32
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Relationship between λ and H

function H = fH(lambda);

if lambda < 0

if lambda==-0.14
lambda=-0.139;
end;

H = 2.088 + 0.0731./(lambda+0.14);

elseif lambda >= 0

H = 2.61 - 3.75*lambda + 5.24*lambda.^2;

end;

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Skin Friction
function L = fL(lambda);

if lambda < 0

if lambda==-0.107
lambda=-0.106;
end;

L = 0.22 + 1.402*lambda +(0.018*lambda)./(lambda+0.107);

elseif lambda >= 0

L = 0.22 + 1.57*lambda - 1.8*lambda.^2;

end;

We invoke (or call this function) at each i-location as follows:

H(i) = fH(lambda); L = fL(lambda); cf(i) = 2*L./(Re*theta(i)); 34

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Transition prediction
• A number of methods are available for predicting
transition.
• Examples:
– Eppler’s method
– Michel’s method

• Wind turbine designers and laminar airfoil

designers tend to use Eppler’s method
• Aircraft designers tend to use Michel’s method.
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Michel’s Method for Transition Prediction

ue x
Re x =
ν
ueθ
Reθ =
ν
Transition occurs when
Reθ ≥ 1.174 Re x [ 0.46
+ 22400 Re x
− 0.54
]
% test for transition
rex = Re*s(i)*ue(i); ret = Re*theta(i)*ue(i);
retmax = 1.174*(rex^0.46+22400*rex^(-0.54));
if ret>retmax
trans = 1; itrans = i;
end;
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Turbulent Flow
• A number of CFD methods, and integral
boundary layer methods exist.
• The most popular of these is Head’s method.
• This method is used in a number of computer
codes, including PABLO.

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Head’s Method
Von Karman Momentum Integral Equation:

dθ θ
dx
+
U
2+H
dU
dx
= (
cf
2
)
δ −δ *
A new shape parameter H1: H1 ≡
θ
Evolution of H1 along the boundary layer:

1 d
U dx
( )
UθH1 = 0.0306 H1 − 3
−0.6169
( )
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These two ODEs are solved by marching from transition location to trailing edge.
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Empirical Closure Relations

If H ≤ 1.6
H1 = 3.3 + 0.8234(H − 1.1)
−1.287

else
H1 = 3.3 + 1.5501(H − 0.6778)
−3.064

Ludwig-Tillman relationship:

C f = 0.246 10 ( −0.678 H
)Re θ
−0.268

Turbulent separation occurs when H1 = 3.3 39

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Coding Closure Relations in

Head’s Method
function y=H1ofH(H); function H=HofH1(H1);

if H <1.1 if H1 <= 3.32

y = 16; H = 3;
else elseif H1 < 5.3
if H <= 1.6 H = 0.6778 + 1.1536*(H1-
y = 3.3 + 0.8234*(H-1.1).^(-1.287); 3.3).^(-0.326);
else else
y = 3.3 + 1.5501*(H-0.6778).^(-3.064); H = 1.1 + 0.86*(H1-3.3).^(-
end; 0.777);
end; end

function cf = cfturb(rtheta,H);

cf = 0.246*(10.^(-0.678*H))*rtheta.^(-0.268);
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Drag Prediction
Squire-Young Formula

Cd = Cd ,upper + Cd ,lower
H TrailingEdge ,upper + 5
θTrailingEdge ⎛ U E ,TrailingEdge ⎞ 2
Cd ,upper = 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
c ⎝ V∞ ⎠

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Some useful expressions for flat-plate

boundary layers
• Laminar flows

• Turbulent flows

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3-D Boundary Layers on Wings

• Spanwise pressure gradients

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• Spanwise pressure gradient effects on the boundary

layer

ƒ The gradients cause the

boundary layer to flow
outward, piling up tired, slow
air near the tips and
contributing to premature tip
stall.

ƒ The streamwise growth of the

boundary layer tends to cause
early stall near the tips.

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ƒ The spanwise flow on the wing also tends to create

streamwise vorticity in the boundary layer
¾ This cross-flow instability is very damaging to laminar
boundary layers and quickly causes transition to turbulent
flow.
¾ Wings with sweep angles in excess of 30 to 40° require
some sort of boundary layer control (e.g. suction) to
maintain laminar flow.

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Coupled inviscid / viscous iterative methods

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Effect of boundary-layer displacement
on the pressure distribution and lift of a modern airfoil

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Introduction to “Airfoil”
• It is an airfoil analysis program that is an adaptation of
the original program "mcarfa" .
• It can be used to predict the aerodynamic
characteristics of airfoils in subsonic, viscous flows.
• The computed aerodynamic characteristics include
pressure distributions, lift, drag, pitch moment,
transition position, and incipient separation on the
airfoils.

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Method
• The program combines the potential-flow solution with
boundary-layer theory in an iterative manner.
• The interrelationship between the potential-flow
solution and the boundary-layer effects is included .
• Providing significant improvements in prediction
accuracy.

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Modifications to "mcarfa"
• Simplification of the input data procedure
• Ability to generate NACA airfoil geometry data
• Compacting output file
• Displaying airfoil shape and pressure distributions in
a graphic manner

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Running Procedure (1)

• Issue the command "airfoil"
• Select the option and input parameters through the
interface
– Airfoil Definition Option:
1 -- Generate NACA airfoil
2 -- input airfoil data file
Select 1 or 2
1 <--- selected by use

Note: if 2 is selected, an input file, which defines the geometry

of an airfoil, should be set up before the program is invoked.
The input file format is given in section 3. 51
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Running Procedure (2)

NACA Airfoil Selection:
1 -- NACA 4-Digit Airfoi
2 -- NACA Standard 5 Digit Airfoil
1 <--- selected by user

Enter NACA 4-Digit Airfoil Name:

Input Format: NACA XXXX
NACA 4412 <--- defined by user
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Running Procedure (3)

Enter name of output file ===>
demo.out <--- defined by user

Enter Parameters:
Reference chord length = ? (ft)
1.0 <--- input parameter
angle of attack = ? (in deg)
4.0 <--- input parameter
Mach number = ? ( 0.05 < M < Mcr)
0.1 <--- input parameter
Reynolds number = ? (in mllions)
0.8 <--- input parameter 53
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Running Procedure (4)

• Obtain the computed results
– Open output file "demo.out" using Text
Editor to get the aerodynamic
characteristics of the airfoil defined by user.
– Issue the M-file "airfoil.m" under Matlab
environment to display the airfoil shape
and pressure distributions on the airfoil

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---- Output of Airfoil Program -----

TITLE -- NACA 4412

Mach number = 0.100 Reynolds Number = 0.800 million

Angle of Attack = 4.000 Ref. Chord = 1.000 feet
CL = 0.8584 CD = 0.0101 CM(C/4) = -0.0925

Transition Point:
Upper x/c = 0.31117
Lower x/c = 0.95974

Separation (Percent of Surface):

Upper = 2.272
Lower = 0.000

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---- Pressure Distribution on Upper Surface ----
x/c Zu Cp
0.00183 0.00980 -0.28680
0.00668 0.01780 -0.84013
0.01413 0.02571 -1.10247
0.02453 0.03365 -1.20144
0.03776 0.04147 -1.22130
0.05337 0.04900 -1.21070
0.07107 0.05615 -1.19384
0.09018 0.06281 -1.17700
0.11100 0.06907 -1.16577
0.13289 0.07489 -1.17068
0.15481 0.07992 -1.17141
0.17790 0.08437 -1.15723
0.20142 0.08822 -1.14189
……… …….. ………
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Airfoil Shape and Pressure Distributions

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Limitations
• Only NACA 4-digit Airfoil and NACA
Standard 5 Digit Airfoil ordinates can be
generated automatically.

• Mach number must be greater than 0.05

and less than criteria Mach number.

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Introduction to XFOIL
• XFOIL is a software which goal was to combine the
speed and accuracy of high-order panel methods
with the new fully-coupled viscous/inviscid interaction
methods.
• It was developed by Mark Drela, MIT and Harold
Youngren, Aerocraft, Inc.
• It consists of a collection of menu-driven routines
which perform various useful functions .

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Introduction to XFOIL
• Functions
– Viscous (or inviscid) analysis of an existing airfoil
– Airfoil design and redesign by interactive specification of a
surface speed distribution via screen cursor or mouse.
– Airfoil redesign by interactive specification of new geometric
parameters
– Blending of airfoils
– Drag polar calculation with fixed or varying Reynolds and/or
Mach numbers.
– Writing and reading of airfoil geometry and polar save files
– Plotting of geometry, pressure distributions, and polar.
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Homework
• Compare the results from using panel method program
PABLO for inviscid flows and viscous flows and using
Airfoil panel method coupled with boundary-layer
theory in an iterative manner.
– Lift coefficient
– Lift coefficient slope
– Drag coefficient
– Pressure distribution

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