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INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The inefficiency on the part of power supply authority to adequately ensure the
availability of power supply to consumers has led to a common practice where the
three phases are combined to a single phase to power their single phase loads. (See
figure 1.1). Most worrisome is method used in selecting these phases which is
manually done. The risk of electrocutions in this practice is very high as every
Tom, Dick and Harry always jumps at the cut-out fuse board as soon as a phase
fails. Though the idea of consumers changing phases on their own is not quite safe
for the power distribution equipment which could result in a situation where one
phase could be overloaded while the other is under loaded. This creates an
unbalanced situation in the power distribution network. Since our people have
automating this culture now forms the basis of this project. As soon as the power
project could still be there but will not create any harm on the power distribution
network.
voltage detector that takes a low voltage below a preset value which could be
1
dangerous to our equipment as no power supply will be available and
1.1 AIM
The aim of this project is to design and construct an automatic phase selector for
1.2 OBJECTIVES
2
1.3 APPLICATIONS
Energy Efficiency
load required
are required
The design of the project will involve the use of discrete components as well as
however, with appropriate rating of the contactor the project can be used to control
3
1.5 UNIQUENESS OF PROJECT
Being an improvement to the manual method of phase change, the device can be
4
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Older fuse boxes use rewirable fuses with no other protective device, and basic 4
ways boxes are very common. A lot of these boxes are made of brown-black
Bakelite, some times with a wooden base. Although their design is historic, these
were standard equipment for new installs as recently as the 1980s, so are very
common.
Users should be wary of these fuse boxes, as typically pulling a fuse carrier out
with the power on results in fingers grasping live connections, and these boxes are
The popular 4 way box usually usually takes heavy or sustained loads such as
Hence these fuse boxes do not have sufficient breaking capacity for safe reliable
5
2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF UNIT
Scanning circuit
Single phase Load
Neut
ral
Comparators
6
2.2 METHODOLOGY
develop a scanner and a full voltage presence sensor that is capable of detecting
phase to the load. The block diagram of the unit is as shown in figure 1.2 above.
The scanner is made up of an astable multivibrator and a counter and the low
relays and contactors. The power supply will be uninterrupted as the system must
Voltage Sensor: The three phases usually available on a 220v supply will be
monitored by a voltage sensor on the device. The three phases are each having a
The sole aim of this sensor is first to detect if there is voltage at all on the phases
Low and Comparator Voltage Detector: The low voltage detector is made up of a
regulated (Reference) and the unregulated voltages are compared. If the voltage is
low the unregulated voltage will be low since there is a linear relationship between
7
the input and the output voltages of a transformer. Now the output of the
comparator will be low if the input voltage is low hence the counter gate can be
decade counter. The astable multivibrator is used as a clock for the counter though
gated such that the counter receives the clock pulse only when the load is not
powered.
correct voltage in that phase and only one is connected at a time so the short
Electronic systems are made from units which are in turn made from components
Basic circuit components have been used in this project. They include resistors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors and integrated circuit chips like the 555 timer,
operational amplifier, in his chapter; I will review the theory behind these
8
2.3.1 RESISTORS
Resistors are electronic devices designed to limit the amount of current flow in a
circuit. In other words they offer opposition to the flow of current in a circuit. This
ability to limit the flow of current in a circuit is called resistance of a resistor and
its unit is ohm. The symbols used to represent resistance is shown in figure 2.2
Fixed
[Variable]
Furthermore, the types of resistors that were used can be classified in terms of
their value. (i.e. fixed resistors and variable resistors), with each having different
stabilities.
These are resistors whose ohmic values cannot be changed in a circuit except
when replaced. They are mainly of carbon wire wound types of resistors.
9
Their resistance values are usually marked on their bodies. However, available
nowadays are resistors with their resistance values given on their bodies in the
These are the type of resistors used when it is required to vary resistance while the
circuit is in use (e.g. as in volume control in Radio and TV. Sets). They consist of
a circular carbon track on an insulating base upon which a metal contact wiper
potentiometers.
The maximum resistance values of this type of resistors are often indicated on the
casing, either in colour code or by letters. Some variable resistor may have
additional indications such as LOG or ‘LIN’. The LOG stands for logarithmic with
the effect that the log of the resistance of the resistor is proportional to the position
of the movable metal contact wiper. Similarly, LIN stands for Linear and the effect
is that, the resistance of the resistor is directly proportional to the position of the
These rotary variable resistors have power ratings ranging from 0.25W to
5 W and are available in ganged (resistance boxes or decades) and single forms.
10
2.3.2 CAPACITORS
Capacitors are some of the widely used components in the electronic aspect of my
insulator called dielectric. Capacitors derive their names from the kind of
The unit of capacitance is the Farad with a unit symbol ‘F’ and it is defined as the
There are however two major types of capacitors that were used which are:
The fixed capacitors have values that cannot be altered or varied. They are usually
classified according to the kind of insulator (dielectric) used, and they come in
various shapes and sizes ranging from the small button shaped or disc ceramic
capacitors (usually used in power stations and industries) and the electrolytic
11
sandwiched with strapped gauze cloth soaked in borax. The borax serves as an
type of capacitors have polarity indicated on their bodies the positive being
connected to the more positive part of a circuit and the negative to the more
This instruction should be observed otherwise the capacitor will be damaged. They
shaped metal plates separated with a piece of mica. One of the plates is fixed while
the other can be rotated with a screwdriver in and out of mesh with the fixed one.
12
Typical values of these small variable capacitors are as from a minimum of about
2pF to maximum of about 30pF. Figure 2.4 shows the circuit symbol of a variable
capacitor
+ -
2.3.3 TRANSISTORS
Generally transistors are semiconductor devices. The transistors fall into the
category of bipolar transistor, either the more common NPN bipolar transistors or
the less common PNP transistor types. There is a further type known as a FET
13
JFETS and MOSFETS now have some very rugged transistor devices. However,
The transistor has three legs, the Collector (C), Base (B), and Emitter (E).
Sometimes they are labeled on the flat side of the transistor. Transistors always
have one round side and one flat side. If the round side is facing you, the Collector
leg is on the left, the Base leg is in the middle, and the Emitter leg is on the right
for the small type while the power types has a flat face with metal at the back.
Transistor Symbol
transistor.
The Base (B) is the On/Off switch for the transistor. If a current is flowing to the
Base, there will be a path from the Collector (C) to the Emitter (E) where current
14
can flow (The Switch is On.) If there is no current flowing to the Base, then no
current can flow from the Collector to the Emitter. (The Switch is Off.)
electronics. The term op-amp was originally used to describe a chain of high
performance dc amplifier that was used as basis for the analogue type computers
of long ago. The op-amp without any external devices is called ‘open loop’ mode,
referring actually to the so-called ideal operational amplifier with infinite open-
loop gain, input resistance, bandwidth and a zero output resistance. However, in
practice, no op-amp can meet these ideal characteristics. In fact, there is no such
device and although still widely used. The Bipolar are low-noise and replacing the
Shown in the figure 2.6 is an op-amp symbol as used today. It is common fashion
+V
Non-inverting input
output
Inverting input
-V
15
As indicated in the symbolic diagram, it has two inputs and a single output.
Additional terminals are also made available to which resistors may be connected
and negative dc power supplies. The integrated type op-amp such as the µA741
may be represented by its schematic and the equivalent circuit of the figure 2.7 (a)
The A741 is a high performance operational amplifier with high open loop gain,
stability. The A741 is short-circuit protected and allows for nulling of the off set
Maximum means that the op-amp safety tolerate the maximum rating given in the
Maximum Ratings
Supply Voltage 18 volts
Internal power dissipation 500mw
Differential input voltage 30volts
Input voltage 15 volts
Voltage offset null/v 0.5 volts
Operating Temperature range 00 to + 700C
Storage temperature range -650C to + 1500C
16
Lead temperature, solder 60sec 3000C
Output short circuit Indefinite
3. Differential input voltage (Vid): This is the maximum voltage that can be
4. Input voltage: The maximum input voltage that can be simultaneous sly
applied between both input and ground also referred to as the common
Unlike the ideal op-amp, the op-amp that is used in more realistic circuits today
One additional parameter is worth mentioning, the transient response or rise time
is the time it takes for the output signal to go from 10% to 90% of its final value
when a step-function pulse is used as an input signal and is specified under closed-
17
loop conditions. From electronics circuit theory, the rise time is related to the
BW = 0.35/rise time.
The uses of op-amp are numerous. In this project, it has been used as a
comparator.
A comparator is a circuit which compares a time varying input signal Vs (t) with a
reference signal VR with a view to determining whether or not the analogue input
signal is greater than or less than the reference signal. The reference signal
determines the level at which comparison is made when the input signal exceeds
VR, the comparator output takes on a value which is different in magnitude from
applied to the non-inverting input, then the difference voltage V i across the input is
(Vs – O) = Vs. In the absence of feedback, the voltage gain A o of the Op amp is
infinite. Thus, since the output voltage V o is AoVs, the slightest departure of Vs
from zero volt produces a very large output voltage. The output voltage is
however limited to the value of the power supply voltage (V cc), unless it is
otherwise limited.
18
In the circuit of figure 2.9 (a), if V s>O (ie Vs is positive), the output voltage V o is
latched to the positive power supply +V cc, and if Vs < O (ie negative), the output
will latch to the negative power supply – V cc. This is illustrated in the associated
We should note that if the signal is applied to the inverting input, then the output
current is zero. Ideally, there should be no current flowing into the input of the
basic op-amp. In practice however, low-level input dc bias currents flow because
the transistors used in the internal amplifier draws bias currents needed for their
correct operation. If the currents at the input terminals are I 1 and I2 when the
Again I1 should equal 12. When I1 and 12 differ in value, the difference current
The flow of the bias current drops voltages across the internal resistors R 1 and R2.
If the dc paths to ground are not identical for both input terminals due perhaps to
mismatch in the op-amp circuit elements, an offset voltage Vos is develop which is
amplified at the output. The offset voltage is defined as the input voltage needed
to reduce the output voltage to zero. Ideally, the op-amp output voltage should be
19
zero for zero input voltage, in practice however, the offset voltage is of the order
of 1mv for the µA741 op amp, but is also known to drift as a result of temperature
The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics Corporation as
the SE555/NE555 and was called “The IC Time Machine” and was also the very
first and only commercial timer ic available. It provided circuit designers and
hobbyists with a relatively cheap, stable, and user-friendly integrated circuit for
both monostable and astable applications. The schematic diagram of the internal
20
Positive Vcc
4.5 -16V
Ground
Pin 2 (Trigger): This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set
the latch, which in turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the
21
the pin from above to below a voltage level of 1/3 V+ (or, in general, one-half the
stage made up of transistors Q20 - Q24. Transistors Q21 and Q22 provide drive
for source-type loads, and their Darlington connection provides a high-state output
voltage about 1.7 volts less than the V+ supply level used.
Pin 4 (Reset): This pin is also used to reset the latch and return the output to a
low state. The reset voltage threshold level is 0.7 volt, and a sink current of 0.1mA
Pin 5 (Control Voltage): This pin allows direct access to the 2/3 V+ voltage-
divider point, the reference level for the upper comparator. It also allows indirect
access to the lower comparator, as there is a 2:1 divider (R 8 - R9) from this point to
the lower-comparator reference input, Q13. Use of this terminal is the option of the
user, but it does allow extreme flexibility by permitting modification of the timing
Pin 6 (Threshold): Pin 6 is one input to the upper comparator (the other being
pin 5) and is used to reset the latch, which causes the output to go low. Resetting
via this terminal is accomplished by taking the terminal from below to above a
voltage level of 2/3 V+ (the normal voltage on pin 5). The action of the threshold
pin is level sensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change waveforms. The voltage range
that can safely be applied to the threshold pin is between V+ and ground. A dc
22
current, termed the threshold current, must also flow into this terminal from the
external circuit.
transistor (Q14), the emitter of which goes to ground, so that when the transistor is
turned "on", pin 7 is effectively shorted to ground. Usually the timing capacitor is
connected between pin 7 and ground and is discharged when the transistor turns
"on".
Pin 8 (V +): The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage
terminal of the 555 timer IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 555 is +4.5
The 555 timers have two basic operational modes: one shot and astable. In the
one-shot mode, the 555 acts like a monostable multivibrator (figure 2.9). A
monostable is said to have a single stable state--that is the off state. Whenever an
input pulse triggers it, the monostable switches to its temporary state. It remains in
that state for a period of time determined by an RC network. It then returns to its
stable state. In other words, the monostable circuit generates a single pulse of fixed
time duration each time it receives and input trigger pulse. Thus the name one-
shot. One-shot multivibrators are used for tuning some circuit or external
component on or off for a specific length of time. It is also used to generate delays.
23
When multiple one-shots are cascaded, a variety of sequential timing pulses can be
generated. Those pulses will allow you to time and sequence a number of related
operations.
The other basic operational mode of the 555 is as and astable multivibrator (figure
two voltage levels. The frequency of the pulses and their duty cycle are dependent
In the application of the 555 timers in the monostable mode, the duration of the
On the other hand, the frequency of operation of the astable circuit is dependent
upon the values of R1, R2, and C1. The frequency can be calculated with the
formula:
R1
8 4
7 Output
IC1- 3
6
NE 555
Trigger 2
C1
1 5
C2
24
R1
8 4
R2 7
IC 1- 3
N E 555
6
C1 2
1 5
C2
It has 10 outputs. Output “0” goes HIGH on the rise of the first clock cycle.
On the rise of the second clock cycle, output “0” goes LOW and output “1” goes
HIGH. This process continues across the ten outputs and cycles to output “0” on
The “Carry Out” pin goes LOW when output “5” goes HIGH and goes HIGH
When RESET (pin 15) is taken HIGH, the chip will make output “0” go HIGH
When “Clock Inhibit” (pin 13) is taken HIGH, the counter will FREEZE on the
25
Minimum supply voltage 6v
In digital devices there are only two values, usually referred to as 0 and 1. 1 means
An inverter (also called a NOT gate) is a basic digital device found in all modern
electronics. So for an inverter, as the name suggests, it's output is the opposite of
the input (Output is NOT the Input). If the input is 0 then the output is 1 and if the
input is 1 then the output is 0. We can summarize the operation of this device in a
26
truth table 2.2. Figure 2.12 shows the circuit symbol of the NOT gate
Input Output
1 0
0 1
The OR gate has an output of 1 when either A or B or both are 1. In other words,
there an output when any or all the inputs have a high logic. Figure 2.13 shows a
circuit analogy. the lamp will light up (logic 1) when either switch A or B or both
are closed. Obviously, the output would be 0 if and only if both its inputs are 0. In
terms of the switching conditions, it means that lamp would be OFF (logic 0) only
when both switches A and B are OFF. The above logic operation of the OR gate
can be summarized with the help of the truth table given in truth Table 2.3.The
27
A B C
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
The AND gate gives an output of a high logic only when all its inputs are high.
The electronic (or logic) symbol for 2- input AND gate is shown in figure 2.14.
The AND gate has a ‘1’ output when both A and B are 1. Therefore, in the AND
gate its output would be ‘1’ only if all its inputs are all ‘1’s true. Its output would
be ‘0’ if any of its inputs is ‘0’. Table 2.4 shows the truth table for a 2-Input AND
gate.
A B C
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
28
Figure 2.13: The electronic (or logic) symbol for 2- input AND gate
2.3.11 CONTACTORS
Contactors are extremely useful when we have a need to control a large amount of
current and/or voltage with a small electrical signal. The contactor coil which
produces the magnetic field may only consume fractions of a watt of power, while
the contacts closed or opened by a magnetic field set up may be able to conduct
Contactors typically have multiple contacts, and those contacts are usually (but not
always) normally-open, so that power to the load is shut off when the coil is de-
energized. The contactor was used as a means of switching either of the phases to
the load.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 INTRODUCTION
29
From the block diagram of figure 2.1, the following units can be identified:
The unit is made up of a decade counter (4017) restricted to seven counts. The
Count 1, 3 and 5 are used to scan for the red, yellow and blue phase respectively.
The clocking of the counter is done via an oscillator configured using a 555 timer
The output of the oscillator is gated to the counter with the output of the phase
Operating temperature 0 – 70 oC
30
1
The frequency of the oscillator in Hertz is given as f =
( R 1+2 R 2 ) 0 ∙ 693 ×C 1
1
(R1 + 2R2) = = 14430Ω
100 x 0.6 93 x 1
Taking R1 = 470Ω
R2 = 13960 /2 =6980Ω
The count advances as the clock input becomes high (on the rising-edge). Each
output Q0-Q9 goes high in turn as counting advances. Counting to less than 9 is
achieved by connecting the relevant output (Q0-Q9) to reset, for example to count
Dual-In-Line 700 mW
31
Input of voltage presence
sensor
8 4 1 14 3 16,13
IC3a
7 4081
IC1- 3 2 14
7
NE555
6 IC2
CD4017
2
1 5
C2
8
The clock pulse (output of the, oscillator) cannot get to the center except when the
When a phase is encountered and thus in voltage, the output of the phase detector
produces a 1 which is then inverted to a zero and consequently disallows the clock
This unit is expected to produce an output of ‘1’ when there is power in the
encountered phase.
This unit is made up of a step down transformer selected as 12V, 300mA a bridge
32
3.2.1 Design of the step down transformer
This diode satisfies the requirement because the maximum expected voltage is far
C = Idc / (4√3f*∆Vp-p)
33
A capacitor value of 4700ứF, 25V was used. It can serve the purpose since its
capacitance and voltage ratings are higher than the minimum values required
Main
s
220V Output
25V
Two 9volts batteries was used as an alternative to provide the 12volt supply
If there is voltage in any of the phases, there will be voltage at the output of the
regulator, when there is no power in that selected phase, there will be no voltage in
The selection of the phase is done when the output of the counter closes and
interface relay.
The output of the counter is approximately the supply voltage (Vcc) which is 9V.
34
Vcc−Vbe
= RB =
IB
IC
But IB =
β
Vcc 9
Then IC is the current that will flow when the transistor is saturated = = =
300 300
30mA
30 x 10 ˉ ³
So, IB = = 0.54mA
60
9−0.7
RB =
0.5 x 10 ˉ ³
16600Ω
The circuit diagram of the voltage presence sensor is as shown in figure 3.3
2
7
D7-D10 G1
C3 R9 R10
C6 2 7
6 outputs
3 IC7
T2
4
BLUE PHASE
D11-D14 G2
C4 R11 R12
C7
2 7
T3 3 IC8
6
YELLOW PHASE 4
D15-D18 G3
R13 R14
C5
neutral C8
35
Figure 3.3: The circuit diagram of the voltage presence sensor
This unit becomes necessary so that the power being supplied to the load is within
This unit is made up of a comparator and two preset resistance which is used to set
Since the output of the step down transformer is proportional to the input supply
voltage the wider the value of the output voltage is a function of the unit voltage.
The capacitor output will be high if the voltage is within the acceptable and low
when the unit voltage is outside the range. The minimum voltage selected is 180V.
The outputs of the low voltage detectors are combined using an OR –gate which is
then inverted and then used as a gating pulse to the scanning clock low voltage
36
Tstg Storage Temperature Range -65 to +150°C
12×180
V2 = = 9.81V
220
V2 = V { R 1+R 2R 2 }
Where R = R1+ R2 = 10kΩ
R1 8.166
×100 %= ×100 %=81.66 %
R 10
R2 1.834
×100 %= ×100 %=18.34 %
R 10
DC Forward current 25 25 30 mA
Peak Forward Current 120 140 140 mA
Reverse Voltage 5 5 5 V
37
3.3.3 Design of Resistor for Light emitting Diode
Output of Comparator = 5V
∴ V = IR
V 9
I= = =360 Ω=0.36 KΩ
R 25 mA
V 9
I= = = 300Ω = 0.3kΩ
R 30 mA
Gate propagation time: typically 30ns for a signal to travel through a gate
with a 9V supply
Frequency: up to 1MHz
38
IC5-4002
IC4-4049A 1 14
2
3 1
a 3
output 2
4
8 2
7 R6 R7 R8 D4-D6 7
IC6
6
3 4
D19
RED PHASE
R9 R10
C6 2 7
6
3 IC7
4
Blue PHASE D20
R11 R12
C7
2 7
3 IC8
6
4
D21
Yellow PHASE
R13 R14
C8
Relays RY1, RY2, and RY3 which switch power to the red, yellow and blue phase
step down transformers respectively are also used to switch power to the Red blue
and yellow phase contractors. There connections when energized supplies power
to the load.
Since these relays are energized only one at a time, then only one phase supply
gets to the load hence the load ‘sees’ only a single phase supply.
As soon as the phase fails, the scanning moves to the next available phase and
39
The contactors selected are based on the load estimate. In this project, the
contractors used are D0910Q7 which has the capacity of supplying 25A. the unit is
energized by 220V AC
The current wiring of the switch and load interface is as shown in figure 3.5.
The combined circuit diagram of the automatic phase selector system is as shown
in figure 3.6
RED PHASE
CCT1
RED PHASE
CCT2
BLUE PHASE
BLUE PHASE
CCT3
YELLOW PHASE
YELLOW PHASE
NUETRAL
LOAD
40
IC5-4002
IC4-4049A 1 14
2 RED PHASE
3 1
a 3 CCT1
2
8 4
7 R6 R7 R8 2
D4-D6 7
BATTERY
RY2 D11-D14 G2
D2
C4 R11 R12
C7
Q2 LOAD
BLUE PHASE
2 7
T3 3 IC8 6
4
D21 IC6-IC8=uA741
D3
D15-D18 G3
RY3
R13 R14
C5
NUETRAL
Q3 C8
YELLOW PHASE
Figure 3.6: The complete circuit diagram of the automatic phase selector system
41
3.5 LIST OF COMPONENTS
CHAPTER FOUR
42
The components used for this project are operational amplifiers, 555 timer,
The components were mainly CMOS types because of their low power
The system was divided into blocks and each block was tested to ensure that the
desired result was obtained and it agrees with the characteristics desired for the
design.
The sequence followed was that the components got from the design analysis were
bought and connected on breadboard to see their response according to the circuit
diagram on a bread board. All units were tested to ensure proper functioning
The Voltage presence sensors for each phase and low voltage detectors for the
three phases were first breadboarded. The transformers, rectifiers, diodes, filtering
capacitor, regulators, operational amplifier and resistor for phase power indicator
LED. After it was tested it was transferred to veroboard for soldering. The output
after construction was tested with a digital voltmeter and reading shows that the
performance is acceptable.
The next stage was the scanning unit. The oscillator and the counter as well as the
gate were assembled next. The components were connected on breadboard to see
43
their response according to the circuit diagram. The output was monitored using
and LED. The output frequency was fine tuned by adjusting R 9. The components
The section that followed is switching and load interface unit. The relays and
contactors were connected. All connections were made according to the circuit
diagram. The unit was tested with the output of the counter connected to the base
after some blocks were transferred from breadboard to veroboard. However all
4.2 PACKAGING
The complete unit is housed in a metallic box with lagoon blue colour measuring
indicator attached to it which represents each of the phases with the scanning
The output line and the three phase input are also attached to the casing.
The cover of the casing is a little bit gaped as to allow proper ventilation and
Photograph of figure 4.1 shows the front and back view of the packaged project.
44
Diagram of Completed Project
Provision was made for connections terminals by proper drilling using drill bits
When the construction was completed, series of test were carried out to ascertain
the performance of the project. The tests carried out include connecting the three
45
phases to power supply and switching off one after the other and systems response
4.4 PRECAUTIONS
Many precautions were taken in the course of the construction of this project so as
In the case of arranging the component onto a vero board, care was taken in
During the soldering, the terminals to be soldered were scrapped off to remove
oxidation in order to ensure good connection. Excessive heat was avoided during
possible so as not to exceed the temperature each component could tolerate. Also,
the component terminals are held with pliers for this will absorb most of the heat
generated.
EVALUATION
The cost of the electrical and electronic components employed in this design is
46
Table 4. 1 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation
47
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION
The design and construction of the automatic phase selector system has been
successfully carried out. The system is one that will ease coordination, control and
management of phases in the power supply system. The system could also be
The system has been designed using locally available materials and the cost has
The system was designed using discrete electronic components and integrated
CMOS circuit devices. The system when tested fully met the specification
48
5.1 RECOMMENDATION
Some more work can be carried out on this project to make it more versatile and
phase is available and switch OFF the standby generator when any phase
returns.
to make sure that only voltages within the acceptable limits are supplied to
the load.
49
REFERENCE
1. Paul H., Winfield H., 1989 “The Art of Electronics”. Cambridge University
9. Donald A Neamem ‘Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design’ (2001), 2nd edition,
50