Earthquakes And Volcanoes

Important points to remember about the causes of earthquakes and volcanoes:

• The Earth's outer crust is split up into large tectonic plates.

• These plates float on the liquid mantle of molten rock beneath.
• The areas where these moving plates meet (the margins) are where you get
earthquakes and volcanoes.

In cross-section, the Earth consists of three main layers. The outer layer is called the
crust and contains the continents and oceans.

• Under the land, it is called continental crust.

• Under the sea, it is called oceanic crust.

The middle layer is called the mantle and is semi-liquid. The inner layer is called the
core. The temperature increases towards the core.

Plate margins
The movement of the plates is only really important where they meet along their
edges, or plate margins. There are four types of plate margin:

• Constructive margins
• Destructive margins
• Conservative margins
• Collision margins

Constructive margins
Along these plate margins, two oceanic plates pull apart from each other and molten
rock, or 'magma' wells up from the mantle to create new crust. This usually happens
where two plates meet under the sea and results in earthquakes and volcanoes. The
new crust build up into an undersea ridge. The Mid Atlantic Ridge is the longest
mountain range on Earth but is mostly under the sea. The new crust slowly pushes
the old crust away at both sides of the ridge and so the ocean gradually gets wider.
This process is called 'sea-floor spreading'. Therefore, the Atlantic Ocean is getting
wider all the time, but this only happens at about the same speed as your fingernails
grow! At this rate it will take 1000 years for the Atlantic to become just ten metres
wider. In a few places along its length, under sea mountains rise above sea level to
become islands. Look for these islands in the Atlantic Ocean:

• Iceland
• The Azores
• Ascension Island
• Tristan da Cunha Island

Destructive margins
If some plates are moving apart at constructive margins, then crust must be
destroyed elsewhere, otherwise the Earth would be getting bigger! Old crust is
destroyed and forced back down into the mantle at destructive margins. At a
destructive margin, a subduction zone is created with a deep-sea trench, where an
oceanic and a continental plate meet. Here, the edge of one plate slides underneath
the other and is forced into the mantle where it melts. This causes violent
earthquakes and volcanoes.
Conservative margins
At this type of margin, crust is neither created nor destroyed as the two plates slide
past each other. Earthquakes can occur if there is a sudden jolt as the plates stick,
then move again suddenly. An example of a Conservative plate boundary is the San
Andreas Fault in California.

Collision margins
Here, two continental plates meet and push up against each other. Neither plate
sinks, (as at a destructive margin) but the two plates both buckle up to form mountain
ranges. The Himalayas are growing higher as the Eurasian and Indo-Australian
plates slowly 'buckle up' together. The movement increases until the pressure is
released suddenly in earthquakes

Tropical storms
Tropical storms are the correct name for hurricanes, cyclones and typhoons. They
have their source over warm tropical seas heated to at least 27�C. Tropical storms
develop in three stages:

• birth
• development
• death

Air above the sea heated to 27�C becomes warm and moist. It rises rapidly, cools
and forms heavy cloud and rain. Air rushes into the area and fuels the updraft of
warm air. The rotating Earth starts to spin the whole system. The system reaches
land. It loses its sources of heat and moisture and slowly begins to burn out.
Effect of an earthquake
There is a range of factors that can influence how devastating an earthquake
can be. The main factors are shown in the following diagram.

Density of population - If the earthquake happens in an urban area, far more

people would be killed or made homeless than if it occurred in a less densely
populated rural area. Some very powerful earthquakes happen in regions with
hardly any people living there, such as Alaska, and so no-one is even injured.

Building quality - LEDCs have less money to spend on buildings which are
made to withstand the earthquake. Towns in LEDCs often erect buildings
which are flimsy or may have inadequate foundations. When an earthquake
strikes, destruction can be total. Wealthier, MEDC countries which are
susceptible to earthquakes, such as Japan, can afford to have buildings
reinforced with cross bracings or flexible gas mains can be used to reduce the
risk of fire. Some buildings have alarms that cut off the gas supply
automatically and windows and furniture may be adapted to reduce injuries

Time of earthquake - Some of the most devastating earthquakes occur

during the day when most people are up and about and so there are more
casualties. The massive earthquake in Mexico City in 1985 occurred during
the morning rush hour when children were on their way to school and the
roads were full of traffic.

Distance from the epicentre - The epicentre is the centre of the earthquake
on the surface, from which the shock or seismic waves radiate out. The
seismic waves decrease in strength away from the epicentre, and so the area
of greatest devastation is usually at this epicentre.

Nature of the underlying rock - Where the plates are being subducted into
the mantle, at a subduction zone, the huge slabs of rock are put under great
stress. This builds up until it is greater than the strength of the rock and so the
rock 'fails' or breaks and an earthquake results. If the rock is very strong and
resistant to failure, the pressure build up will be very high. When failure
eventually occurs, the earthquake would be more powerful.

Earthquake strength - This is usually measured on the Richter scale. On this

scale, a weak earthquake measuring only 1 or 2 on the scale may result in
only rattling windows and books falling off shelves. A powerful earthquake,
measuring perhaps 7 or 8 on the scale, can cause total devastation.

Associated hazards - Earthquakes usually kill far more people due to the
secondary effects of fires, floods, starvation and disease, (especially water-
related diseases) than by collapsing buildings. In the very long term, whole
communities can die as people are afraid to return to the area and harvests
are disrupted. Earthquakes at sea can cause large tsunamis or giant waves,
which drown thousands and destroy harvests. The waves can travel
thousands of kilometres before reaching land and flooding coastal areas.
Rockfalls and landslides may be triggered, causing more devastation. In
mountainous or cold regions, avalanches may be caused which can bury
villages and
towns.