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Printed in USA
2001-01-2501
4.90
4.70 Inverter Battery
4.50 Electronics Pack
4.30
4.10 a. DaimlerChrysler ESX3
3.90
3.70
Engine Electric 5 speed
3.50 Integral Front
4-cyl. Machine Elec. Shifted
Differential Wheels
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 CIDI 8kW AC Ind. M/T
Avg.=6.74
6.00
Non-HEV
the peak power of the engine and the electric machines
5.00 that provide propulsion were added together to calculate
4.00 a peak power for the hybrid vehicles. Figure 3 shows the
3.00 2
peak power-to-weight ratios for the five hybrid vehicles
2.00 3
and the five non-HEV vehicles . For the HEV vehicles in
1.00
this paper, the peak engine plus electric ratios were very
0.00
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
consistent across all vehicles in a broad weight
Vehicle Weight (kg)
spectrum, with an average of 6.74 kW per 100 kg. of
curb weight. This would seem to indicate a similar set of
Peak Engine + Electric Ratio
Engine-Only Ratio performance goals that the vehicles were attempting to
Non-HEV Engine-Only meet in the area of acceleration and hill climbing ability.
As can be seen in figure 3, three of the five conventional
Figure 3. Peak Power-to-Weight Ratio cars have a very similar power-to-weight ratio as the
hybrid vehicles. Two higher-output engines skew the
vehicle. This unconventional mounting choice allows for non-HEV average to 8.1 kW per 100 kg. Overall, this is
reduced exhaust system length and for significant gains an indication that the hybrid powertrains are adequately
in vehicle aerodynamics by allowing a full belly pan and sized to provide performance similar to, but slightly lower
rear-quarter cooling openings [2]. Because the front than, popular non-HEV cars in the North American
electric machine is adequately sized, it can provide the market.
propulsion for the vehicle in the reverse direction,
allowing elimination of reverse gear in the transmission. By examining the engine-only power-to-weight ratios in
Finally, a unique drive scheme for the HVAC compressor figure 3, we can see a clear distinction between the three
on the rear electric machine allows heating and cooling mild hybrids (the three leftmost sets of points) and the
when the engine is off and direct use of regenerative two medium hybrids (the two rightmost sets of points).
braking energy. The medium hybrids have significantly lower engine-only
ratios, and use a larger electric motor to achieve the
The Toyota Prius architecture includes an internal desirable power-to-weight ratio. This strategy allows the
combustion engine and two electric machines arranged use of a relatively smaller internal combustion engine on
to allow both parallel and series hybrid operation. This these vehicles which can aid in higher fuel economy.
architecture uses a planetary gearset to allow “power The electric machine is used to supplement the engine’s
splitting” of the engine power between the electric power for more rapid accelerations and for grade
generator and the power going to the wheels. The climbing.
planetary gearset and reduction gearing take the place of
a “conventional” multi-geared transmission and
HYBRID SUBSYSTEMS
implement a continuously variable transmission (CVT)
function. The generator can draw power from the engine
to charge the battery pack or power the main propulsion As can be seen in the architecture diagrams in figure 2,
1
electric machine in a series hybrid configuration . The all the vehicles have a common set of drivetrain
propulsion electric machine can drive the wheels subsystems. In this paper we will examine and compare
simultaneously with the engine, thus implementing a the following major drivetrain subsystems: heat engine,
parallel hybrid function [3]. transmission, electric machine(s), inverter, and battery
pack.
The medium hybrids have the advantage of being able to
more aggressively recapture vehicle kinetic energy HEAT ENGINE – The combination of significantly
because the electric machine, inverter, and battery are reduced mass and electric hybridization allows the use of
sized for higher power levels. More kinetic energy smaller engines in the HEV’s than is normal for this
recaptured equates to increased driving efficiency. The vehicle size. Table 1 shows a comparison of the engines
penalty incurred for this benefit is increased system employed in the five vehicles. As can be seen in the
complexity, cost, and mass. Such efficiency gains are table, the engines all have 3 or 4 cylinders and range in
mainly visible in city driving schedules and are less displacement from 1.0 to 1.5 liters. The two production
appreciable in highway cycles. For example, the 2001 vehicles use gasoline spark-ignited (SI) engines, while
Prius is rated at 52 mpg city, 45 mpg highway in the US
[4]. A significantly lower highway rating is very unusual in
non-HEV vehicles, but is understandable in the Prius 2
A scaling of kilowatts per 100 kilograms of curb weight
was used, as it provided conveniently scaled results.
1 3
In this series configuration the power travels through Base models with base engines were used for all
two inverters, incurring an extra efficiency loss. makes.
60 140
Turbocharged CIDI
50 120
C 100
40 Engine capability C is
higher than used in
this application 80
30
Normally Aspirated Gasoline SI
60
20
40
10
20
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Engine Displacement (Liters) Engine Displacement (Liters)
Figure 4: Specific Power vs. Displacement Figure 5: Specific Torque vs. Displacement
4
the three PNGV vehicles use compression-ignition schemes are in production on non-HEV cars, but are
direct-injection (CIDI) engines. beneficial to the HEV's because they offer the ability to
design for improved fuel economy in normal rpm ranges
The three PNGV vehicles use compression ignition and higher power at higher rpm.
(CIDI) engines because a study of fuel economy
projections showed a CIDI parallel hybrid as the only Figure 4 shows the specific power for the five HEV
drivetrain with the potential to offer 80 mpg, an important engines and the five non-HEV engines from the 2001
PNGV goal [5]. These engines offer inherently higher cars mentioned earlier. It is quickly apparent that the
cycle efficiency compared to gasoline SI engines. The HEV engines are much lower in displacement, with the
P2000 engine boasts a peak efficiency of 43% [6] and closest non-HEV engines being the base 4-cylinder
the Precept engine achieves greater than 40% efficiency engines on the Accord and Camry. In terms of
at high loads [7]. The use of electronically controlled maximum power per liter they are roughly on par with
common rail fuel injection gives these engines a number their non-HEV counterparts. This might be expected for
of benefits: the gasoline engines since they use very similar engine
technologies (4 valves per cylinder, variable valve timing,
• Audible noise reduction through the use of pilot etc.). This is also laudable since the primary goals for
injection the HEV's were fuel economy and emissions. Power is
• Precise injection timing and quantity still very important - the vehicles need a certain power-to-
• Reductant provision for the catalyst through the use weight ratio for acceptable acceleration and gradeability.
of post injection
Specific torque of the engines is shown in figure 5. The
All three CIDI engines also employ turbocharging to higher torque of the turbocharged diesels is clearly
significantly improve low-end torque and volumetric apparent. They are over 30% higher than the highest SI
efficiency. While CIDI engines have a low application engine in specific torque. This is explained by the
rate in North America, they are increasingly popular in natural benefits of turbocharging as well as the higher
the European car market. cylinder pressures associated with CI engines. The
gasoline SI engines offered in the hybrids are
The two production hybrids, the Insight and Prius, use comparable in specific torque to their non-HEV
gasoline SI engines. The choice of a gasoline engine is counterparts.
in line with the US car market as a whole, which has a
very low penetration rate for diesel engines in cars. (In TRANSMISSION – The transmission choices for the
1999, only 13,600 diesel-engine cars were sold in the hybrid vehicles fall into two groups: continuously-variable
US, out of a total of 8.7 million cars [8].) Both engines transmissions (CVT) and automatically-shifted manual
also employ 4 valves per cylinder and variable valve (ASM) transmissions. Both production HEV's come with
5
timing schemes, with the Prius using Toyota’s VVT-i and a CVT , which provides a smooth application of torque
the Insight using Honda’s VTEC-E. VVT-i offers as the vehicle accelerates and allows the engine to be
continuously variable valve timing adjustment while held at desirable operating speeds relatively independent
VTEC-E offers two lobe profiles allowing switching
5
between two distinct sets of timing and lift. Both of these The Insight entered the U.S. market with a manual
transmission and will be offered with a CVT in 2001. In
4
Commonly known as “diesel” engines. Japan, both transmissions are available.
ESX3 P2000 Insight Precept Prius
Engine Type CIDI CIDI Gas CIDI Gas
# of Cylinders 3 4 3 3 4
Displacement (Liters) 1.5 1.2 1.0 1.3 1.5
Peak Power (kW) 55 kW 55 kW 50 kW 40 kW 53 kW
Peak Torque (Nm) 153 Nm 90 Nm 170 Nm 112 Nm
Compression Ratio 10.8:1 17.6:1 13:1
Engine Details Turbocharger 4V/cyl., SOHC, 4V/cyl., DOHC, 4V/cyl., DOHC, 4V/cyl.,
with intercooler, Turbocharger VTEC-E variable Turbocharger with VVT-i Variable
common rail with variable valve lift & timing variable geometry & valve timing
fuel injection, geometry, intercooling, common
all-aluminum; common rail rail fuel injection
fuel injection
Engine Mass 113 kg. 110kg. 80 kg.
(including elec.
machine)
Transmission 6 speed 5 speed CVT 4 speed E-CVT
Automatically- Automatically- or 5 speed M/T Automatically-shifted
shifted manual shifted manual manual, (no reverse)
with 2-clutch
design
Configuration Parallel IMG Parallel IMG Parallel IMG Series/Parallel Series/Parallel
Machine #1 Type PM (15 kW) IM (8 kW) PM (10 kW) PM (25 kW) PM (33kW)
Machine #2 Type N/A N/A N/A PM (10 kW) PM
Sensor Resolver 90 tooth 3 hall sensor and 2 Resolvers
quadrature target wheel
Switch Technology IGBT IGBT IGBT IGBT
Bus Voltage Vdc 150 V 280 V 144 V 350 V 288 V
Machine #1 Regen. Braking Regen Braking Regen. Braking Vehicle Launch Vehicle Launch
Functionality Starter/Alt. Starter/Alt. Starter/Alt.(warm) Regen. Braking Regen. Braking
Motor Boost Motor Boost Motor Boost Reverse
Firing pulse Firing pulse Firing pulse Acceleration
Smoothing Smoothing Smoothing Boost
Machine #2 N/A N/A N/A Starter/Alt. Alternator
Functionality Regen. Braking Motor Boost
Motor Boost Starter
AC Compressor Drive
Synchronize gear
shifting
Table 1: Summary of Hybrid Drivetrain Technology by Vehicle
of vehicle speed to achieve economy or performance. braking energy to go directly to the compressor, avoiding
The three PNGV vehicles all use ASM transmissions. the electrical round-trip losses through the battery.
This type of transmission offers the automatic control of
shift selection that is desirable for fuel economy and ELECTRIC MACHINE – The mild hybrid vehicles use an
performance, while providing the near-perfect integrated motor generator (IMG) system while the
transmission efficiency of a manual transmission. The higher power applications use a dual-machine approach.
DaimlerChrysler ASM is unique in offering a dual clutch An IMG system has an electric machine attached to the
arrangement with alternating gears on two shafts end of the transmission such that the rotor is linked to
(even/odd). This scheme allows for continuous the crankshaft. Due to driveline volume constraints, the
application of torque, with no interruptions during shifting challenging thermal environment and the engine’s
[9]. Conventional single-clutch ASM transmission dynamics, this configuration requires careful attention to
experience a torque interruption during shifting, which design considerations.
can dissatisfy the driver [10].
In the dual-machine strategy, a motor either driving a
The GM Precept has a novel transmission feature that separate axle or integrated through a planetary gear
allows the air conditioning compressor to be driven system to the engine is used. These systems have an
directly off the input shaft of the transaxle [11]. This additional machine that acts primarily as a
allows the compressor to be powered by the engine or motor/generator and is interfaced to the engine through a
the electric machine, which means the electric machine gear assembly. Table 1 summarizes the hybrid systems
can continue to run the HVAC compressor even after the for the vehicles evaluated.
engine shuts off. This scheme also allows regenerative
Of the vehicles that use an IMG system, the permanent there is more axial space available which allows a lower
magnet (PM) machine has been more commonly pole number machine and higher torque capability. The
selected. This choice can be understood from an Prius system has an advantage in that both machines
efficiency and energy density perspective. Efficiency is and their inverters are located close together. This
important to the overall vehicle but can also impact the allows for simplicity in the cooling system as well as the
motor design since less heat will be dissipated in a more wiring system.
efficient machine. In addition, the PM machine’s high
energy density helps to meet the demanding volume For both the Precept and the Prius, liquid cooling was
constraints of the IMG systems. Nevertheless, care used for the propulsion machine and the
must be taken to make sure the machine does not motor/generator. Liquid cooling helps to increase the
become too small for a given power level since air- continuous power rating and the length of time that peak
cooling may become inadequate. power can be provided. However, the use of liquid
cooling does add cost, mass, and complexity. A PM
The ESX3 uses a conventional 12 pole interior PM machine may appear to have less-challenging cooling
machine. This motor design utilizes both magnet and needs due to its higher efficiency. But, due to the higher
reluctance torque to increase the torque/current ratio. In energy density, cooling could become complex because
order to further reduce phase currents over the operating the heat generation is more concentrated. In summary,
range, field-weakened operation is used [12]. This mode the need for a liquid-cooling system is a clear
of operation reduces the inverter currents for low and disadvantage relative to the air-cooled IMG systems.
moderate speeds but requires more attention to the
machine controller’s performance under high-speed With PM machines, there are some safety/protection
conditions since loss of field-weakening can cause an concerns that need to be addressed. If a large field-
over-voltage condition on the power bus. weakening range is used, the electronics need to be
protected in case of a controller fault. This is because
The Insight machine is a 12-pole surface mounted the induced electromotive force (EMF) in the machine
magnet design featuring a bobbin-wound stator. This exceeds the Power Bus voltage throughout the field-
unique construction helps to simplify construction and weakened region. The protection can be provided by
reduce manufacturing costs [13]. The peak torque of the ensuring that the short circuit current causes enough
Insight machine is inadequate for cold temperature voltage drop in the machine to protect the electronics or
engine cranking at –29C [14]. During these conditions a by over-designing the inverter using higher-voltage
conventional starter is used. This design choice was capacitors and switches. There is also a concern of the
likely made to help mitigate the challenge of designing a amount of torque that will be produced during a machine
machine with a high-torque/low-speed region and a wide or inverter fault. This torque is generally quite small due
constant power range. to the fact that it is out of phase with the motor currents.
At low speeds, the in-phase component will increase but
Ford’s P2000 utilizes an induction machine (IM). A PM the current level is much lower. Hence, the loss of field-
machine was not selected due to high-temperature weakening control issue as generally perceived is not a
demagnetization concerns [15]. IMG systems are major concern in the PM machine.
located close to the heat engine as well as the
transmission, which can cause high operating INVERTER - The IMG systems with a PM machine use a
temperatures under heavy loads. The P2000 machine voltage near 150 V while the higher power systems use a
has a rather large torque capability of 300 Nm for higher voltage in the 288-360 V range. Ford’s induction-
cranking. Due to this high cranking torque, there is likely based IMG vehicle uses a 280 V system, which may
a rather large field weakened range of operation for this have been required due to the lower energy density of
vehicle at higher speeds. Ford had previously indicated the IM and/or a desire to limit the phase currents. The
the possibility of using a winding change from series to higher voltage reduces the phase current level required,
parallel to change the torque speed characteristic of the but forces an IGBT switch technology selection, rather
machine [16]. This idea does not appear to have been than MOSFETs. The higher voltage also requires
pursued further. greater attention to vehicle safety.
For the dual-machine systems, permanent magnet All the inverters, with the exception of the Insight, appear
machines were the universal selection for both the main to be liquid cooled with a single integrated power switch
propulsion machine and the motor/generator machine. module. Considerable focus has been given to
The Precept utilizes a 25 kW interior permanent magnet developing integrated electronic switch packages to
(IPM) machine for the front axle and a 10 kW surface reduce cost, mass and volume. The Insight is unique in
mount PM machine with the rear engine [17]. The Prius its forced air cooling approach, which saves the mass
also utilizes two PM machines. The two PM machines and volume of a coolant pump, hoses, heat exchanger,
are linked to the engine by a planetary gear system. The and coolant.
original Prius motor was an 8 Pole 30 kW interior design
with a torque capability of 300 Nm. The new Prius has a There is also a significant distinction between the IMG
torque capability of 350 Nm [18]. Since the main and dual-machine systems. The Prius and Precept each
propulsion motors are not directly tied into the driveline require two inverter power stages, but with different
ratings. Either two different inverter designs are used, as mode with additional calculations to provide a better
is the case in the Prius, or one of the inverters is angle estimate to enhance performance to allow vector
significantly over-rated, as is the case in the Precept [19]. control or phase angle control. The sensor selection is
The two inverters may lead to an increase in the cost of also unique due to the fact that three separate sensors
the total system. are used rather than three elements in one package.
This creates cost and sensor location variability issues.
Machine Controller- Within the inverter, the machine
controller is the intelligence that monitors sensors and 800
performs sophisticated closed-loop control of the electric Lithium 25oC
700
machines. The controller’s sophistication varies based
on the application. For dual-machine vehicles, the 600
dynamic requirement of the main propulsion machine is NiMH 25 oC
500
generally small. Thus, the need for high-performance
PbA 25 oC Lithium -29oC
control algorithms, such as vector control strategies, may 400
not be required. By contrast, two machine controllers as
300
well as two sensor strategies are used due to the
separate propulsion and motor/generator functions of the 200
machines. NiMH -29 oC PbA -29oC
100