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Chapter 1

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry


Page1a1–1a Page1a1–1b
Introduction to
Notes Notes Psychrometry
Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomes:
When you have studied this chapter you should be able to:

1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘Psychrometry’.


2. Relate ‘Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures’ to the term
Introduction 3.
‘Atmospheric Pressure’.
Explain what is meant by the term ‘Saturated Vapour

to
Pressure’.
4. Use a ‘Psychrometric Chart to find:
a. A saturated vapour pressure for a given

— Psychrometry temperature.
Find, for a given air sample, the following:
b. The moisture content
c. The percentage saturation
d. The relative humidity.
5. Explain what is meant by the ‘wet-bulb’ temperature and
its use in the ‘psychrometric equation’.
6. Show how the Psychrometric Chart is used to determine:
a. Dew-point temperature
b. Specific Enthalpy

Suggested Study Time:


(a) For study of chapter material;
Chapter 1 (i) Initial on-screen study 1 hour
(ii) Printing of notes and subsequent
in-depth study 2 hours
(b) For completion of the quick revision study guide
½ hour

Total estimated study time 3½ hours


Page2a1–2a Page2a1–2b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
Chapter Contents
Item page
Learning Outcomes 1-1b
Introduction to Psychrometry 1-3a
The Atmosphere 1-3a
Water Vapour 1-4a
Saturated Vapour Pressure 1-5a
Psychrometric Chart (Theory) 1-5b
Moisture content 1-6a
Relative humidity 1-6b
Percentage saturation 1-7a
Relationship between g, m and rh 1-7b
— Comparision of percentage saturation & rh 1-8a
Wet-bulb temperature 1-8b
1. The Sling Wet-bulb 1-8b
2. The Screen Wet-bulb 1-8b
The Psychrometric Equation 1-9a
Dew-point temperature 1-10b
Specific enthalpy 1-11a
Specific volume 1-12a
Density 1-12a
Psychrometric chart 1-13
Quick Revision Study Guide 1-14a
Chapter Notes 1-15a
Page3a1–3a Page3a1–3b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
Introduction to Psychrometry
The Atmosphere
Psychrometry is the study of atmospheric air and its asso-
ciated water vapour. Air comprises a mixture of gases†1.1 of which See
nitrogen makes up 78%, oxygen 21% and carbon dioxide and Notes

the inert gases (such as argon, neon, krypton, helium etc.) the Gas A at Gas B at Gas A + B at
remainder. These are known as the dry gases of the atmosphere. partial pressure partial pressure total pressure
PA Pb PA + PB

Principle Dry Atmospheric Gases Dalton’s Law, illustrates that if two gases are combined
into the same volume, the total pressure is the sum of the
80
individual partial gas pressures.

70

— 60
In a vessel open to the - 1200˚C 400km
atmosphere, it is the weight
50
of the atmospheric gases - 1200˚C 350km
40 above the earth’s surface
30 See that produce the pressure†1.2
Notes of the atmosphere. - 1150˚C 300km

Approximate Temperature
20

Height
10
- 1100˚C 250km
0
Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon Dioxide

- 900˚C 200km
Molecular Weight % Atmosphere
IONOSPHERE

- 200˚C 150km

In the air mixture, the dry gases and associated water va- The Earth’s Atmosphere
VIDEOEO
pour behave according to ‘Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures’. That - 75˚C 100km
is they behave independently of one another and the pressure each
No Clouds,
exerts combine to produce an overall ‘atmospheric pressure’. No Winds - 60˚C STRATOSPHERE 50km
Clouds, - 60˚C TROPOPAUSE
Winds + 20˚C TROPOSPHERE
Page4a1–4a Page4a1–4b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
Since at normal temperatures and pressures we are unable The water vapour is completely independent of the dry
to condense these gases out from the atmosphere, for the purpose atmospheric gases, and its behaviour is not affected by their pres-
of psychrometry, this mixture of gases can be treated as if it were ence of absence, but for any given temperature there is a maxi-
a single ‘ideal’ or perfect gas behaving as a single element known mum amount of vapour that can be absorbed or associated with a
as ‘dry air’. given volume of air. In addition, although the actual quantity of
Note: Psychrometry is a specialised area of thermodynam- water is quite small, it can have a dramatic effect on our percep-
ics but obviosuly has applications in air conditioning. None the tion of comfort.
less, in order to fully appreciate the material within this course (Under certain conditions the mass of water vapour will
you need to be familiar with the gas laws, the first law of thermo- change due to condensation or evaporation (known as dehu-
dynamics and the concepts of internal energy, enthalpy and other Basic
midification and humidification respectively), but the mass of
gas properties. For those of you who lack this experience I have Thermodynamics dry air will remain constant. It is therefore convenient to relate
included within the extra notes - ‘Thermodynamics Refresher, a all properties of the mixture to the mass of dry air rather than to
brief set of notes covering these topics which you are advised to Xtra the combined mass of air and water vapour).
— study before continuing.
A consequence to Dalton’s law of Partial Pressure is that Energy supplied to a liquid
allows the particles to break
the total enthalpy of a mixture of gases will equal the sum of the free of each other and
enthalpies of each component part, i.e.: become a gas. If energy is
h = m1 .h1 + m2 . h2 + m3 .h3 + .... etc.
GAS removed from the gas it will
again condense to a liquid
Water Vapour
In addition to these dry gases, the air also contains varying The States of
amounts of water vapour. At normal temperatures and pressures, Matter Evaporating
Condensing

water is able to exist in both a liquid and a gaseous (or vapour)


form, but it cannot be treated in the same way as the other gases Freezing
of the atmosphere because its quantity, and hence proportion are
continually varying.
Water vapour is said to be associated with dry air and the Melting
more vapour associated with the dry gases, the more humid the SOLID LIQUID
air. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is normally within the Particles in a solid normally have Particles in a liquid do not occupy
no motion relative to each other fixed positions, but they are not
range 95 to 105 Pa, but this depends upon weather conditions. except vibration about a fixed completely free.The particles can
The agreed international standard atmosphere has a pressure of position. If we increase the energy slide over one another allowing the
101.325 kPa (1013.25 mbar) and this reduces at the rate content, particles can break the liquid to flow.
bonds which bind them and the
0.013 kPa per metre of height above sea level and increases at solid melts
the same rate below sea level.
Page5a1–5a Page5a1–5b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
Saturated Vapour Pressure (PSS)†1.3 Psychrometric Chart
See See
Heat is a form of internal energy. This is a thermodynamic Notes There is a fixed relationship†1.5 between saturated vapour
Notes
property†1.4 and represents the internal energy of the molecules. pressure and temperature, for example;
With increase temperature there is an increase in molecular activ-
Temperature (°C) 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
ity and thus more water can escape from the liquid into the gas as
Pressure (Pa) 1.23 2.34 4.24 7.38 12.33 19.92
water vapour or steam. After a while however, even at this in-
Psychro
creased temperature, the air will become fully saturated with water and this relationship forms the basis for the psychrometric chart
Chart
vapour so that no more water can evaporate unless we again in- (click adjacent symbol), which is essentially a plot of vapour pres-
crease the temperature. sure against air temperature.
The pressure produced by the water vapour in this fully
saturated condition is known as the saturated vapour pressure Although the CIBSE Saturation moisture content †1.6
(pss) and since at a given temperature the air cannot absorb more Psychrometric Chart against temperature
is derived on the basis
water than its saturated condition, the saturated vapour pressure

moisture content
vapour pressure
of the relationship
— is the maximum pressure of water vapour that can occur at any between vapour
pressure and saturation
given temperature. temperature, the vapour
Eventually of course, if we continue to supply heat the published chart does pressure
water will boil, and this will occur when the saturated vapour not show vapour
pressure but rather
pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. shows moisture
(vapour) content
against temperature
as this is more useful
to the user.
temperature

Normal air temperature, as you might expect, can be meas-


ured by a normal mercury-in-glass thermometer

100
20

40

60

80
20

0
This is known as the Dry-bulb temperature (tdb) because
the bulb of the thermometer is kept dry (as opposed to the wet-bulb
thermometer which we will introduce later). Vapour pressure (ps) is
the actual pressure of vapour existing at any particular location
and time and temperature and is a property of the moisture con-
tent of the air.
Page6a1–6a Page6a1–6b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
Moisture content (g) Percentage saturation (µ)
Dry-bulb temperature and vapour pressure are the two ba- Percentage saturation is a useful guide to comfort as the
sic parameters which determine the humid condition of atmos- human body tends to respond to relative saturation rather than
pheric air, but other properties can be derived from them and moisture content, and is the ratio between the actual moisture
likewise, they can be derived from other properties. In practice content of the sample (gs) and the moisture content of a sample
we are not really interested in the pressure exerted by the vapour of saturated air (gss), at the same temperature.
in a mixture of air and water vapour, but we do need to know the
quantity of water that exists at any time. One way of measuring µ (%) = moisture content of sample x 100 (kg)
this amount in by the moisture content and can be expressed in moisture content of saturated air (kg)
kg of water vapour per kg of dry air (kg/kg of dry air). [The term
‘humidity ratio’ was used in the past, but is not common today].
= gs x 100
gss
g= mass of water vapour (kg) = ms
— mass of dry air (kg) ma
The property is shown on the psychrometric chart and to
Psychro Psychro make the chart easier to use, the chart also includes lines of con-
The moisture content is shown on the right-hand side of the
Chart Chart stant percentage saturation (click adjacent symbol).
psychrometric chart (click adjacent symbol).
For user convenience, the Definition of percentage

moisture content
Psychrometric Chart is saturation
scaled in moisture content ○
moisture content




saturation 100% saturation
moisture
content µ = gs x 100 (%)
gss ○ ○ gss
○○ ○
○ ○ % sat
gs

t temperature
temperature
Page7a1–7a Page7a1–7b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
Relative humidity (rh) Relationship between g, µ and rh
Although percentage saturation is the preferred method of We are now in a position to derive useful expressions for
expressing the humidity ratio, relative humidity is another method moisture content and percentage saturation in terms of partial
of measuring the amount of water vapour present in the air, and pressure and hence compare percentage saturation with relative
is a hangover from the days of ‘imperial’ measurement. It is the humidity.
ratio of the vapour pressure of an air sample to the saturated va- If we consider the humid air mixture, the moisture (va-
pour pressure at the same temperature, and is usually expressed pour) content of the air can be expressed either as a specific value
as a percentage. or as a ratio, as we noted before, of the mass of vapour to the
mass of dry air.
rh (%) = partial pressure of water vapour in sample x 100 (Pa)
partial pressure of water vapour in saturated air (Pa) Thus by definition g = ms
ma
= ps x 100 but from the perfect gas laws: µ = p .V so that
pss (at the same dry-bulb temperature) R .T

µa = pa . Va and µ s = p s . Vs
Definition of relative humidity
Ra . Ta Rs . Ts
moisture content
vapour pressure

saturation
vapour pressure
Thus we can also define moisture content as:
= 100% r.h. Although the g= ps . Vs x Ra . Ta
Psychrometric
Chart is scaled in
pa . Va Rs . Ts
terms of moisture
pss content, this is for but for a mixture, the volumes and the temperatures must be equal,
% r.h. = ps x 100% convience,we could i.e. Vs = Va and Ts = Ta so that the above formula can be simplied
p determine vapour
ps ss
pressure from:
to:
g = 0.622 x ps g = ps x Ra
pa pa Rs
t temperature
But since we know the value of the gas constants, a ratio can be
found for Ra / Rs , so that g = 0.622 ps
Percentage saturation or relative humidity are frequently pa
used in specifications as a requirement of air humidity condi- See
tions†1.7. However, as the relationship between vapour pressure Notes
and we also know from Dalton’s Law of partial pressure that
See
and moisture content is not quite linear, their will always be a Notes
pa = patm†1.8 – ps and finally therefore: g = 0.622 ps
slight (but not usually significant) difference between them. (patm – ps)
Page8a1–8a Page8a1–8b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
Comparision of percentage saturation and rh Wet-bulb temperature (twb)
From the previous definition, we know that The wet-bulb temperature, as the name implies, is the air
µ = gs x 100 % temperature measured by a thermometer with a bulb covered with
gss a muslin cloth sleeve and kept moist with distilled or clean water.
but using the above expression derived from moisture content, It was devised as a means of assessing the humidity of the air, but
we can also express the percentage saturation as: as the actual reading is influenced by air movement, there are
two variations of this temperature.
µ= ps . (patm - pss) x 100 % 1. The Sling Wet-bulb
pss . (patm - ps) The ‘sling wet-bulb’ temperature reading obtained in mov-
Compare this to the definition of relative humidity: See ing air†1.10 – preferably above 2 m/s. It can be obtained by whirl-
rh (φ) = ps x 100 % Notes ing a ‘sling hygrometer’ or by using the more cumberson, but
pss more accurate ‘Assman hygrometer’ which is fan-assisted.


Since patm is very much bigger than ps or pss , then the relative
humidity is very nearly equal to the percentage saturation. i.e.
&j VIDEOEO

Although relative humidity and percentage saturation are Sling Hygrometer


useful guides to comfort, it is not always practical to measure
them directly. In fact measurement of humid air has always been Assman
a problem and the most practical method is to use a wet-bulb Hygrometer
See 2. The Screen Wet-bulb
thermometer†1.9. Notes
The screen wet-bulb tempera-
ture is the reading obtained in still
air. This is usually used for mete-
orological data and is obtained from a wet-bulb thermometer in-
stalled into a ‘Stevenson Screen’ (from which this type of meas-
urement gets its name). This is a slatted enclosure, designed to
screen direct radiation from the instruments, but equipped with
wet and dry-bulb thermometers and maximum and minimum ther-
mometers.
Of the two methods of reading wet-bulb, the sling reading
is considered to be more accurate and is therefore preferred by
air-conditioning engineers.
Page9a1–9a Page9a1–9b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
The Psychrometric Equation At the surface of the muslin sleeve the air is considered to
The psychrometric equation links the dry-bulb and the wet- See be at saturation moisture content (gss’)†1.11, so that the latent heat
Notes
bulb temperatures to their corresponding vapour pressures and to gain is proportional to the difference in moisture content between
the atmospheric pressure. the film of air surrounding the muslin sleeve and the surrounding
Consider air flowing across the bulb of a wet-bulb ther- air, i.e. to ( gss’ – gs ).
mometer: Similary, the sensible heat lost is proportional to the tem-
perature difference between the bulb and the ambient tempera-
ture, i.e. to (t – t’), and since one process is the cause of the other
20
we may equate them as:
ambient air B . (gss’ - gs) = C . (t - t’) – (equation 1)
with properties: t, ps, gs where B and C are constants which relate to surface area and
0
latent heat. But from our earlier equation for moisture content,
we known that:
— 20
gs = 0.622 ps
123 patm – ps
123 air around muslin sleeve with and
123
123 properties: t’, pss’, g ss’
123
123 gss’ = 0.622 pss’
-flo
w 123 patm – pss’
air
muslin
sleeve Wet-bulb thermometer
and since ps and pss’ are both very small compared to patm
we may re-write these equations more simply as:
Moisture will be evaporated from the muslin cloth sleeve g = 0.622 ps and gss’ = 0.622 pss’
around the bulb and will be taken up (associated) with the sur- patm patm
rounding air. For this evaporation to take place heat must be Hence by substituting these expressions for moisture content into
supplied and this can only come from the surrounding air, i.e the our equation 1, we get:
latent heat of evaporation gained by the moisture on the surface 0.622 . B . (pss’ – ps) = C . (t – t’)
of the muslin as it associates with the air, must equal the sensible patm
heat lost from the surrounding air, in other words there must be a From which we obtain:
drop in the wet-bulb temperature to compensate for the increase ps = pss’ – patm . A . (t – t’).
in mosture content to the air around it.
where A is known as the psychrometric constant and the differ-
ence between the dry-bulb and the wet-bulb temperatures (t – t’)
is known as the wet-bulb depression.
Page10a
1–10a Page10a
1–10b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
Now the rate of moisture evaporation is different if the air Dew-point temperature (tdp)
is above or below freezing point (0°C) and between still and The dew-point temperature is a very important property in
moving air (a standard speed of 2 m/s is used, but between about See air-conditioning†1.12 as it determines if water will be condensed
2 m/s and 20 m/s the effect of air velocity is practically constant). Notes from air when it is cooled. This occurs when a sample of air is
Different values of the psychrometric constant are therefore quoted cooled to the point where its vapour pressure reaches its satu-
to cater for these conditions: rated vapour pressure. For example, suppose air is being cooled
Psychrometric Constants
at constant vapour pressure (i.e. constant moisture content). Even-
Sling: A = 6.66 x 10 - 4 (K - 1) for t’ greater than 0 °C tually, the temperature of the air will reach a point where the air is
A = 5.94 x 10 - 4 (K - 1) for t’ less than 0 °C fully saturated (on our psychrometric chart – the ‘saturation line)
Screen: A = 7.99 x 10 - 4 (K - 1) for t’ greater than 0 °C and if the temperature drops lower than this point, water vapour
A = 7.20 x 10 - 4 (K - 1) for t’ less than 0 °C will begin to condense. This point in known as the dew-point
Psychro
temperature (t dp) and again can be represented on our
Wet-bulb temperature is also shown on a psychrometeric Chart
psychrometric chart (click adjacent symbol).
— chart and to assist with humidification processes (those which
increase the moisture content), they are shown as lines of con- Psychro Dew-point Temperature

moisture content
stant wet-bulb temperature (click adjacent symbol). Chart

Lines of Constant
moisture content

Wet-bulb Temperature 100% saturation

A
100% saturation ga
dew-point temperature
of air at condition A
Lines of constant
wet-bulb temperature

tdp temperature

dry-bulb temperature We should also realise that moist air does not need to be
cooled to its dew-point for condensation to occur. Any surface
Note: When working with the psychrometric equation, it is im- with a temperature below the dew-point of the moist air will, of
portant to remember that the saturated vapour pressure (pss’) is course, get wet and it is important to appreciate this when trying
taken at the wet-bulb temperature. to avoid problems of condensation.
Page11a
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1–11b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
Specific enthalpy (h) Finally, the water vapour is considered to have evaporated at 0°C.
Enthalpy (see Thermofluids Refresher, page C-5a) is a We therefore have to include the latent heat of evaporation for
measure of energy, but although in psychrometry it is only the the moisture content. Thus the latent heat energy of the moisture
heat energy which is of interest, this is still referred to an enthalpy. content is given by:
Enthalpy is an extensive property, i.e its value depends upon the h3 = 0.005 x 2501 = 12.505
amount of substance present. An intensive property is therefore where 0.005 is the moisture content and
more useful since it does not depend upon the amount of mate- See 2501 is the latent heat of evaporation at 0°C†1.13.
rial present. It is usually obtained by dividing the extensive prop- Notes Thus the total enthalpy is given by h1 + h2 + h3
erty by its mass and is then known as specific property. Thus the = 20.1 + 0.189 + 12.505 = 32.794 = 32.8 kJ/kg
specific enthalpy (h), is a measure of the heat energy (sensible However, specific enthalpy can be determined much more
and latent) of 1 kg of dry air plus its associated water vapour quickly by direct reading from the psychrometric chart.
(measured in units of kJ/kg) relative to zero°C and zero moisture
content. Specific Enthalpy
— To calculate the specific enthalpy for an air sample we can at edges of chart ○


use Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures, i.e., ○


lpy

h = h1 + h2 + h3 ○

tha


en
where the specific enthalpy for each part of the air-mixture is ○

ic
given by: h = mass x specific heat x ∆t. ○

cif
e
sp
Thus for example, to calculate the specific enthalpy for air
at a dry-bulb temperature of 20°C and a moisture content of
0.005 kg/kg, we can proceed as follows:
Taking as our sample, 1 kg of dry air and its associated
moisture content, the enthalpy of the dry air is given by: specific enthalpy

h1 = 1 x 1.005 x 20 = 20.1 kJ/kgK,


where 1 is the mass of dry air, Psychro Enthalpy scales are located ‘around the edges’ of the chart
1.005 is the specific heat of dry air and Chart (click adjacent symbol), and there are no lines of constant enthalpy.
20 is the air temperature relative to 0°C. To therefore obtain the specific enthalpy of an air condi-
similarly the sensible heat energy of the moisture content is given tion, a straight edge is used to join the corresponding enthalpy
by: h2 = 0.005 x 1.89 x 20 = 0.189 marks above to 100% saturation line with those on either the
where 0.005 is the moisture content
VIDEOEO
bottom, or the right-hand side of the chart (click on adjacent video
1.89 is the specific heat of water vapour and symbol).
20 is the air temperature relative to 0°C.
Page12a
1–12a Page12a
1–12b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
In addition to the temperatures already noted, the following Thus, with the exception of vapour pressure and saturation
psychrometric parameters may also be required. vapour pressure, all these psychrometric parameters are brought
Specific volume (v) together on the psychrometric chart, from which any two are suf-
The specific volume, is the volume of unit mass of dry air ficient to indentify an air condition, the others then being read
at a given temperature normally expressed as m3/kg and is also from the chart as required (see chart overleaf).
Psychro
shown in the psychrometric chart (click adjacent symbol). Chart See In practice only two combinations†1.15 are used;
Note: that the specific volume is a measure of dry air, since the addi- Notes
tion of any associated water vapour has no effect on the volume (Dalton’s dry-bulb (tdb) and wet-bulb (twb) temperature
Law). for measurements
and
Lines of Constant Volume

moisture content
µ)
dry-bulb temperature (tdb) and percentage saturation (µ
Lines of [or relative humidity (rh)]
constant volume for specifications.

100% saturation

dry-bulb temperature

Density (ρρ)
The density of air is taken for a moist air sample and there-
fore includes the mass of the associated water vapour. The spe-
cific volume however, is defined in terms of dry air and thus the
specific volume is not the reciprocal of density.
The exact relationship is given by:
ρ = (1 + g)
v
In practice however, the difference is very small and can be See
Notes
ignored†1.14.
svp g % sat rh wb dew h v

5
10
120 125 130 135 140

0
11
CIBSE PERCENTAGE SATURATION

5
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20

10
0.030
0.90
PSYCHROMETRIC

0
0.029

10

140
CHART 0.028
30

95
90
0.027

135
0.026

85
0.025

130
BASED ON A BAROMETRIC

80
PRESSURE OF 101.325 kPa 0.024
0.1 0
0.2 0.023

75

125
0.3
0.4 0.022

70
0.5 0.021

120
65
/kg
0.6 25
0.020

kJ
60
0.7

PY
3 /kg 0.019

115
0.8 AL m
0.9 SENSIBLE/TOTAL HEAT ME
55 OLU
TH

1.0 RATIO FOR WATER 0.018


0.9 IC V
CIF
EN

ADDED AT 30˚C

110
SPE

MOISTURE CONTENT kg/kg


0.8 0.017
50
C

0.7
IFI

0.85 0.016
EC

0.6

105
SP

45

0.5 20 0.015
40

0.4 0.014

)
NG
0.3
35

100
LI
0.013
(S
0.2
0.1 0
˚C
30

0.012
U RE

95
AT

15 0.011
R
25

PE
M

0.010
TE

90
B
20

UL

0.009
15

-B
ET

0.008

85
10
W
10

0.80 0.007

0.006

80
5

5
0.005
0

0 0.004

75
-5

0.75 -5
0.003

70
-10 0.002
-10

0.001

0.000
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
DRY – BULB TEMPERATURE ˚C

-45 50 55 60 65
-20 25 30 35 40
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 SPECIFIC ENTHALPY kJ/kg
Page14a
1–14a Page14a
1–14b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
Quick Revision Study Guide 1 5. A sling psychrometer measured the dry and wet-bulb
temperatures of moist air as 27°C and 19°C respectively.
The following questions are intended as a quick study question- Determine the moisture content from the relevant
naire to ensure you have grasped the general principles of this equation, given that:
chapter. (i) pss at 19°C is 2.196 kPa,
It is intended that your answers should be, short-phrased, quick (ii) the psychrometric constant is 6.66 x 10-4 K-1
answers or sketches to the questions.
For suggested solutions to these questions, please refer to the
Denco Website: www. denco.co.uk

1. 0.01 kg of steam with a specific enthalpy of 2,700 kJ/kg


is mixed with 2.0 kg of dry air with a specific enthalpy of
20 kJ/kg. What is the specific enthalpy of the mixture?

2. Moist air has a dry-bulb temperature of 30°C, and a
wet-bulb temperature of 20°C.
Use a Psychrometric Chart to find
a. The percentage saturation
b. The moisture content
c. The enthalpy
d. The specific volume
e. The dew-point temperature

3. Moist air at 25°C dry-bulb and 50% saturation, undergoes


a process so that its condition is changed to 40°C dry-
bulb and 30% saturation. Use a Psychrometric Chart to
determine the change in specific enthalpy for the process.

4. The air inside a room during winter is at 20°C db and 40%


saturation. If the temperature of the inside surface of a
window is 9°C, will condensation form on the window
glass?
Page15a
1–15a Page15a
1–15b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
Chapter Notes †1.4: Internal Energy;
is the molecular energy possesed by a material and includes the
†1-1: Air; kinetic energy of the molecules due to vibration and the potential
is a mixture containing a group of gases of nearly constant pro- energy associated with the forces between them.
portions (% of atmosphere): Two terms can be used as a measure of this energy -
Nitrogen (N2) 78.804 Methane (CH4) 0.0002
Oxygen (O2) 20.964 Krypton (Kr) 0.000114
the Internal Energy (symbol: U; unit:J) and the
Argon (Ar) 0.934 Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005 Specific Internal Energy (symbol: u; unit: J/kg).
Neon (Ne) 0.0018 Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 0.00005
Helium (He) 0.000524 Xenon (Xe) 0.0000087 †1.5: Saturated Vapour Pressure vs Temperature;
and a group of gases present in proportions, variable both in time there is no simple relationship between temperature and saturated
and space (% of atmosphere): vapour pressure. The following equations have been developed
Water Vapour (H2O) 0–7 by the National Engineering Laboratory as close curve fits to
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.01 – 0.1 (Average about 0.032)
empirically measured data:
Ozone (O3) 0 – 0.01
— For water above 0°C
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) 0 – 0.0001
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) 0 – 0.000002 Log10 Pssw = 28.59 - 8.2 log10 T + 0.00248 T - 3142
(Ref Encylopaedia Britannica CD-ROM, 1998 Edition). T
where Pssw is the saturated vapour pressure (bar) of vapour over water
†1-2: Pressure; at an absolute temperature of T (K).
force per unit area, i.e. the force spread over a particular area, is For ice below 0°C
measured in newtons and area in square metres. So pressure is Log10 Pssi = 10.538 - 2664
measured in newtons per square metre but it can also be meas- T
ured in pascal (symbol Pa, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2). where Pssw is the saturated vapour pressure (bar) of vapour over ice at
Traditionally, it has also been common to express atmospheric an absolute temperature of T (K).
pressure in units of bar or millibar, where 10 bar = 105 Pa,
(Bar: from the Greek meaning weight, thus a ‘barometer’ [a word †1.6: Moisture Content;
again derived from the Greek meaning weight + measure], is an is really a misnomer since what we are really referring to is ‘va-
instrument to measure the weight or pressure of the atmosphere). pour’ content, but the term has used by the industry as such for
many years and so we just have to accept the inaccuracy of the
†1.3: Subscripts; wording.
it is normal to apply the following subscripts:
s refers to water vapour (steam), eg Ps
a refers to dry air, eg Pa
ss refers to a saturated condition for water vapour in air, eg Pss
Page16a
1–16a Page16a
1–16b Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychrometry

Notes Notes
†1.7: Relative Humidity - to a Base of Pressure; †1.13: Latent heat;
you will note that the relative humidity is based upon pressure, values for temperatures other than zero °C, can be found from
not mass of water vapour and is the traditional method of stating standard tables for the ‘Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated
humidity as the ‘sling psychrometer’ (see page 1-8b) gave a meas- Liquid Water and Dry Saturated Steam’, more commonly known
ure of vapour pressure. as ‘Steam Tables’.

†1.8: Atmospheric pressure; †1.14: Air Density and Specific Volume;


patm = pa + ps Although the difference between air density and the reciprocal of
specific volume is small, it should be recognised that a differ-
†1.9: Psychrometer; ence does exist where this relates to different areas of work. For
the word ‘Psychrometer’ is originally from the Greek meaning example, when measuring air-flow rates through pressure drop
‘cold’ + ‘meter’, i.e. literally meaning a measurer of cold. Its devices, it is usual to use air density. On the other hand, for air-
current meaning is two thermometers, mounted on the same scale, conditioning load calculations, it is usual to use specific volume.
— with indications of wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures. Hence
the word ‘Psychrometry’ is the determination of the degree of †1.15: CIBSE psychrometric chart;
humidity in the atmosphere by means of a psychrometer and is the CIBSE psychrometric chart is strictly correct only for a total
therefore used to define the study of atmospheric air and its asso- pressure of 101.325 kPa (i.e standard atmospheric pressure).
ciated water vapour. Charts are available for other pressures, or correction factors may
be used such as those quoted in the CIBSE Guide C1.
†1.10: Use of Wet-bulb in Air Conditioning Duct; In addition, the principal axes of the chart are not, as is often
a sling wet-bulb reading may also be obtained by installing a assumed, dry-bulb temperature and moisture content, but
wet-bulb thermometer in a duct through which air is flowing at a enthalpy and moisture content. If you look carefully at a com-
reasonable velocity. mercial psychrometric chart, you will see that the dry-bulb tem-
perature lines are not quite parallel, nor vertical.
†1.11 Note the use of the dash ( ’ ) symbol to indicate that the
reading is a wet-bulb reading.

†1.12 Dew-point Instruments;


there are commercial instruments which can measure the dew-
point temperature directly. However, it is more usual to obtain a
value by reference to tables of humid air properties, or to deter-
mine its value from the psychrometric chart using the measure-
ments of other air properties.

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