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This section will give you detailed and exhaustive information about the crop you have
selected. The information is categorised into two types: About the Crop and Crop
Management. Depending on the nature of the information you require, just click on the
relevant link. This will open out a set of sub-links to further narrow down your
selection. The 'About Cotton' section, for instance, contains the sub-links 'History',
'Morphology' and 'Growth' of Cotton.

The 'Crop Management' section of each crop contains a list of sub-links that give you
information on a whole host of topics concerning that crop, like: Disease Management,
Insect Management, Harvesting and Storage, Land Preparation, Water Management
and many others. c
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Seed Materialc

Seedc c Seed Biologyc c Types of Seedc c Categories of Seedc c Seed Viabilityc c

Seed Dormancyc c Seed Treatmentc c Seed Germinationc c Seed Storagec c Seed
Productionc cc

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Seed Material

Seed

ac Sexually or vegetatively propagated planting materials which

are used for seeding and planting and as such should be free
from any infection (pests and diseases) and should give a
good crop stand by good seeding.

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Seed Bi l 

ac The ovule after fertilization develops into the seed with its
coats completely fused together with the developing ovary
 wall or pericarp. The rice grain has the following structures.

e Pericar
r Fruit C at

ac The pericarp is made up of distinct layers of quadrangular

cells which forms the epicarp. These cells have slight
thickening and are followed by cells which are much
compressed and form the mesocarp consisting of two to three
layers.
ac The endocarp is single layer of tube cells. The colour in the
rice grain is found in the pericarp layer in the mature stage.

e Seed C ats

ac Due to the pressure brought out by the developing seed on

the pericarp, the testa and tegmen become much pressed
down and out of shape. A few layers of such cells below the
pericarp can be diagnosed as the integuments of seed coats.

—leur e Laer

ac A prominent layer of rectangular cells which contain protein

lies next to the seed cents. This layer is known as the
aleurone layer. This layer in rice is not coloured unlike in the
case of maize.
ac It has been observed that in coloured varieties of rice, the
aleurone layer is thicker than in the white rice varieties. The
coarse rice generally have a larger aleurone layer than the
finer rice. It has also been found that in poor soils, the
aleurone layer is thin and improves in thickness with the
fertility of the soil and manure.

e Ed s
erm

ac The entire mass of tissue below the aleurone layer is made up

of cells which contain plenty of starch grains and these form
the endosperm.

e Embr

ac The scutellum has an upper free part which has a flesh

projection known as ventral scale. Below this upper ventral
scale and almost at the middle of the free part there is
another out growth which can be called as the 'inner ventral
scale' and this inner ventral scale is peculiar to rice embryos
only.
ac mn the surface of the embryo this out growth along with the
epiblast forms a continuous covering around the plumule. The
structure between the scutellum and the plumule is the
 mesocotyl.

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es  Seeds

L cal Varieties

ac Local varieties are nothing but traditional varieties but which

are susceptible to diseases and pests and are having long
duration for maturity. In case of rice - Krishnakatukalu,
Basangulu.

=i Yieldi Varieties

ac High yielding varieties are dwarf varieties and having short

duration with resistant to pests and diseases with maximum
yield potential.
ac Vg: I.R -64, I.R - 36, I.R - 50.

=brids

ac A systematic and extensive evaluation of the experimental

hybrids, across the country, at the twelve research net work
centers has been taken up. About eight hundred experimental
hybrids have been evaluated so far. During the wet season (
Kharif), the experimental hybrids are being evaluated at 12
centers, where as during dry season ( rabi ) the experimental
hybrids are evaluated in seven centers, located in southern,
western and eastern India. Very useful information on
performance of hybrids and data on yield and yield
components and other auxiliary characters of hybrids across
the locations and seasons has been collected over the years.
ac As a result of concerted, goal oriented, time bound and co-
ordinated efforts for the first time in the country, four rice
hybrids were released for commercial cultivation during 1994,
by the state variety release committee. These are APHR-1 and
APHR- 2 for the Telangana and Rayalaseema regions of
Andhra pradesh, MGR-1 for the Tamilnadu state and KRH-1
for Karnataka state. Subsequently two more hybrids, viz.,
 CHRH -3 and DRRH-1 were released recently.

°eeticall Eieered Seeds

ac mne of the major concerns of cultivating hybrid varieties is

that farmers can not use seed from the harvest for their next
crop and thus have to buy new seed for each crop. More-over,
the cost of hybrid seed is 5-20 times more than that of seeds
of inbred varieties. Possibilities for true -to- type multiplication
of hybrid rice are being explored through two approaches.
ac Production of artificial seeds through somatic embryogenesis
and
ac Development of apomictic hybrid rice through wide
hybridization and genetic engineering techniques.

Pr ducti   —rtiicial Seeds —d Mass Pr
aati   rue- Breedi =brids

ac Artificial seeds, consisting of somatic embryos, enclosed in a

protective coating, are being proposed as low-cost, high-
volume propagation system. The objective is to produce clonal
seeds at a cost comparable with that of producing hybrid seed
by conventional methods. Artificial seeds can be produced
through somatic embryogenesis. This is the process by which
somatic cells develop through the stages of embryogeny to
give whole plants without gametic fusion. Somatic
embryogenesis has been reported in more than 150 plant
species. Somatic embryos have been induced from a variety of
plant tissues, such as germinating seedlings shoot meristems,
young inflorescence, nucellus, leaf, anther, root and others.
ac Artificial seed technology involves various steps for the
production of somatic embryos and their utilization as
commercial propagules.
ac mptimization of somatic embryogenesis system from cultured
cells
ac mptimization of embryo maturation.
ac Automation of embryo production.
ac Production of mature synchronized embryos.
ac Vncapsulation of embryos with necessary adjuvants.
ac Coating of encapsulated embryos.
ac mptimization of green house and field conditions for
conversion of embryos into plants. And
ac Delivery system for artificial seeds.
ac Tissue Culture
ac ÿIt is the process of growing tissue or cells which are
exercised from healthy plants. These tissues are grown on
nutrient medium under aseptic conditions.ÿ

ït is als called as micr
r
aati  issue culture i les seeral teciques
wic are
 ac Anther culture
ac Vmbryo rescue or ovary culture or Vmbryo culture.
ac Protoplast culture and protoplast fusion.
ac Somatic embryogenesis.
ac To develop a straight variety or true to type variety in crop
plants, pure line selection method is adopted. In this method
the seeds of pure lines are selected from homogeneous
population of a particular crop and multiplied in the next
season. This multiplication process is conducted in different
co-ordinated centers and performance of the pure lines is
tested. If the performance is good then the state varietal
release committee or central varietal release committee
releases the variety of that particular crop.
ac The seed supplied from Agricultural Research Stations,
Department of Agriculture, or A.P. State seed corporation is
not adequate to meet the requirements of the farmers. So the
private seed producers are actively engaged in multiplication
and supply of seed to the farmers. But the cost of seed is
some times high and the quality also is not maintained.
Hence, the farmers are motivated to develop their own seed in
respect to varieties.
ac A seed village concept was introduced and the farmers were
encouraged to develop their own seed. In this process the
farmer is supplied with limited quantity of foundation seed or
certified seed by Research stations or A.P State seed
corporation. The farmer will grow variety with the seed
supplied in a limited area with good management practices of
both plant husbandry and plant protection.
ac He is also provided with information of the characters of the
variety like duration, grain type, the time of panicle initiation
etc. He observes the crop from time to time, and the off-types
will be removed as and when noticed. He maintained a
homogenous type of plants having the varietal characters .
while harvesting he eliminates 1 meter crop from all sides of
the field to avoid contamination from other varieties grown in
neighbor hood and threshed, separately with all the care to
prevent admixture of other varieties in threshing floor.
ac Like wise care will be taken during storage to maintain purity.
Such seed will be used continuously year after year for the
period of 3 to 4 years. Such seed can also be spread to the
co-farmers interested in that specific Variety. After 4 years the
farmer can again secure foundation seed or certified seed
from the Research station. If it is practiced by atleast 25% of
the farmers there will not be any scarcity for pure good seed.

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Cate ries  Seed

Breeder Seed

ac Breeder seed is seed or vegetative propagating material

produced by or under the direct control of the sponsoring
plant breeder. It is the basis of the first and recurring increase
of foundation seed.

F udati  Seed

ac It is obtained from breeder seed by direct increase and is the

source of registered and or certified seed. Foundation seed is
produced on experimental stations of Agricultural Universities
and Government forms.

Certiied Seeds

ac Certified seed is produced from foundation or registered seed.

It is so known because it is certified by a seed certifying
agency.
ac The certified seed is annually produced by progressive farmers
according to standard seed production practices. Certified
seed is available for general distribution to farmers for
commercial crop production.

Public =brid

ac The hybrids developed by Govt. agencies or Govt. Institutions

and Agricultural Universities are called public hybrids.

F1 =brid

ac The resultant seed obtained from crossing of two genetically

dissimilar parents is called F1 Hybrids.

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Seed Viabilit

ac Seed viability is defined as ÿ The capability of a seed to show

living properties like germination and growthÿ. mr
ac It is represented by germination percentage which expresses
the number of seedlings that can be produced by a given
number of seeds.
ac The duration of seed viability of rice varieties depends mainly
on the following aspects.
ac Seed moisture % at the time of storage ( 10 to 12% is
desirable).
ac Storage conditions.
ac Weather conditions ( relative humidity, rainfall)

Seed M isture

ac The formation of germination inhibitors was accelerated under

reduced oxygen tension and thereby the water content of the
seed is increased which deteriorates viability.

St rae

ac The embryos and endosperm of seeds of different ages were

found to respire, the rate being higher in fresh seeds then in
older ones. Thus, the old seeds are living but failed to
germinate.
ac The germination and viability of the rice seed are related to
the formation of inhibitors during storage.

þeater C diti s

ac Higher relative humidity and rainfall during the storage

periods will deteriorate the seed viability .
ac The paddy seed viability depends on the weather conditions.
The seed viability deteriorate very fast during monsoon
season.
ac Due to this, the seed harvested during rabi season do not
retain its viability upto the next rabi season, because it passes
through the monsoon weather conditions i.e., from June to
mctober months, where as the kharif harvested seed retains
its viability till the next kharif season.

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Seed D rmac

ac Seed dormancy refers to the resting stage of embryo with low

germinability of viable and freshly harvested grains. It is also
defined as inability or failure of perfectly matured seed to
germinate even when placed under conditions favourable for
germination.
ac Seed dormancy is an important varietal trait in tropical rice
where rain fall and high humidity are of frequent occurance
during the maturity and harvest periods. Without dormancy,
seed would germinate on the standing crop.

Classiicati   D rmac

Seed D rmac at Maturit Stae

ac Strong seed dormancy at maturity of the crop is a most

desirable trait for all the kharif varieties. Some of the rice
varieties ( Masuri, I.R -50) have little or no seed dormancy
and in periods of wet weather at harvest time, the seed may
germinate on the panicle itself.

Durati  r Let  D rmac

ac This refers to the period from harvest time to the time when
the seeds have broken their dormancy.

ïtesit  D rmac

ac This refers to the level of breaking dormancy by artificial

means, i.e., based on the germination percentage after heat
treatment for four days at 50 degrees centigrade, and the rice
varieties classified based on germination percentage as follows

Str l D rmat

ac Varieties in which 50% of dormancy is broken after 4 days of

heat treatment.

M deratel D rmat

ac Varieties in which 50 to 79% of dormancy is broken after 4

 days of heat treatment.

þeakl D rmat

ac Varieties in which above 80% of dormancy is broken after 4

days of heat treatment.

Fact rs ïlueci D rmac Peri d

Climatic C diti s

em
erature

ac Rice produced during the cloudy wet season ( kharif) has a

strong dormancy and longer duration of dormancy than that of
produced during the summer dry season ( rabi).
ac This is mainly due to the temperature differences ( higher
temperatures in rabi) during the ripening stage of the crop.

Melatie =umidit

ac Higher R.H in atmosphere at maturity stage also increase the

degree of dormancy.

—e  Seeds

ac A wide variation in maturity of seeds can be observed within a

hill, i.e., between the mother tiller to tertiary tillers. Similarly
there is about 7 to 10 days difference in the maturity of
individual seeds within the same panicle.
ac The seeds in the upper portion of the panicle have earlier
maturity than the lower portion of the panicle. So the
duration, the dormancy of the individual seed varies with in
the hill and also within the panicle.

°eetics  D rmac

ac Genetically dormancy is dominant over non-dormancy.

Dormancy is inherited independently and can combine with
early maturity, photo sensitivity and also with a range of grain
types.

Mecaism  D rmac

ac Dormancy is the resultant of the slowing down effect of the

metabolic process during seed maturation and also by the
slow oxidation of the hormone IAA ( Indole Acetic Acid).
ac Hence, it is essential that any treatment aimed at breaking
seed dormancy should hasten the rate of oxidation.
Respiration is a strong competitor for the oxygen available for
 the dormancy breaking reaction.

Breaki Seed D rmac

ac Among the several methods available the most suitable

method to break seed dormancy at farmers level is nitric acid
treatment. - Soaking the seed in o.1 N nitric acid i.e., 6.3 ml
per lit. of water for 12 to 24 hours effectively breaks the seed
dormancy, where as the varieties like MTU-1001 which is
having 8 weeks and above dormancy duration should be
treated with higher nitric acid concentration i.e., 10ml per lit.
of water.
ac The seeds can be utilized for sowing immediately after the
treatment or they can be dried thoroughly and can be utilized
later for sowing.

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Seed reatmet

ac Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide,

insecticide or a combination of both to seeds, such as to
disinfect and disinfest them from seed-borne or soil-borne
pathogenic organisms and crop pests both in field and in
storage. It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar
energy exposure, immersion in conditioned water etc.

Beeits  Seed reatmet

ac Prevention of spread of plant diseases.

ac Seed treatment protects seed from seed rot and seedling
blight.
ac Improves germination.
ac Provides protection from insect pests.
ac Controlling soil insects.

Seed reatmet  r Breaki D rmac (Psi l ical D rmac

Dr St rae

ac For species where dormancy is naturally of short duration, it is

 often sufficient to store the samples in a dry place for a short
period.

Pre-Cilli

ac The replicates for germination are placed in contact with the

moist substratum and kept at low temperature for an initial
period. Agricultural and vegetable seeds are kept at a
temperature between 5 and 10 degrees Centigrade for an
initial period of upto 7 days. In some cases it may be
necessary to extend the pre-chilling period or to re-chilling.

Pre-=eati

ac The replicates for germination should be heated at a

temperature not exceeding 40 degree C, with free air
circulation, for a period of upto 7 days before they are placed
under the prescribed germination conditions.

Lit

ac The test should be illuminated during atleast 8 hours in every

twenty four hours cycle and during the high temperature
period when the seeds are germinated at alternating
temperatures. The light intensity should be approximately 750
- 1250 lux from cool white lamps. Illumination is
recommended especially for certain tropical and sub-tropical
grasses.
ac Vg. Chloris gayana, Cynodon

P tassium Nitrate ( KN

ac The germination substratum may be maintained with 0.2%

solution of KNo3. It effectively break the seed dormancy.

°ibberellic —cid( °—

ac This GA3 method is recommended for wheat, oat etc.

Sealed P ltee Eel
s

ac When a high proportion of fresh un-germinated seeds are

found at the end of the standard test, then re-test in a sealed
polythene envelop of sufficient size will usually induce these
seeds to germinate.
ac In case of rice among the several methods for breaking
dormancy are available the most suitable method at farmers
level is nitric acid treatment.
ac Soaking the seed in 0.1 N nitric acid i.e., 6.3 ml per lit. of
water for 12 to 24 hours effectively break the seed dormancy,
 where as the varieties like MTU-1001 which is having 8 weeks
and above dormancy duration should be treated with higher
nitric acid concentration i.e., 10ml per lit. of water.
ac The seed can be utilized for sowing immediately after the
treatment or they can be dried thoroughly and can be utilized
later for sowing.

Seed reatmet  r Pr tecti  —aist Pests ad Diseases

ac Several insecticides and fungicides are used in seed treatment

to protect the seeds from pests and diseases. These may be
merchandized in combination or individual. In case of paddy
the seed is treated with carbendism @ 1 gm / Kg of seed to
protect against plant diseases.
ac The seedling dip in chlorpyriphos 2.5 VC solution @ 1ml /lit of
water was suggested to protect against insect pests like rice
stem borer, BPH etc.,

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Seed °ermiati 

ac Seed germination is the resumption of growth by the embryo

and development of young plant from the seed.
ac Germination, in a laboratory test, is the emergence and
development from the seed embryo of those essential
structures which, for the kind of being tested, indicate the
ability to develop into a normal plant under favourable
conditions in the soil.

reatmets  r Pr m ti °ermiati 

ac For reasons such as physiological dormancy, hard seededness,

inhibitory substances a considerable number of hard or fresh
seeds may remain at the end of the germination test.
ac When a proportion of fresh or dormant seeds remain at the
end of the test period, complete germination can often be
obtained by re-testing after a period of dry storage. The
following methods may also be used to induce germination.
Met ds t Oerc me Psi l ical D rmac

ac Dry storage
ac Pre-chilling
ac Pre-heating
ac Light treatment
ac Potassium nitrate ( KNo3) treatment
ac Gibberellic acid (GA3) treatment
ac Sealed polythene envelope treatment.

Met ds  Mem i ïibit r Substaces

ac Pre - washing
ac Removal of structures around the seed.
ac Disinfection of the seed.

Met ds  r Mem i =ard Seededess

ac Soaking
ac Mechanical scarification
ac Acid scarification.

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Seed St rae

Pur
se  Seed St rae

ac The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good

physical and physiological condition from the time they are
harvested until the time they are planted.

Staes  Seed St rae

ac The seeds are considered to be in storage from the moment

they reach physiological maturity until they germinate or until
they are thrown away because they are dead or otherwise
worthless.
ac The entire storage period can be conveniently divided into
following stages.
ac Storage on plants ( physiological maturity until harvest).
 ac Harvest, until processed and stored in a warehouse.
ac In - storage ( warehouses)
ac In transit ( Railway wagons, trucks, carts, railway sheds etc.).
ac In retail stores.
ac mn the user's farm.

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Seed Pr ducti 

Systems and procedures

þ Qualit Seed Pr ducti 

Because:

ac Most Important Agricultural Input for a Farmers

ac For Increased Grain Yield
ac High Product Quality
ac Specific requirement
ac Business for companies
ac Vmployment to rural people
ac Backbone of nation¶s economy

S urces O Seeds

ac Nucleus Seed- From Breeder of Hybrid /Variety of Proprietor

Breeder
ac Breeder Seed - From Breeder of Hybrid /Variety of Proprietor
Breeder
ac Foundation Seed-From Breeder Seed
ac Certified/Truthful Seed- From Foundation Seed

Nucleus Seed /Breeder Seed à Foundation Seed Stage I/Stage-II ±

Certified/Truthful Seed± Commercial grain for farmer¶s consumption

Seed Pr ducti  Plai

MOO: Pla eer ti be re starti

Requirements for Quality seed production facilities
 ac Good source of BS and F/S- Process start three years in
advance before the actual seed production for marketing
ac Trusted Seed Growers
ac Qualified dedicated seed production team
ac Good Seed Processing plant Machinery capable to process the
full planned marketing quantity.
ac Storage facilities including cold storage provision for off
season storage, B/S and F/S
ac Seed Health Laboratory with/without finger printing facilities
ac Grow mut Farm (GmT)
ac Reliable, quick and economic transportation facilities
ac Knowledge of statuary Seed laws

F udati  Seed Pr ducti 

MOO: Purit  F udati  will esure miimum e rts i

ield  r
r ducti   i qualit seed

ac High purity of breeder seed.

ac F r i- use brids ïs
ecti   Breeder Seed
l t b
team  ter breeders t
r duce best qualit breeder
seed
ac For in-house foundation seed of proprietary hybrids
involvement of concerned Breeder with F/S production official.
ac High Quality foundation seed minimizes the efforts for quality
seed production.
ac Plan the production of foundation Seed three years in advance
before the actual marketing of Seed.
ac Inspection of F/S plots by concern Breeders to ensure best
quality

Seed Pr ducti 

MOO: Dedicated eam w rk wit Qualit c sci usess

ac Selection of reliable growers before start of season

ac Growers should be knowledgeable,financially sound and willing
to take extra efforts to take up seed production operations
ac Seed production meeting before start of season for allocation
of area to different production areas
ac Development of new production areas
ac Regular field inspections by seed production team at different
stages of crop growth to advise growers on different
operations
ac Random Field inspections by Seed Quality Field Team to
monitor the various seed production operations
ac Midseason review of seed production to go for alternate area if
falling short of targets.
ac Group and mass Seed Field inspections by seed production
 team at critical stages of crop growth in crucial highly cross
pollinated crops like Pearl millet, maize sunflower and Jowar
ac Harvesting and threshing instructions to growers to avoid
admixtures.
ac mther important operations / instructions as per crop growth

Seed Pr cessi Plat O
erati s

MOO: Qualit 
r cessed seed s uld relect  Market

ac Most important function after seed production

ac mverhauling and servicing of plant Machinery before start of
season. Replace worn-out parts. Keep spares for emergencies.
Vxtra Important implements to be kept in godown.
ac Trained operators of plant machinery
ac Separate godown for incoming, processed, sales return and
ruminant seed.
ac Co-ordination with seed health team for sampling, dispatches
and movement of Seed
ac Proper up storage and placement of screens,
ac Proper records of processed, remnant and processing losses to
build full faith of seed grower in company
ac Record of seed arrival, dispatch and sales returns

Seed =ealt Lab rat r

MOO:  esure tat l ad l qualit seed reaces te
r wers .

ac All facilities for testing of seed produced

ac To ensure that every lot of seed is tested for all the quality
parameters of seed health before the dispatch of seed.
ac Trained qualified officicial for sampling of seed during
processing of seed lots
ac Testing of all seed lots for germination, seed vigor,
infestations and purity etc
ac Confidentiality of seed sampling and testing process
ac Seed health laboratory person to be trained in such a way that
he catches the problems of seed even visually and to be very
careful while testing these suspected lots for seed health.

°r w ut tests (°O

MOO:  est te °eetic
urit  eac ad eer seed l t

ac Allocation of area before the season to create all the facility

required.
ac As no. of lots are known before the arrival of samples hence
infra structure should be kept ready before testing season
 (maximum Kharif)
ac Highly technical qualified staff for the Grow out Tests.
ac Regular institutional Training of staff to update their
knowledge
ac All seed lots of hybrids, parental lines and in-house varieties
are to be tested through grow out tests.(GmT)
ac To strictly adhere to the plant characters of hybrids and
varieties/lines
ac while taking the plant purity observations.
ac In high value crop seeds like sunflower and vegetable hybrids
the Fier Priti technology to be used to check the
Genetic purity of seed.
ac In case of crops where the time gap between seed arrival and
dispatch is very less the ier
riti has to be adopted to
avoid any problem in field.
ac D  t l k at s rt term ais wile dis
atci 
seed at te times  Urec  seed t market

=adli  Seed c m
laits

M tt : Fid te r t cause 
r blem ad recti it

immediatel

ac Mechanism to check the authenticity of seed complaints

ac Special cell to deal with seed complaints through marketing
network.
ac To keep records of history of all seed lots to be kept to trace
the reasons for complaints.
ac Find the reason for the complaints
ac If the faults found in production/processing/Grow out tests,
mechanism to address those problems

=adli  Seed Seed law E rcemet —ecies

M tt : =assle ree marketi  seeds

 Deal wit Seed law E rcemet aecies (—ric
De
artmet ad C urt cases seed ailures ad c sumers
 rum cases :

ac Separate person to deal with court cases

ac To keep the records ofall seed lots.
ac Knowledge of seed laws to ensure there no convictions.
ac Collection of judgments by various courts in country
ac Court cases can be handled easily with experience of system.
ac Not to accept faults in courts in seed failures but to fight it out

Seed L istics

M tt : Placemet  seed at market i time, sael wit least

c sts i miimum time

ac Selection of good reliable transporters through tendering

process required for bringing the raw seed from field and
dispatch of packed seed in bulk.
ac For the small packings dispatches selection of transporters
with maximum reach to destinations
ac Vmphasis on cost reduction through proper planning of
dispatches.
ac Safe movement of material by sending through quality
vehicles with full protection
ac Use of railways instead of road transport for bulk
transportation and small important seeds to far off locations
ac Monitoring of movement of seed till it reaches the destination

Cultiati  Practicesc

Land Preparationc c Sowingc c Intercultivationc c Harvestingc c Post Harvest Field

Managementc cc

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Lad Pre
arati 

Summer Pl ui

ac Summer ploughing improves soil structure due to alternate

drying and cooling. Soil permeability is increased by breaking
the compacted layers. Tillage improves soil aeration which
helps in multiplication of micro organisms. mrganic matter
decomposition is hastened resulting in higher nutrient
availability.
ac Increased aeration also helps in degradation of herbicide and
pesticide residues and harmful allelopathic chemicals exuded
by roots of previous crop or weed. It also helps in reducing
the soil dwelling insect pests. In view of several benefits
summer ploughing could be taken up at optimum moisture
level.
ac Frequent harrowing has to be avoided as it results in
destruction of soil structure. Tillage at improper moisture level
is to be discouraged as it also damages soil structure and
leads to development of hard pans.
Sall w Pl ui

ac It is generally followed by the most of the farmers repeatedly

at the same depth (12-15 Cm). As a result of this hard pans
are created, which inhibits the penetration of roots in deep
rooted crops.
ac Vg: Cotton roots grow to a depth of 2 Mts. in deep alluvial
soils without any pans, when hard pans are present they grow
only upto hard pan (5 - 20 cm). But shallow ploughing is
practiced to open the soil crust to increase the receptivity of
rainfall.

Puddli

ac ÿ Making soil impermeable by manipulating and compacting it

in standing water, which reduces its apparent specific volume,
thus facilitates transplanting.ÿ As a result of puddling, an
impervious layer is formed below the surface which reduces
deep percolation losses of water.

Leelli

ac Levelling is the tillage operation in which the soil is moved to a

establish a desired soil elevation stage. Due to levelling the
use of water and fertilizer efficiency increases effectively.

=arr wi

ac Harrowing is a secondary tillage operation which pulverizes,

smoothens and packs the soil in seed-bed preparation and
control weeds.

C serati  illae

ac The main objective is to conserve soil and moisture

.Conservation tillage is an operation that is designed to
maintain roughness of a field surface and leave most of the
previous crop residues on the surface while providing a
suitable seed-bed and weed control for the next crop.
ac This roughness reduces water run off and soil erosion.

Mides ad Furr ws

ac A long, row ridge of earth with gently sloping sides and a

shallow channel along the upper side, to control erosion by
diverting surface run-off across the slope instead of permitting
it to flow uninterrupted down to slope.
ac VG: Sugarcane, Sunflower, Vegetable crops.
Budi

ac It is the process of forming an artificial earthern embankment

made across slopping agricultural land to cut short lengthy soil
slopes and reduces run-off and erosion.
ac These bunds are also formed along the contours across the
slope of land in the low rainfall regions to conserve soil
moisture.

Equi
met

Indigenous plough (peddamadaka Rayalaseema)

Summer
Mould board plough, Disc plough, sub-soil plough,
Ploughing
chisel Plough.
Shallow
Country plough, Rotary Plough.
Ploughing
Puddling Tractor drawn implements, APAU Puddler.
Disc harrow, Blade harrow, indigenous blade harrow
Harrowing
(Guntaka).
Ridges And
Ridge plough, Ridge former (Ridger).
Furrows
c
Bunding Bund former, Spade.

cc

c

c
c

S wi

Met ds  S wi

Br ad Casti

ac Seeds are spread uniformly over well prepared land and is

covered by ploughing or planking. It is most primitive method
of sowing crops. The broadcasting has severaldisadvantages.
ac Seeds fall at different depths when broadcasted resulting in
uneven stand.

1.c It requires more seed rate.

2.c Seeds fallen deep in the soil may not germinate.
3.c Due to broadcasting excess competition at certain areas and
no competition at all in other areas takes place in the field.
So, yield returns will be decreased.
 4.c Water use efficiency and fertilizer efficiency will be decreased.
5.c There is no possibility of controlling weeds by inter cultivation.

Drilli

ac To overcome the problems of broadcasting drilling the seeds

in lines has come into practice. Weeds can be controlled
economically by inter cultivation in line sown crops. In
addition, drilling or line sowing facilitates uniform depth of
sowing resulting in uniform crop stand. Seed rate can be
considerably reduced drilling.

Plati

ac When individual seeds or seed material is placed in the soil by

manual labour, it is called planting.
ac Generally crops with bigger sized seeds and those needing
wider spacing are sown by this method. Vg : Cotton, Maize,
Potato, Sugarcane, etc.

ras
lati

ac It is the process of planting seedlings in prepared main field.

Small seeded crops like Tobacco, Chillies, Tomato, etc. are to
be sown shallow and frequently irrigated for proper
germination. Taking care of the germinating seed or seedlings
which are spread over large area is a problem with regard to
application of water, weed control, pest control etc. Therefore,
seeds are sown in a small area called nursery and all the care
is taken to raise the seedlings.
ac The advantages of transplanting saving in irrigation water,
good stand establishment and increase in intensity of
cropping. In respect to paddy the nursery is raised in small
puddled plots and later transplanted in the main field at
required spacing.

Seed Mate

ac The quality of seed required for sowing in a unit area of land.

It is usually expressed in kg/ ha.

S
aci

ac The distance between crop row ( inter-row spacing) and

between plants within the row (intra - row spacing) is referred
as spacing. It is expressed in Cms.

Plat P
ulati 

ac Number of plants maintained in an unit area of land is known

 as plant population/ density. Vstablishment of optimum plant
population is essential to get maximum yield. When sown
densely competition among plants is more for growth factors
resulting in reduction of yield.
ac Yield per plant decreases gradually as plant population per
unit area is increased. The plant population density vary with
the type of soil and crop. mptimum plant population density
has to be maintained for securing maximum yield.

Nurser Maisi

ac When more than one crop is to be grown in an year on the

same piece of land, the time occupied by each crop has to be
reduced.
ac The seedling growth in the early stages is very slow. Seedlings
need extra care for establishing in the field because of their
tenderness. Small seeded crops are to be sown shallow and
frequently irrigated for proper germination.
ac Taking care of the germinating seed or seedlings which are
spread over large area is a problem with regard to application
of water, weed control, pest control etc. Therefore, seeds are
sown in a small area called nursery and all the care is taken to
raise the seedlings.

ras
lati

Met d

ac Transplanting is usually done manually. In case of rice it is

also done mechanically with transplantor provided the nursery
is raised through dapog method.

ime

ac For achieving good results from transplanting, the seedlings

are to be transplanted at optimum age and at proper depth.
The age of seedlings for transplanting depends on crop and
seasonal conditions.

Equi
met

F r S wi

ac Country plough (Akkadi), Seed drill, Ferti-cum-seed drill,

Mechanical seed drill are generally used.

c
 cc

c

c
c

ïter Cultiati 

ac It is an operation of soil cultivation performed in standing

crop. It is also called as inter culturing. It facilitates good
aeration, and better development of root system.

þeedi

ac Weeding is the process of eliminating competition of unwanted

plants to the regular crop in respect to nutrition and moisture.
So that crops can be grown profitably. It also facilitates other
operations like irrigation and fertilizer application. The
advantages of weeding are

1.c Conservation of soil moisture.

2.c Reduced competition for nutrients and water.
3.c Purity of seed can be maintained.

Earti U

ac It is the process of putting the earth or soil just near the base
for certain crops like Sugar cane, Cassava, Papaya, Potato,
etc. to give support to the plants.
ac Sugarcane, Papaya, Banana - To avoid lodging
ac Cassava, Potato - To provide more soil volume for the growth
of tubers. Vegetables - To facilitate irrigation.

Mides ad Furr ws

ac It is also included in inter cultivation and generally done at the

base of the crop to provide extra support against lodging and
also provide soil volume for better growth. It also facilitates
uniform spread of moisture during operation of irrigation.

Oter O
erati s

ac Certain other operations like gap filling, thinning and propping

are required as part of inter cultivation operations. In crops
like Cotton, Paddy, the gap filling is done in missing areas of
the planted main field to maintain optimum population .
ac Like wise thinning is also practiced in direct sown crops like
Jowar, Chillies, to avoid over crowding and to maintain
 uniform plant stand. In crops like Sugarcane,betelwine,
Grapes propping is necessary to support the main crop
establishment.

Equi
met

ac Ploughs, blade harrow and weeders.

ac Weeding : Weeders ( Meesala Guntaka ), Metla Guntaka,
Danthi, Star-weeder, Japanese rotary weeder.
ac Varthing Up : Country plough, Spade.

cc

c

c
c

=aresti

ac It is an operation of cutting, picking, plucking, digging or

combination of these for removing the useful part or economic
end product, part from the plant.

ime

ac Crops can be harvested at physiological maturity or at harvest

maturity. Crop is considered to be at physiological maturity
when the translocation of photosynthates are stopped to
economic part. If the crop is harvested early, the produce
contain high moisture and more immature grains.
ac The yields will be low due to unfilled grains. Late harvesting
results in shattering of grains, germination even before
harvesting during rainy season and breakage during
processing. Hence, harvesting at correct time is essential to
get good quality of grains and higher yields.

Met ds

ac Harvesting is done by either manually or by mechanical.

Mauall

ac Manual harvesting is practiced by cutting crop with sickle or

knife. In some crops like Sugarcane, Millets, Paddy the crop is
cut with sickles and knives.
 ac In some crops like Groundnut, tuber crops the plants are
pulled and economic parts are separated. In other crops like
Cotton, Chillies, and fruits the picking is practices to remove
the economic parts like kappas, pods and fruits etc.

Mecaicall

ac The combines are used to perform several operations such as

cutting the crop, separating the grain from straw, cleaning the
grain from chaff and transporting grains to the storage tank.
Now a days the harvesting is exclusively for harvesting crops
like Paddy and threshing paddy are used. Machines are now
available for separating pods from the plants and also for
shelling pods (decorticators) in respect to Groundnut crop.
ac Likewise machines are available for threshing sunflower
heads, shelling of castor capsules and sowing of grain.

Dri ad Pr cessi

ac Drying is a process by which moisture content from grain is

reduced to safe limit. Drying is done either by using solar
energy or by artificial heating.
ac Processing is the conversion of the produce into a more
finished condition before it is offered for sale.

Cleai

ac The removal of foreign and dissimilar material by washing,

screening, hand-picking, aspiration or any other mechanical
means is known as cleaning. It is required to maintain the
quality of the produce.

Equi
met

ac Harvesting:Sickle, knife, combines, harvesters

ac Threshing : Bullocks, Tractors, Decorticators etc.
ac Drying : Dryers

cc

c

c
c
P st =arest Field Maaemet

ac After harvest of the crop, the remnants of the plant viz.

Straw, stubbles, leaves, etc. are ploughed into soil to
decompose, there by providing source of organic matter for
the next season crop.
ac In some places the flock of sheep are housed (penning) during
night time. So that the excreta is collected on the field which
is also a good source of organic nutrients.
ac The left over stubbles, plant residues in crops like Cotton,
Chillies, Maize, Sunflower etc. may be burnt as part of soil
sterilization as to reduce population of harmful microbes and
soil dwelling insect pests.
ac In crops like Paddy the stubbles may be removed by
ploughing after harvest to eliminate hibernating stem borer
population. Field bunds may be trimmed to avoid hibernating
grass hopper egg masses.

Cultiati  Practicesc

Land Preparationc c Sowingc c Intercultivationc c Harvestingc c Post Harvest Field

Managementc cc

c
c

Lad Pre
arati 

Summer Pl ui

ac Summer ploughing improves soil structure due to alternate

drying and cooling. Soil permeability is increased by breaking
the compacted layers. Tillage improves soil aeration which
helps in multiplication of micro organisms. mrganic matter
decomposition is hastened resulting in higher nutrient
availability.
ac Increased aeration also helps in degradation of herbicide and
pesticide residues and harmful allelopathic chemicals exuded
by roots of previous crop or weed. It also helps in reducing
the soil dwelling insect pests. In view of several benefits
summer ploughing could be taken up at optimum moisture
level.
ac Frequent harrowing has to be avoided as it results in
destruction of soil structure. Tillage at improper moisture level
is to be discouraged as it also damages soil structure and
leads to development of hard pans.
Sall w Pl ui

ac It is generally followed by the most of the farmers repeatedly

at the same depth (12-15 Cm). As a result of this hard pans
are created, which inhibits the penetration of roots in deep
rooted crops.
ac Vg: Cotton roots grow to a depth of 2 Mts. in deep alluvial
soils without any pans, when hard pans are present they grow
only upto hard pan (5 - 20 cm). But shallow ploughing is
practiced to open the soil crust to increase the receptivity of
rainfall.

Puddli

ac ÿ Making soil impermeable by manipulating and compacting it

in standing water, which reduces its apparent specific volume,
thus facilitates transplanting.ÿ As a result of puddling, an
impervious layer is formed below the surface which reduces
deep percolation losses of water.

Leelli

ac Levelling is the tillage operation in which the soil is moved to a

establish a desired soil elevation stage. Due to levelling the
use of water and fertilizer efficiency increases effectively.

=arr wi

ac Harrowing is a secondary tillage operation which pulverizes,

smoothens and packs the soil in seed-bed preparation and
control weeds.

C serati  illae

ac The main objective is to conserve soil and moisture

.Conservation tillage is an operation that is designed to
maintain roughness of a field surface and leave most of the
previous crop residues on the surface while providing a
suitable seed-bed and weed control for the next crop.
ac This roughness reduces water run off and soil erosion.

Mides ad Furr ws

ac A long, row ridge of earth with gently sloping sides and a

shallow channel along the upper side, to control erosion by
diverting surface run-off across the slope instead of permitting
it to flow uninterrupted down to slope.
ac VG: Sugarcane, Sunflower, Vegetable crops.
Budi

ac It is the process of forming an artificial earthern embankment

made across slopping agricultural land to cut short lengthy soil
slopes and reduces run-off and erosion.
ac These bunds are also formed along the contours across the
slope of land in the low rainfall regions to conserve soil
moisture.

Equi
met

Indigenous plough (peddamadaka Rayalaseema)

Summer
Mould board plough, Disc plough, sub-soil plough,
Ploughing
chisel Plough.
Shallow
Country plough, Rotary Plough.
Ploughing
Puddling Tractor drawn implements, APAU Puddler.
Disc harrow, Blade harrow, indigenous blade harrow
Harrowing
(Guntaka).
Ridges And
Ridge plough, Ridge former (Ridger).
Furrows
c
Bunding Bund former, Spade.

cc

c

c
c

S wi

Met ds  S wi

Br ad Casti

ac Seeds are spread uniformly over well prepared land and is

covered by ploughing or planking. It is most primitive method
of sowing crops. The broadcasting has severaldisadvantages.
ac Seeds fall at different depths when broadcasted resulting in
uneven stand.

1.c It requires more seed rate.

2.c Seeds fallen deep in the soil may not germinate.
3.c Due to broadcasting excess competition at certain areas and
no competition at all in other areas takes place in the field.
So, yield returns will be decreased.
 4.c Water use efficiency and fertilizer efficiency will be decreased.
5.c There is no possibility of controlling weeds by inter cultivation.

Drilli

ac To overcome the problems of broadcasting drilling the seeds

in lines has come into practice. Weeds can be controlled
economically by inter cultivation in line sown crops. In
addition, drilling or line sowing facilitates uniform depth of
sowing resulting in uniform crop stand. Seed rate can be
considerably reduced drilling.

Plati

ac When individual seeds or seed material is placed in the soil by

manual labour, it is called planting.
ac Generally crops with bigger sized seeds and those needing
wider spacing are sown by this method. Vg : Cotton, Maize,
Potato, Sugarcane, etc.

ras
lati

ac It is the process of planting seedlings in prepared main field.

Small seeded crops like Tobacco, Chillies, Tomato, etc. are to
be sown shallow and frequently irrigated for proper
germination. Taking care of the germinating seed or seedlings
which are spread over large area is a problem with regard to
application of water, weed control, pest control etc. Therefore,
seeds are sown in a small area called nursery and all the care
is taken to raise the seedlings.
ac The advantages of transplanting saving in irrigation water,
good stand establishment and increase in intensity of
cropping. In respect to paddy the nursery is raised in small
puddled plots and later transplanted in the main field at
required spacing.

Seed Mate

ac The quality of seed required for sowing in a unit area of land.

It is usually expressed in kg/ ha.

S
aci

ac The distance between crop row ( inter-row spacing) and

between plants within the row (intra - row spacing) is referred
as spacing. It is expressed in Cms.

Plat P
ulati 

ac Number of plants maintained in an unit area of land is known

 as plant population/ density. Vstablishment of optimum plant
population is essential to get maximum yield. When sown
densely competition among plants is more for growth factors
resulting in reduction of yield.
ac Yield per plant decreases gradually as plant population per
unit area is increased. The plant population density vary with
the type of soil and crop. mptimum plant population density
has to be maintained for securing maximum yield.

Nurser Maisi

ac When more than one crop is to be grown in an year on the

same piece of land, the time occupied by each crop has to be
reduced.
ac The seedling growth in the early stages is very slow. Seedlings
need extra care for establishing in the field because of their
tenderness. Small seeded crops are to be sown shallow and
frequently irrigated for proper germination.
ac Taking care of the germinating seed or seedlings which are
spread over large area is a problem with regard to application
of water, weed control, pest control etc. Therefore, seeds are
sown in a small area called nursery and all the care is taken to
raise the seedlings.

ras
lati

Met d

ac Transplanting is usually done manually. In case of rice it is

also done mechanically with transplantor provided the nursery
is raised through dapog method.

ime

ac For achieving good results from transplanting, the seedlings

are to be transplanted at optimum age and at proper depth.
The age of seedlings for transplanting depends on crop and
seasonal conditions.

Equi
met

F r S wi

ac Country plough (Akkadi), Seed drill, Ferti-cum-seed drill,

Mechanical seed drill are generally used.

c
 cc

c

c
c

ïter Cultiati 

ac It is an operation of soil cultivation performed in standing

crop. It is also called as inter culturing. It facilitates good
aeration, and better development of root system.

þeedi

ac Weeding is the process of eliminating competition of unwanted

plants to the regular crop in respect to nutrition and moisture.
So that crops can be grown profitably. It also facilitates other
operations like irrigation and fertilizer application. The
advantages of weeding are

1.c Conservation of soil moisture.

2.c Reduced competition for nutrients and water.
3.c Purity of seed can be maintained.

Earti U

ac It is the process of putting the earth or soil just near the base
for certain crops like Sugar cane, Cassava, Papaya, Potato,
etc. to give support to the plants.
ac Sugarcane, Papaya, Banana - To avoid lodging
ac Cassava, Potato - To provide more soil volume for the growth
of tubers. Vegetables - To facilitate irrigation.

Mides ad Furr ws

ac It is also included in inter cultivation and generally done at the

base of the crop to provide extra support against lodging and
also provide soil volume for better growth. It also facilitates
uniform spread of moisture during operation of irrigation.

Oter O
erati s

ac Certain other operations like gap filling, thinning and propping

are required as part of inter cultivation operations. In crops
like Cotton, Paddy, the gap filling is done in missing areas of
the planted main field to maintain optimum population .
ac Like wise thinning is also practiced in direct sown crops like
Jowar, Chillies, to avoid over crowding and to maintain
 uniform plant stand. In crops like Sugarcane,betelwine,
Grapes propping is necessary to support the main crop
establishment.

Equi
met

ac Ploughs, blade harrow and weeders.

ac Weeding : Weeders ( Meesala Guntaka ), Metla Guntaka,
Danthi, Star-weeder, Japanese rotary weeder.
ac Varthing Up : Country plough, Spade.

cc

c

c
c

=aresti

ac It is an operation of cutting, picking, plucking, digging or

combination of these for removing the useful part or economic
end product, part from the plant.

ime

ac Crops can be harvested at physiological maturity or at harvest

maturity. Crop is considered to be at physiological maturity
when the translocation of photosynthates are stopped to
economic part. If the crop is harvested early, the produce
contain high moisture and more immature grains.
ac The yields will be low due to unfilled grains. Late harvesting
results in shattering of grains, germination even before
harvesting during rainy season and breakage during
processing. Hence, harvesting at correct time is essential to
get good quality of grains and higher yields.

Met ds

ac Harvesting is done by either manually or by mechanical.

Mauall

ac Manual harvesting is practiced by cutting crop with sickle or

knife. In some crops like Sugarcane, Millets, Paddy the crop is
cut with sickles and knives.
 ac In some crops like Groundnut, tuber crops the plants are
pulled and economic parts are separated. In other crops like
Cotton, Chillies, and fruits the picking is practices to remove
the economic parts like kappas, pods and fruits etc.

Mecaicall

ac The combines are used to perform several operations such as

cutting the crop, separating the grain from straw, cleaning the
grain from chaff and transporting grains to the storage tank.
Now a days the harvesting is exclusively for harvesting crops
like Paddy and threshing paddy are used. Machines are now
available for separating pods from the plants and also for
shelling pods (decorticators) in respect to Groundnut crop.
ac Likewise machines are available for threshing sunflower
heads, shelling of castor capsules and sowing of grain.

Dri ad Pr cessi

ac Drying is a process by which moisture content from grain is

reduced to safe limit. Drying is done either by using solar
energy or by artificial heating.
ac Processing is the conversion of the produce into a more
finished condition before it is offered for sale.

Cleai

ac The removal of foreign and dissimilar material by washing,

screening, hand-picking, aspiration or any other mechanical
means is known as cleaning. It is required to maintain the
quality of the produce.

Equi
met

ac Harvesting:Sickle, knife, combines, harvesters

ac Threshing : Bullocks, Tractors, Decorticators etc.
ac Drying : Dryers

cc

c

c
c
P st =arest Field Maaemet

ac After harvest of the crop, the remnants of the plant viz.

Straw, stubbles, leaves, etc. are ploughed into soil to
decompose, there by providing source of organic matter for
the next season crop.
ac In some places the flock of sheep are housed (penning) during
night time. So that the excreta is collected on the field which
is also a good source of organic nutrients.
ac The left over stubbles, plant residues in crops like Cotton,
Chillies, Maize, Sunflower etc. may be burnt as part of soil
sterilization as to reduce population of harmful microbes and
soil dwelling insect pests.
ac In crops like Paddy the stubbles may be removed by
ploughing after harvest to eliminate hibernating stem borer
population. Field bunds may be trimmed to avoid hibernating
grass hopper egg masses.

ïrriati c

Need for Irrigationc c Quantum of Water Required by Plantsc c Stages of Crop

when Irrigation is Requiredc cCritical Stages of Irrigation Requirementc cSources
of Irrigationc cMethods of Irrigationc cProblems of Under Irrigationc cProblems of
Vxcess Irrigationc c Losses of Waterc c Water Use Vfficiencyc c Water Related
Issuesc cVconomics of Water Usec cc

c
c

Need  r ïrriati 

ïrriati  is a artiicial a

licati   water t te s il  r te

 ll wi
ur
ses

ac Irrigation is needed for normal growth and yield of the plant.

ac It is needed for metabolic processes of the plant.
ac To reduce the soil temperature.
ac For easy germination of the seeds from the soil.
ac Irrigation water acts as a medium for transport of nutrients
and photosynthates in the plant system.
ac To provide crop insurance against short duration drought.
ac To washout dilute salts in the soil.
ac To reduce the hazard of soil piping.
 ac To soften tillage pans.

cc

c

c
c

Quatum  þater Mequired b Plats

ac Water requirement of a crop is the quantity of water needed

for normal growth,development and yield and may be supplied
by precipitation or by irrigation or by both. Water is needed
mainly to meet the demands of evaporation (V), transpiration
(T) and metabolic needs of the plants. The water requirement
of any crop is dependent upon,
ac Crop factors like variety, growth stage, duration, plant
population and growing season.
ac Soil factors like texture, structure, depth,and topography.
ac Climatic factors like temperature, relative humidity and wind
velocity.
ac Crop management practices like tillage, fertilization, weeding
etc.,

Quatum  þater Mequiremet (mm  Dieret Cr
s

Crop Water Requirement(mm)

Rice 900 - 2500
Wheat 450 - 650
Sorghum 450 - 650
Maize 500 - 800
Sugarcane 1500 - 2500
Groundnut 500 - 700
Cotton 700 - 1300
Soybean 450 - 700
Tobacco 400 - 600
Tomato 600 - 800
Potato 500 - 700
mnion 350 - 550
Chillies 500
Sunflower 350 - 500
Castor 500
Bean 300-500
 Cabbage 380-500
Banana 1200-2200
Citrus 900-1200
Grape 500-1200
Pineapple 700-1000
Ragi 400-450

Gingelly 350-400
c

cc

c

c
c

Staes  Cr
þe ïrriati  is Mequired

ac During the growth span, the plant passes through various

phases and the stages of growth. The growth rhythm of plant
is slow during some stages and fast during some other stages.
Accordingly plant demands variable supply of water.
ac The growth period of irrigated dry (ID) crops can generally be
divided into 3 phases namely
ac vegetative,
ac reproductive and
ac ripening phases.
ac Vach of these phases has different stages.
ac Vegetative phase: The early vegetative phase consists of crop
establishment or initial stage during the first 2 - 3 weeks after
sowing. This is followed by crop development stage which last
for 2 - 6 weeks in different crops.
ac Reproductive or flowering phase:The reproductive or flowering
phase comprises the period from initiation of buds to 75 %
flowering. This period in most of the seasonal ID crops last for
2 - 3 weeks and in two seasonal crops and perennial crops for
4 - 6 weeks or more.
ac In yield formation stage otherwise known as ripening phase
the end product is formed. The flowering and yield formation
period together is known as mid-season stage. During the last
part of the ripening phase the crops undergo yellowing and
drying to mature. This period is called maturity stage or late
season stage and it last for 2 - 4 weeks in most crops. The
entire reproductive phase is highly sensitive growth period
when the growth rhythm is fast. Therefore the soil water
stress should be avoided during this period. Active vegetative
 phase and yield formation stage are moderate in sensitivity
while initial establishment and maturity stages are least
sensitive to water stress.
ac Some crops like Cotton, Groundnut and pulses even prefer
stress during early vegetative growth to suppress excessive
vegetative growth. In many crops the initial establishment and
flowering stages are highly sensitive to excess water
conditions resulting in poor performance of the root system
and also shedding of flowers, in addition to lodging at maturity
in some crops.

cc

c

c
c

Critical Staes  ïrriat  Mequiremet

ac The water balance in ID crops is refered to the soil water

storage in the root zone and not to the level of standing water
in the field, as in case of paddy.
ac The critical stages or otherwise known as sensitive stages of
different crops for irrigation water requirement are as follows,

Rice Panicle initiation, flowering.

Wheat Crown root initiation, shooting, earing.
Sorghum Booting, Blooming, milky and dough stage.
Maize Tasseling, silking stages to early grain formation.
Pearlmillet Heading and flowering.
Finger
Panicle initiation, flowering.
millet
Groundnut Flowering, Peg penetration, Seed development.
Two weeks before flowering to two weeks after
Sunflower
flowering.
Cotton Flowering and boll development.
Chillies Flowering.
Sugarcane Formative stage
Pulses Flowering and pod formation.
Soybean Blooming and seed formation
Tobacco Immediately after transplanting and knee stage.
Citrus Fruit setting and enlargement stage.
Banana Varly vegetative period, flowering and yield formation.
 Tomato From the commencement of fruit set.
Potato Tuber initiation to tuber maturity.
Cabbage Head formation until become firm.
c
Carrot Root enlargement.

cc

c

c
c

S urces  ïrriati 

Caals

ac The practice of equating a hectare of canal irrigation area with

a hectare of area served by ground water is not appropriate. A
striking analysis carried out in four states, Punjab, Andhra
Pradesh, Haryana and Tamil Nadu has shown that the yield of
food grains under well irrigation is very much higher
compared to the yield under canal irrigation. The reason for
this difference in yield between sources of water supply is not
so far to seek. The farmer who depends on canal irrigation is
at the mercy of a system over which he has no control.
ac The utility of irrigation is judged by the cropping intensity. In
most parts of the country, the cropping intensity is 200 % in
the tube well (or) dug well irrigated land as against 100 % or
less in canal irrigated land. About 18 % of the tail end area in
canal commands of South India are particularly vulnerable for
erratic and insufficient supply of water, not only because of
losses to the extent of 50 % due to seepage, percolation and
evaporation in transit from the storage reservoir to the
farmers field but also because farmers in the upper reaches of
the systems often succeed in cornering more than their due
entitlement of water.

þells

ac Awell is a hydraulic hole to the water strata. Water in the well

stands at a height equal to the static water level. There are
different types of wells namely open well, tube well, artesian
well, and bore well.

O
e þells

ac The dug out wells upto water bearing strata of the aquifer are
 open wells. They derive water from the formation hole to the
ground surface. The large diameter of the open wells permits
the storage of water.

ube þells

ac These are sunk by inserting pipes below ground surface and

passing through different geological formations of water
bearing and non-water bearing strata.

—rtesia þells

ac Due to pressure, water from well comes to the ground without

pumping are generally known as artesian wells.

B re þells

ac When ground water availability is at deeper layers exceeding

16 to 20 m with hard strata, bore wells are suggested.

aks

ac Large tanks irrigating more than 2000 ha are classified under

medium irrigation source. Small water reservoirs behind
earthen dams are tanks. Though the primary purpose of tank
is for irrigating crops, it also provides drinking water for
humans and cattle in the villages. Monsoon rains fall
erratically and confined only to a few months in the year.
ac Irrigation tanks serve to store and regulate water for crop
production. In drought prone areas, tanks are considered to
be a useful life saving sources. But day by day the area
irrigated by tanks decreases due to neglect of maintenance of
tanks, environmental degradation, cultivation of foreshore
areas and cultivation of tank beds.

Filter P its

ac These are shallow tube wells consisting of a well and a short

length of casing pipe. Filter points are generally bored in
deltaic regions where aquifer formation are of coarse sand and
gravel and are very near to the surface. In coastal sands open
dug wells are to be lined with concrete rings which is costly
and also the availability of water is dependent on seepage
water and season.
ac To tap this water filter pipes (slotted filter pipes or PVC pipes
with a conical bottom point) is driven inside the soil to a depth
of about 9 to 15 m and water is lifted by means of ordinary
pumpset from this filter point.
Maiall

ac Rainfall is dependent in different degrees, on the South-West

monsoon, North-Vast monsoon, on shallow cyclonic
depressions and disturbances and on violent local storms.
India receives most of its rainfall from the South - West
monsoon originating in the Indian ocean. About 75 % of the
rainfall is received in four months i,e., June to September.
Unequal geographical distribution, unequal seasonal
distribution and frequent departures from the normal rainfall
characterize the rainfall of this country.
ac South - West Monsoon Rainfall received during the months of
June - July is critical and the fate of the Kharif crop depends
very largely on distribution and amount of rain during these
two months. South-West monsoon is responsible for 75-80%
or more of the total annual rainfall in the country.
ac North - Vast Monsoon During mctober - November cyclonic
storms form in the Bay of Bengal and when they strike coastal
Andhra Pradesh or coromandel coast they bring heavy rain to
these areas. About 11 % of the total rainfall in the country is
received during this season.

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Met ds  ïrriati 

Fl d ïrriati 

ac Flooding method of irrigation is exclusive for lowland rice

though it is used for some other crops also. Water is allowed
from the channel into the field without much control on either
side of the flow. It covers the entire field and moves almost
unguided.
ac The ideal size of each plot or basin is 0.1 to 0.2 ha for
economising water.Uneven distribution and low water
application efficiency are the common drawbacks of this
method.

Basi ïrriati 

ac Basin method is almost similar to check - basin method except

 that in the check-basin method entire field is irrigated while in
basin method only the basin around the trees are irrigated.
ac This method is suitable for fruit crops. Basins are generally
round in shape, occasionally square in shape. The basins are
small when the trees are young and their size is increased
with age of the trees. Basins are connected by an irrigation
channel.

Ceck-Basi Met d

ac Check-basin method of irrigation is the most common method

among surface methods of irrigation. In this method the field
is divided into small plots surrounded by small bunds on all
the four sides.
ac Water from head channel is supplied to the filed channels one
after the other. Vach field channel supplies water to two rows
of check basins and water is applied to one basin after
another. This method is adopted when the field is quite large
and is not easy to level the entire field. In such situations, the
field is divided into small strips and each strip into several
plots by putting bunds and these plots are called check basins.
ac The advantage of this method is that the water can be applied
uniformly and effectively. It is suitable for close growing crops
like groundnut, wheat, fingermillet, pearlmillet, paragrass
etc.,. The disadvantages are more labour is required, more
land is wasted under channels and bunds. Intercultivation is
not possible due to bunds.

B rder Stri
Met d

ac The field is divided into number of stripes by forming bunds of

around 15 cm height. These parallel earth ridges are called
borders, and are formed to guide a sheet of flowing water
across a field.
ac The area between two borders is the border strip. Length of
the strip ranges from 30 to 300 m and width from 3 to 15 m.
However, the most common sizes are 60 to 90 m in length
and 6 to 12 m in width.
ac The size of border strips depend on stream size, soil structure
and slope of the land. The borders are laid out along the
general slope or on the contour. Water from the channel is
allowed into each strip at a time. This method is suitable for
close growing crops and medium to heavy textured soils, but
not suitable for sandy soils.

Dri
ïrriati 

ac It is defined as the precise, slow application of water in the

form of discrete or continuous or tiny streams of miniature
 sprays through mechanical devices called emitters or
applicators located at selected points along water delivery
lines.
ac It is also called trickle irrigation. Drip irrigation is adopted
extensively in areas of acute water scarcity and especially for
crops such as Coconut, Grape, Banana, Ber, Citrus,
Sugarcane, Cotton, Maize, Tomato, Brinjal and plantation
crops. The advantages of drip irrigation are,
ac No fertilizer nutrient loss due to localized application.
ac High water distribution efficiency.
ac Levelling of the field not necessary.
ac mnly root zone is saturated.
ac Moisture always at field capacity in the root zone.
ac Soil factor plays less important role in frequency of irrigation.
ac No soil erosion.
ac Highly uniform distribution of water i.e., controlled by each
nozzle.
ac Low labour cost.
ac Variation in supply can be regulated by regulating the valves
and drippers.
ac Fertigation can be adopted with drip irrigation.
ac The disadvantages of drip irrigation is expensive i,e., initial
cost is more in installing drip method.

S
rikler ïrriati 

ac Sprinkler irrigation system conveys water from the source

through pipes under pressure to the field and distributes over
the field in the form of spray of 'rain like' droplets. It is also
known as over head irrigation.
ac Different types of sprinkler systems namely portable, semi-
portable, semi-permanent and permanent are in vogue. But
due to increased labour costs and energy costs, different
types of sprinklers are developed.
ac Centre-pivot system is largest sprinkler system with a single
machine can irrigate upto 100 ha. A centre - pivot sprinkler
consists of a series of sprinklers mounted on a lateral pipe, 50
- 800 m long, mounted or carried by a row of five or more
mobile towers.
ac mne end of the lateral is fixed on a pivot pad. The unit rotates
around a centre pivot where water is pumped into the pipe,
and water is distributed through sprinkler fitted on lateral. The
limitations of this system are,
ac 10 - 20 % of area is not irrigated at the corners of square or
rectangular plot.
ac High energy requirement and Huge cost of the equipment.
ac Now lateral - move systems are developed to overcome the
draw backs in centre-pivot system for irrigating square or
rectangular plots. This irrigation system consists of lateral -
 move systems which move up and down the field.
ac Sprinkler irrigation can be advantageously chosen in the
following situations
ac When the soil is too shallow eliminating the possibility of
levelling of lands.
ac When the land is too steep ( > 1% slope).
ac When light (< 5 cm) and frequent irrigations are to be given.
ac When soils are very sandy (rapidly permeable coarse textured
soils) and
ac When supplemental irrigation is to be given to dryland crops
during prolonged dry spells, without any land preparation.

Disadataes

ac High winds ( > 12 km/hr) cause improper distribution of

water.
ac Vvaporation losses are high from sprinkler irrigation especially
under high temperature and low relative humidity conditions.
ac The initial cost is high,
ac Some sort of knowledge is needed for successful operation of
sprinkler system.

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Pr blems  Uder ïrriati 

ac Under irrigation causes reduction in photosynthesis due to

reduction in photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content and leaf
area.
ac Due to under irrigation, water deficit occurs, as a result
stomata are closed, so that reduction in transpiration takes
place.
ac Translocation of assimilates is also affected by water stress.
ac Respiration rate decreases with increased moisture stress.
ac Due to under irrigation enzymatic activity decreases. So that
accumulation of sugars and aminoacids takes place due to
breakdown of carbohydrates and proteins.
ac Due to under irrigation hormonal balance is altered.
ac Due to under irrigation reduction in fixation, uptake and
assimilation of nitrogen takes place.
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Pr blems  Excess ïrriati 

ac Vxcess irrigation causes several changes in the soil and plant

resulting in reduced growth and in some cases death of
plants.
ac Germinating seeds are sensitive to waterlogging since they
are totally dependent on the surrounding soil space for oxygen
supply.
ac Yield of cereals depressed if the excess irrigation given at
panicle development stage. iv. Vxcess water causes injury to
the plant due to low oxygen supply to the root system and
accumulation of toxic substances in soil and plant.
ac Wilting of tobacco takes place when bright sunshine occurs
after a prolonged wet spell.
ac Leaching of nitrates and denitrification occurs resulting in
nitrogen deficiency.
ac . Shoot elongation, senescence, abscission and production of
adventitious roots takes place as a result of continuous excess
irrigation.
ac Respiration in the roots change from aerobic to anaerobic with
the result, toxic substances accumulates in roots and damage
the root system.
ac Permeability of roots decreased due to shortage of m2. It
results in decreases water and nutrient uptake.

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L sses  þater

ac Generally water is last through leaching, drainage,

evapotranspiration and runoff.
ac The following disadvantages will be observed due to water
 loss,
ac Soil becomes very hard.
ac The germination percentage will be decreased.
ac X The nutrients in the soil leaches or evaporates.
ac The root growth retards, so that plant becomes stunted as a
result yields become reduced.
ac Stomata becomes closed, so that the transpiration process
caused as a result accumulation of gases or metabolic wastes
increases, leads to death of the plant.
ac X The soil micro organism activity decreases.

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þater Use Eiciec

ac Water use efficiency is the yield of marketable crop produced per

unit of water used in evapotranspiration.
ac WUV = Y/VT
ac Water use efficiency is also known as crop water use efficiency or
consumptive water use efficiency (Vcm) if the water used for
metabolic purpose of the crop (G) and is included with VT.
ac VCU = Y/G+VT
ac If yield is proportional to VT, water-use efficiency has to be a
constant but it is not so. Actually, Y and VT are influenced
independently or differently by crop management practices, while
VT is mainly dependent on climate and soil moisture. Fertilization
and other cultural practices for high crop yields usually increases
WUV. The factors affecting WUV are nature of the plant,
agronomic practices, climate, VT, irrigation, fertilization and plant
population.
ac There are considerable differences between plant species to
produce a unit dry matter per unit amount of water used resulting
in widely varying values of water use efficiency. The water use
efficiency for few crops is listed below.

Water requirement WUV (kg/ha

Crop Grain yield (kg/ha)
(mm) mm)
Rice 2000 6000 3.0
Sorghum 500 4500 9.0
Pearlmillet 500 4000 8.0
Maize 625 5000 8.0
 Groundnut 506 4680 9.2
Wheat 280 3534 12.6
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Fingermillet 310 4137 13.4

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þater Melated ïssues

þater P

ac pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. If

pH is 7.0, it is considered as neutral. If the pH is less than 7.0
and H+ concentration exceeds mH- it is referred as acidic and
if pH ranges 7 - 14 it is considered as alkaline. The pH is a
sort of voltage measurement to cover the entire range of 0-
14. The pH is one of the parameters to assess the water
whether it is suitable for irrigation or not based on pH values.
ac Main cations present in irrigation water are calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium. In effluents and sewage
waste waters ammonium and heavy metal cations are also
found. The important anions like chlorides, carbonates and
bicarbonates, sulphates and nitrates are also present in
irrigation water.
ac For appraisal of irrigation water quality the water samples are
mainly analyzed for total salts (VC) relative proportion of
cations, anions and toxic substances such as excess boron and
fluorine. For example, the pH of bicarbonate (HCo3) waters is
usually more than 7.5 and its determination may reflect the
degree of sodicity in the sample.
ac Sulphate content will be more in saline water having higher
V.C. If boron content is more than 2.0 mg/1(ppm) in irrigation
water, it is harmful to most of the crops. Fluorine content
beyond 10 ppm in irrigation water is harmful indirectly to
animals who feed on plants irrigated with high fluoride waters.
Sodium at higher levels in irrigation water exerts a toxic effect
on crop growth.
ac Good irrigation water should not have excessive amounts of
any salt or toxic substances.

þater EC

ac Natural water has V.C value of much less than one unit. These
 values are reported as milli mhos (VC x 10-3) or micro mhos
(VC x 10-6) at 250C. Vlectrical conductivity serves as a guide
to know the extent of soluble salts present in irrigation water.
The criteria for judging the quality of irrigation water is the
total salt concentration as measured by electrical conductivity.
The harmful effects increases with increase in total salt
concentration.
ac Irrigation water may be classified based on VC are,

C1 - L w Saliit þater

ac If electrical conductivity is less than 0.25 ds/m, the irrigation

water is classified as low salinity water. It can be used for
irrigation on all soils and on most crops but leaching is
required in case of extremely low permeable soil.

C2 - Medium Saliit þater

ac It has VC between 0.25 to 0.75 ds/m. This water can be safely

used for crops with moderate salt tolerance. The soil should
have moderate level of permeability and leaching to avoid
accumulation of salts.

C
- =i Saliit þater

ac Water with VC ranges of 0.75 to 2.25 ds/m is called high

salinity water. This water can not be used on soils with poor
drainage. This water can be used for salt tolerant crops by
providing good drainage and also by practicing management
practices for salinity control.

C4 - Ver =i Saliit þater

ac If VC is more than 2.25 ds/m the water is classified as very

high salinity water. It is not suitable for irrigation under
ordinary conditions but may be used occasionally if the soil is
permeable by providing adequate drainage.

Cetral S il Saliit Mesearc ïstitute (CSSMï suested a ter

classiicati   ïrriati  water based  EC as  ll ws,

VC
Class Quality of water Soils and crops suitable
(ds/m)
A1 < 1.5 Normal waters Most soils, most crops
Most crops on light and
medium textured soils. Semi-
A2 1.5 - 3.0 Low salinity waters
tolerant crops on heavy
textured soils.
A3 3-5 Medium salinity Semi-tolerant crops on light
 waters and medium textured soils
and only tolerant crops on
heavy texture soils not
suitable for deep black soils.
The soils should have a fairly
good drainage.
Tolerant crops on light and
A4 5 - 10 Saline waters medium texture soils. Soils
have excellent drainage
Not suitable for irrigation
A5 > 10 High saline waters
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under ordinary conditions.

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Ec  mics  þater Use

ac Average yields of irrigated crops are below the economic

optima because data on the best combination of fertilizer,
plant population and irrigation regime are meagre to
recommend to the farmers. Maximum WUV can not alone be
the goal always. The economics of obtaining high yields
dominate the scene. Yield increases from fertilizers, plant
population, irrigation, etc., follows some kind of decreasing
increment function after a stage, such that each successive
unit of input produces less profit than its predecessor.
ac The general tendency is to over-irrigate, especially if water is
not brought on the basis of quantity used. This tendency can
be avoided only if information is available on the most efficient
way to use water, and if field service is organized to advice
the farmer on when to irrigate and how much water to apply
at each irrigation for a certain level of fertilization and plant
population. The three important approaches listed below are
to be taken into account for irrigation.

S il Based Criteria

ac Depletion of available soil moisture i.e., feel and appearance

method.

Plat Based Criteria

ac Critical stages approach, visual symptoms of the plant, water

 content, leaf temperature.

Climat l ical Criteria ïw/C
e Mati

ac Surface irrigation methods are commonly used for various

crops. But rice is irrigated by flooding. Crops like Potato,
Maize, Sugarcane, Cotton are commonly irrigated with furrow
method. Basin method of irrigation is adopted for fruit trees.
ac The amount of water to be applied at each irrigation depends
on the amount of moisture depleted in the effective root zone
depth.
ac The moisture extraction pattern from different depths of the
soil within the crops root zone depth in deep uniform soils is
about 40 % of the total moisture from first quarter of the root
zone, 30 % from the second, 20 % from the third and 10 %
from the last quarter. At early stages of crop growth, the
depth of water applied should be less since the root system is
shallow.
ac Generally the amount of water applied at each irrigation is
about 50 mm in red soils and 60 mm in black soils.

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Why Crop Protectionc c What are Pestsc

c Losses due to Pestsc c Integrated Pest
Managementc cIntegrated Pest Management Strategyc cc

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þ Cr
Pr tecti 

ac India with diversified agro - ecosystems responded

spontaneously to the technologies of green revolution with
introduction of several components in crop production like
developing and adopting high yielding varieties, hybrids,
usage of new agro-chemicals and adoption of intensive crop
cultivation techniques.
ac The gains of green revolution reflected in the shape of
production of 200 million tonnes of food grains, 25 million
tonnes of oil seeds and 15 million tonnes of fibres per annum.
But these steady gains in agricultural production over past
four decades have not fully overcome the problem of rising
demand caused by soaring population growth.
ac Adding to the population explosion, there were frequent set
backs to crop production experienced in the shape of abiotic
and biotic stresses during the last two decades in several food
 crops where intensive farm practices were adopted.
ac Among these stresses on major crops, increased pest
populations leading to the stage of collapse of economy, at
times keep the planners and executors to be helpless. In the
past one and half decades, the periodical unabated explosions
of aphids, whiteflies, bollworms, pod borers, defoliators,
coccids, cutworms, plant hoppers etc., as direct crop
damagers and disease transmitters in different regions of the
country have made agriculture less remunerative and highly
risk prone.
ac The ability of some of these pests to develop resistance curbs
the effectiveness of many commercial chemicals. Resistance
has accelerated in many insect species and it was reported
that more than 500 insect and mite species are immune to
one or more insecticides at present. Similarly about 150 plant
pathogens such as fungus and bacteria are now shielded
against fungicides. Some of the weedicides also found
effective earlier failed to control weeds now-a-days.
ac Vxperts assessment reveal that around 22 per cent of yield
losses in major crops like Rice, Cotton, Groundnut, Sugarcane,
Sorghum, Tomato, Chillies, Mango, Grapes, etc., can be
attributed to insect pests.
ac Hence, there is need to reduce if not eliminate these losses by
protecting the crops from different pests through appropriate
techniques. At present day the role of crop protection in
agriculture is of great importance and a challenging process
than before, as the so called resistant species should be
brought under check.
ac All other management practices of crop husbandry will be
futile if the crop is not protected against the ravages of pests.
In absence of crop protection the yields may be drastically
declined. The entire effort of growing a crop will be defeated
in absence of crop protection resulting in financial loss to the
grower. So the crop protection against various pests is a must
in agriculture.

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þat are Pests

ac 'PVST' is an organism that causes damage resulting in

 economic loss to a plant or animal. It can also be said that
pest is a living organism that thrives at the expense of other
living organism.
ac The expression of ÿPestÿ is used very broadly to insects, other
invertebrates like nematodes, mites, snails and slugs, etc.,
and vertebrates like rats, birds, jackals, etc., that cause
damage to crops, stored products and animals.
ac Disease producing pathogens of plants and weeds are also
referred as crop pests.

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L sses caused due t
ests

ac It is a well known fact that insects being widely distributed

became more problematic in tropical climate. mf 1.5 million
species of insects so far described few are so conspicuous in
their presence due to their ability to develop rapidly and
becoming serious by attacking food crops directly and
indirectly.
ac In developing country like ours insects are dominating over
other pests by acquiring characters like resistance to toxic
chemicals, and resurgence, particularly in intensive crop
management regions of the country. The losses caused by
insect pests like Spodoptera, Heliothis, Whitefly and Aphids are
so enormous that these made the farmer to disturb the
present ecosystems with continuous use of excessive
insecticides.

e l sses caused b dieret
ests ad m it r l sses icurred as a

result  l ss is urised bel w

Loss caused (in

Pests Monitory loss in crores (Rs.)
percentage)
Insects 20 1200
Storage Pests 7 420
Diseases 26 1560
Weeds 33 1980
Rodents 6 360
Miscellaneous 8 480
Total 100 6000

ac Source : Pesticide Information April - June, 1995.

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ïterated Pest Maaemet (ï
m

þat is ï
m 

ac IPM is a system that in the context of the associated

environment and the population dynamics of the pest species
utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible
manner as possible and maintains the pest populations at
levels below those causing economic injury (FAm, 1972). In
integrated pest management both crop and pest are seen as
part of a dynamic agro-ecosystem.
ac IPM attempts to capitalize on natural biological factors that
limit pest out breaks, only using chemicals as a last resort.
The goal is to reduce crop damage to a level where it is
economically tolerable, using control measures whose cost
both economic and ecological is not excessive. A number of
non-chemical cultural practices form the core of IPM. But IPM
does not preclude chemical pesticide usage. Pesticide usage is
one of weapons in the management armoury to us that can be
exploited sensibly and judiciously.

ïPM ï Sustaiable —riculture

ac For sustainable agriculture IPM is location specific and

resource oriented process in terms of ,
ac Preserving land races of the crops that can with stand biotic
and abiotic stresses.
ac Restoring ecobalance to the extent possible.
ac Highlighting the importance of organic nutrition.
ac Dovetailing traditional methods with modern techniques.
ac Involving physical labour along with agro-machinery and
chemical means.
ac Developing human resource to understand the recyclic
(energy transfer) phenomenon of agro-ecosystems.
ac Leading to less risk-prone vis-a-vis low input oriented
 agriculture.
ac Acceptable socially, economically and politically.

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ïterated Pest Maaemet Strate

ac While developing IPM strategy one has to select different

components that are readily available, economical and
applicable at field level.
ac To cater the needs for location specific cropping systems the
suitable technologies should be developed by Research
workers from time to time.
ac The research findings that are practically implementable
should be popularized by the Vxtension workers through
education to farming community. Farmers have to be trained
in scouting, diagnosis of pest infestation and arriving VTLs for
need based chemical application in time.
ac Farmers should also be trained in selection of suitable
pesticide, use of proper lethal dose and proper coverage of
foliage to avoid risks of resistance, resurgence and residues.
Farmers training is a continuous process and is an important
integrated part for successful implementation of IPM.
ac An healthy, meaningful co-operation is very much needed
from corporate pesticide industry to make IPM successful at
farmers level. The pesticide industry should not wield
enormous financial power and maintain market dominance
against ecological and environmental safety.

þe t use Cr
Pr tecti  Cemicals

ac When adult activity is in increasing trend resulting in

unacceptable pest load on crop as indicated by pheromone,
light and sticky traps.
ac When field scouts fixed plot survey indicate a particular
dominating stage of pest in the field.
ac When the bio-agents existing in the area did not attain a level,
that can influence the pest population.
ac When insecticide resistance due to usage of insecticides does
not surface practically.
ac When residues of insecticides do not become problematic.
 ac When the role of bio-agents and other environmental
resistance factors are less perceptible.

= w ca a Cr
be m it red

ac A field crop is monitored to determine a pests economic status

or to determine whether a natural enemy is at a level capable
of suppressing a pest's population density. So identification of
pests and beneficial insects is of prime importance before any
control operation is executed.
ac Monitoring tools like pheromone, light and sticky traps can be
advantageously used. Field scouting adopting fixed plot survey
or roving survey should be taken from time to time to monitor
the crop in determining whether the pest population attained
VTLs.

þic Pr ducts F rm Part  e ï
m Strate

ac Different monitoring tools like pheromone traps, light traps,

coloured sticky traps.
ac Preserved specimens of pests, natural enemies, infested plant
portions as identification tools.
ac Bird perches.
ac Seed dressing chemicals and seed dressing machines.
ac Seeds of Resistant varieties.
ac Vcofriendly insecticides like Neem products and bio-fungicides
like Trichoderma sp.
ac Natural enemies like Trichogramma egg cards, and microbial
preparations of NPV & Bt.
ac Soft and target specific pesticides.
ac Bait preparations.
ac Good plant protection equipment.
ac Finally mostly farm based renewable resources that can
enhance the recycling phenomenon of ecosystem should form
part of IPM strategy.

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Post Harvestc c Infrastructurec c Storagec c Types of Storagec c Methods of

Storagec cTransportationc cMarketingc cc

c
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P st =arest
erati s
 ac Post-harvest operations are assuming importance due to
higher yields and increased cropping intensity. Due to
introduction of modern technology, yield levels have
substantially increased resulting in a marketable surplus which
has to be stored till prices are favourable for sale. With
increase in irrigation facilities and easy availability of
fertilizers, intensive cropping is being practiced.
ac Harvesting assumes considerable importance because the crop
has to be harvested as early as possible to make way for
another crop. Sometimes, harvesting time may also coincide
with heavy rainfall or severe cyclone and floods. In view of
these situations suitable technology is, therefore, necessary
for reducing the harvesting time and safe storage at farm
level. The post-harvest losses are estimated to be about 25
per cent.
ac A recent estimate by the Ministry of Food and Civil supplies
put the total preventable post-harvest losses of food grains at
about 20 million tons a year, which was nearly 10 per cent of
the total production. The principal adviser, planning
commission stated that food grains wasted during post-
harvest period could have fed up 117 million people for a
year.
ac The important operations carried out after harvesting of the
crop are threshing, drying, storage and processing.

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ïrastructure

ac mut of the total food grain production, more than 70 percent is

with the farmer and rest is stored by governmental
organizations like central warehousing corporation and Food
corporation of India and traders. The godowns are the most
common structures for above ground bag storage.
ac The godowns have all the facilities for fumigation, providing
aeration and rat proof. Vach of the godown can hold 5000
tonnes of bagged food grains. Grain is also stored in bulk
using large silos.
ac For want of required storage space in godowns food grains are
also stored in the open and this method of storage is known
as CAP storage. Cap stands for cover and plinth. mpen spaces
 in warehouses and elsewhere are used for storing produce.
Crates are placed on floor, mats are spread on the crates and
finally bags are placed over the crates.
ac The stacks are built in the form of domes. As protection
against rain and sun the stacks are covered with thick (600 to
1000 guage) black polythene sheets and the cover is tied to
the stack with the help of plastic ropes.

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St rae

ac Harvesting of crop is seasonal, but consumption of food grain

is continuous. The market value of the produce is generally
low at harvesting time. So the grower need storage facility to
hold a portion of produce to meet the feed and seed
requirements in addition of selling surplus produce when the
marketing price is favourable.
ac Traders and Co-operatives at market centres need storage
structures to hold grains when the transport facility is
inadequate.
ac The government also needs storage structures to maintain
buffer reserves to offset the effects produced by the vagaries
of nature. Hence, there is necessity to store the produce for
different periods primarily for commercial reasons. The
growers, processors, transporters and warehouse men have to
develop storage facilities for proper storage of food grains,
oilseeds, commercial crops like Chillies, vegetables and fruits
etc., and seeds intended for sowing in the following seasons.

— ideal st rae acilit s uld satis te  ll wi requiremets

ac It should provide maximum possible protection from ground

moisture, rains, insect pests, moulds, rodents, birds, fire, etc.,
ac It should provide the necessary facility for inspection,
disinfection, loading, unloading, cleaning and reconditioning.
ac It should protect grain from excessive moisture and
temperature favourable to both insect and mould
development.
ac It should be economical and suitable for a particular situation.
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es  St rae

ac Holding grain in bulk in underground is an age old method of

rural storage. Wheat, Paddy, Sorghum, Fingermillet, etc., can
be stored underground for a period of 2 years. These
structures are simple underground dig-outs upto a depth of 5
m varying in sizes to hold from a small quantity upto 50
tonnes.
ac The pits are lined with brick or concrete so that moisture from
walls and bottom does not damage the grain. At the time of
filling a layer of straw is placed on all sides.
ac After the pit is filled, straw is spread over the grain and then
topped with a layer of soil. Insect infestation is less in the
under ground storage and it is cheaper over above ground
storage structures.
ac This underground structure is not suitable for high rainfall and
high water-table areas. Further the grain stored underground
have poor appearance and musty smell.

Seeral t
es  ab e r ud st rae structures meti ed bel w

are als i use i ur c utr,

Mud Bis

ac The mud bins are made of unburnt clay mixed with straw with
1 to 3 inch thick wall and are oval, rectangular or circular. A
small hole is provided at the base for taking out the grain and
a larger hole is provided at the top for filling it with grain.
Both the inlet and outlet holes are plugged while grain is
stored.

Straw Bis

ac For storing paddy in humid zones dried plants are used for
making temporary structures, which after being filled with
grain are further reinforced from outside by winding paddy
straw ropes around the whole structure. Vach structure holds
2 to 6 quintals of grain.

Bukari Bis
 ac This is a cylindrical structure and is made of mud and split
bamboo's. The bin is always placed on a wooden or a
massonary plat form to prevent its contact with the ground.
The capacity may vary from 3 to 10 tonnes.

K tar 
e Bis

ac These bins are very much similar to a timber box placed on a

raised plat form, which is generally supported on pillars. Both
the floor and walls are made of wooden planks, where the
tiled or thatched roof is placed over it as a protection against
sun and rains. The capacity may vary from 9 to 35 tonnes.

Metal Bis

ac Bins made of steel, alluminium R.C.C are used for storage of

grains outside the house. These bins are fire and moisture
proof. The bins have long durability and produced on
commercial scale. The capacity ranges from 1 to 10 tonnes.
Silos are huge bins made with either steel, alluminium or
concrete. Usually steel and alluminium bins are circular in
shape. The capacity of silo ranges from 500 to 4000 tonnes. A
silo has facilities for loading and unloading grains.
ac The storage structures in rural areas are not ideal from
scientific-storage point of view, as substantial losses occur
during storage of grain from insect pests, moulds, rodents,
etc. ; keeping the requirements of the farmers in view the
Indian grain storage institute (IGSI), Hapur with its branch at
Ludhiana and Hyderabad have developed several metal bins of
different capacities for scientific storage of grain in rural
areas.

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Met ds  St rae

ac The grains are stored at three different levels, viz., at the

producer's level (rural storage) trader's level and urban
organizational storage. The urban organization uses modern
facilities and structures like silos, warehouses and also
undertaken periodical inspection, processing and treatment of
 grains for ensuring their quality during storage.
ac Generally, there are two ways of storing grains i.e.
ac Storage in bags and Loose or bulk storage.
ac In the tropical regions, the grain is stored in bags. Storage in
bags requires considerable labour, but the minimum
investment is enough on permanent structures and
equipment. The storage in bags has the advantage of being
short-term storage. Bag storage can be done under a roof of
Galvanized Iron sheets, a plastic covering where grain is
intended for very early onward movement. Usually no control
measures against insects is needed for short-term storage. If
bag storage produce is intended for long time, the control
measures have to be taken against insect pests.
ac The bulk storage has an advantage of greater storage capacity
per unit volume of space. Less labour is involved in loading
and unloading and there is no need of investment in
purchasing gunny bags. In bulk storage the insect infestation
is also lower over bag storage. The grain can be kept for
several years in bulk storage.

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ras
rtati 

ac When once the grain is threshed and dried it will be

transported from the field to store houses by bullock carts, or
tractors by the growers. Sometimes if the market price is
favourable the produce is disposed to the traders soon after
drying.
ac The disposal of the produce, either at the village or at the
market yard is, however often closely connected with financial
needs of the growers and sometimes indebtedness. The
traders on purchasing, transport the produce to go-down, or
shops for sale to the consumers.
ac This transport mainly uses trucks i.e., lorries. Government
agencies like Food Corporation of India etc., transport the
produce from one place to another place either by road or rail
(waggons) for long term storage and sometimes to export to
other countries by sea (cargo). If the produce is not properly
bagged and handled there will be some loss during transport.
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Marketi

ac In general most of the producers sell the grains at their door

steps in villages, to avoid transport. At village level defective
measures and weights are used by traders and also the prices
paid to farmers are much lower than regulated market rates.
Now-a-days farmers are encouraged to sell their produce in
near by regulated markets, though some labour is involved in
transport.
ac In regulated markets some amenities are provided for sellers
and the growers can secure maximum value for their produce.
In market yards several methods like cover system, open
system and auction system are adopted depending on the
type of produce sold. Since the rural banking system is
improved the farmers to a large extent they are out of
clutches of greedy private money lenders who exert pressure
to dispose produce for lower price.
ac At present in some places the cold storage facilities are also
available. Farmers can utilize these cold storage facilities for
stocking their produce on payment of rent and the produce
can be disposed when there is remunerative price in the
market.
ac Though several measures are taken by government the
marketing of agricultural produce is facing problems and
growers are not getting the reasonable price for their produce.
If production exceeds demand, price declines until the market
is cleared. Prices raise when production fell short. Responses
to lower or higher prices occur in the next production cycle.
ac Therefore, the acreage for a particular crop based on demand
and the supporting prices for each commodity need to be
monitored by the rulers based on demand and supply studies.
The government has to bring buyers and sellers together,
develop price information systems, establish consistent grades
and product quality standards for better marketing of
agricultural produce at all times.

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° 
  
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Introductionc c Auxinsc c Gibberellinsc c Cytokininsc c Absicic Acidc c Vthylenec c

Florigenc cMorphactinsc cWound Hormonec cmther Growth Regulatorsc cc

c
c

Plat °r wt Meulat rs

ac Certain substances affect the growth quite miraculously.

These were referred to Hormones. Hormone means to urge or
to stimulate (Greek word).
ac Hormones of plants are referred as phyto Hormones. Phyto
Hormones are organic substances which are naturally
produced in plants, control the growth or other physiological
functions, at a sight remote from its place of production and
active in extreme minute quantities.
ac Growth Hormones can also be defined as substances which
are naturally produced in plants, control the growth are other
physiological functions, at a sight remote form its place of
production and active in extreme minute quantities.
ac Growth Hormones can also be defined as substances synthised
in particular cells and are transferred to other cells where in
extremely small quantities influence development process.

C mm  = rm es

ac Auxins
ac Cytokinenin
ac Dormin
ac Gibberellins
ac Vthylene
ac Florigen Vtc.,
ac Now different categories of substance affecting plant growth
are known which can be broadly classified as.

Naturall ccurri r wt substaces

Stetic °r wt Substaces

ac To include both the terms they can be called as Growth

Regulating Substances.

Classiicati 

Name Vxample
Auxins IAA
 Gibberellins Ga
Cytokinenins Kinetin, Zeatin
Vtylene Vthylene
Dormins Abscissic Acid (ABA), Phaseic Acid
Flowering Hormones Florigin, Anthesin, Vernalin
Phenolic Substances Coumarin
Miscellaneous Natural Vitamins, Phytochrome Tranmatic
Substances Substances
Synthetic Growth Ccc, Amo, 1618, Phosphin - D,
Retardents Morphacting, Malformis.
Miscellaneous Synthetic
Synthetic Auxins, Synthetic Cytokinins.
c
Substances

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—uxis

ac Characteristics Features Polar translocation - Apical

dominance - Variable Behaviour or root and shoot growth -
Root Initiation - Delay in abscision and differentiation of xylem
elements.

M le  —uxis

ac Apical Dominance:Removal of apical bud stimulates lateral

buds. Auxins inhibit lateral bud formation since they are
synthesised in apex. This phenomena is called apical
dominence. Vg: Potato tubers for apical buds forming.
ac Cell Division And Vlongation: Shoot and Root growth.
ac ùylem Differentiation: Auxins helps in establishing contact
between vascular tissues of the callus and that of the bud and
makes it possible for the bud to grow properly in callus. By
adding auxin and sugar continued growth of callus may be
obtained and new shoots and even new plant can be
produced.
ac Nucleic Acid Activities of IAA increases total RNA - synthesises
specific enzymes lead to cell enlargement.
ac Manifold Activities Play specific role in seed germination,
growth, rooting, flowering (Reproductive phase), abscission,
parthenorcarpy and tissue culture.
Practical —

licati s  —uxis

ac Germination: IAA, IBA, NBA, 2,4-D are mostly used in soaking

seed for germination- at low concentrations promotes
germination but these effects are subjected to variation
depending on form and species of plants.
ac Root: NAA, 10% induces 100% rooting in mango: Dashri,
langra IBA+SUGAR application leads to greater number of
roots-structure of roots also changed (Vascular bundles).
ac Flowering: Play floragenic role in day neutral plants IAA
promotes formation of female flowers. Increased spikelet
number, leaf number and weight and number of grains in
wheat. NAA & IAA increases boll-set (G.hirsutum) induced
more pine-apple. Fruit weight increases.
ac Parthenocarpy: IBA, NAA produces seed less/fruits - smaller
sized fruits, but more in number, hence yield not affected.
ac Fruit setting: By using 2,4,5 T fruit setting and yield of
ber/fruit increased. IAA, IBA, and NAA induce high percentage
fruit set.
ac Prevention of pre-mature drop of fruits: 2,4,D,IAA,IBA, 2,4,5-
T, are used to prevent pre-harvest drop of sweet oranges(
100 to 500 ppm)
ac Tissue and mrgan culture: IAA & Kinetin
ac Auxins as inhibitors: High concentration of auxins inhibit the
growth and exert toxic effect on plants. In normal case, self
produced auxins inhibit the growth and development of lateral
buds, and as a result apical buds, remains dormant.

—uxis use i —riculture ad = rticulture

ac Propagation of plants by hormone treatment of cuttings

ac Prevention of pre harvest drops of plants.
ac Increasing parthenocarpy.
ac Increasing fruit set.
ac Prevention of sprouting by inhibiting buds.
ac Inhibition of prolonged dormancy.
ac Control of flowering.
ac Defoliation of plants
ac Prevention of leaf fall or abscission.
ac Thinning of compact fruits.
ac Selective weed killer.

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°ibberellis

ac Second important growth Hormone. More than 60 types of

Gibberellins are known. They are named as GA1, GA2------
upto GA60. About 51 types are found in higher plants.
ac Mechanism of Gibberellins: GA exerts its physiological effect
on altering the Auxin status of tissue. It acts at the gene level
to cause depressions of specific gene.
ac The activated genes by producing new enzymes, bring about
observed morphologic changes. Alerts the RNA. GA appears to
involve in alteration of nucleic acid directed protein synthesis
in some long term regulatory action and some other types of
activation phenomena in short term regulatory action.

M le  Ed e us °ibberellis

ac Apical bud dormancy

ac Role in sub apical meristem
ac Cell elongation
ac Fruit growth
ac Flowering
ac Metabolisation of food in seed storage cells.

Practical —

licati s  °ibberellis

ac Germination: Increases length of hypocotil and cotyledenary

leaf area.
ac Root Growt h: Inhibits root growth
ac Leaf Vxpansion: Leaves become broader and enlarged
(Cabbage, Sweet corn).
ac Hyponesty of leaves: GA treated leaves of chrysanthemum
plants holds their leaves more erect.
ac Flowering: Induces flowering in long day plants and in plants
requiring cold induction. Also promotes formation of male
flowers.
ac Parthenocorpy: Brinjal, Guava(Alahabad round). Thomson
seedless
ac Fruit setting: Increased fruit setting (Phalsa, Sweet lime,
Grapes).
ac Fruit Drop: Not much effective.
ac Stem elongation: Chorchorus capsularis: extention of stem
and increased number of internodes. However leaf area, basal
diameter of stem and fibre quality are reduced.
ac Pollen Germination: Sugar cane 15 out of 34 germinated
against normal conditions.
ac Breaking Dormancy: In temperate plants buds become
 dormant in later summer and do not sprout even when
exposed to sufficient moisture, temperature and oxygen. They
require low temperatures or long days or red light. GA
overcomes this dormancy. Vnhanced cell elongation push
through the endosperm (seed coat) Potato tubers can be
made to sprout in winter by GA.
ac mther uses: Sprayed on Fruits to prevent rind disorder.
Thomson seedless grape bunches if sprayed with GA, causes
elongation of bunch, so they are less tightly packed and less
succesptible to fungi.

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Ct kies

Caracters

ac Initiation of cell division

ac Delay of senescence
ac Use in tissue culture
ac Counteract apical dominence.

—cti  ad a

licati 

ac Cell division
ac Cell enlargement
ac Morphogenesis
ac Dormancy
ac Apical dominance
ac Mobility: Immobile obstructs the movement of amino acid,
phosphate and various other substances
ac Nucleic acid metobolism: Quick increase in the amount of RNA
and decreases DNA
ac Protein synthesis: Increases DNA
ac Protein synthesis: Increased rate
ac Florigens: Induction of flowering in short day plants.

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—bsicissic —cid (—B—

M le  —B—

ac Induces bud dormancy

ac Promotes senescence
ac Accelerates leaf abscission in cotton plant
ac Induces flowering during long days in certain short day plants
- ineffective in short day plants.
ac Counteracts GA

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Etlee

ac Highly useful in inducing fruit ripening. Vthylene is a natural

product of ripening fruit. Vthylene is a gas at temperatures
under which a plant can live.
ac Auxins increase ethylene level in plants and auxin actions are
attributed through ethylene such as increased percentage of
female flowers, apical bud dominance and leaf epinasty.

M le  Etlee

ac Abscission: Principle accelerator of abscission - Capable of

promoting changes associated with pre - abscission and aging
of leaves, petioles, flowers and fruits. Vthylene degreening is a
commercial practice (5-10 ppm).
ac Degreening occurs after ethylene treated are exposed to air -
accelerates maturity and induces uniform ripening (Pine
apple).

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Fl rie

ac It is responsible for flower initiation in plants - synthesised in

older leaves and then transferred to growing region, where it
innitiates floral bud.

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M r
actis

ac They are synthetic growth regulators, acts in variety of ways

on the natural regulation of mechanisms of plants. The
important are

1.c Phenoxyalkancarboxylic acid (synthetic auxin)

2.c Substituted benzoic acid.
3.c Maleic acid hydrazide
4.c Flurene - carboxylic acid and their derevatives
5.c Chlorflurenol
6.c Chlorfluron
7.c Flurenol
8.c Methyle benzilate
9.c Dichlorflurenol etc.,

ac The action of these substances are systemic and after their

uptake they are transported and distributed not polarly, but
basipetally and acropetally.

M le  M r
actis

ac Seed Germination - inhibition

ac Growth of seedlings - inhibits growth of both root and shoot
this property is similar to cytokinin.
ac Stem elongation: dwarfing effect.
 ac Apical dominance and branching : treatment to grasses and
cereals increased tillering and also increased no of laterals.
Stimulates extension of lateral shoot growth.
ac Prolonged bud dormancy : Root growth and root branching:
Lateral roots are inhibited and primary roots are promoted.
The action of morphactin on the longitudinal growth of root
system may be considered as a reverse of their action on the
shoot system.
ac Flowering: Prevents flowering in short day plants, sequence of
flowering, position and no. of flowers and parthenocarpy etc.,

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þ ud = rm e

ac Hormone activity increases in response to wound or injury. A

wound hormone called traumatic acid has been extracted,
which stimulated meristamatic of cork, cambium to cover
wounded or injured portions.

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S me Oter °r wt Meulat rs

ac Triacontanol: Saturated primary alchohol isolated from shoots

of alfa-alfa. Response is very rapid inincreasing growth. 20%
enhanced growth in rice and maize.
ac Brassins: Steroid growth promoters isolated from polen grain
of rape causes distninct growth promoting activity.
ac ùanthoxin: Potent growth inhibitor can be converted
metabolically to ABA
ac Batasins:Isolated from yam plants -causes dormancy in bulbs.
ac Vitamins: mrganic compounds - occur in several plants,
 substances inhibit growth of certain parts of plants.
ac Vitamins:mrganic compounds - mccur in natural food stuffs
either as such are as utilisable precursors which are required
in minute amounts for normal growth, maintenance and
reproduction. They have cetalytic and regulatory functions in
cell metabolism.