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Higher Tier - Grades C-A*
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Chapter 1 - Cells | Chapter 2 ʹ How plants produce food | Chapter 3 - Energy flows
Chapter 4 - Enzymes | Chapter 5 - Homeostasis | Chapter 6 - Inheritance







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0Animal cells have a nucleus controlling the cells activities; membrane which controls movement of
materials, cytoplasm in which chemical reactions take place, ribosome͛s where protein is
synthesised Mitochondria is where energy is released during aerobic respiration.

Plant cells have those noted before and cell wall for support, chloroplasts containing chlorophyll for
photosynthesis and a permanent vacuole filled with cell sap to help keep the cell turgid (enlarged
and swollen with water).

The cell membrane in both cells moves substances such as carbon dioxide (through diffusion) and
water (by osmosis) as waste products of respiration./

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When an egg is fertilised and soon develops into a ball of cells some of these cells differentiate to
become specialised. They are specialised to carry out different jobs. There are many specialised cells
here are a few:

Long 'finger-like' process with very thin wall, which gives a large
surface area this then, increases the rate of diffusion.

The head contains genetic information and an enzyme to

help penetrate the egg cell membrane. The middle
section is packed with mitochondria for energy. The tail
moves the sperm to the egg

Has a Thin outer membrane that lets oxygen diffuse through

easily. Shape increases the surface area to allow more
oxygen to be absorbed efficiently. No nucleus, so the whole
cell is full of hemoglobin. When oxygen if diffused into the
cell the hemoglobin is oxidized and is now oxyhemoglobin
and when not combined with oxygen deoxyhemoglobin.
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Molecules have energy as it is so for diffusion no energy is needed. Diffusion is a random movement
of molecules from a concentration to a lower concentration. The larger the difference in
concentration, the faster the diffusion rate. Examples of diffusion are:
à Diffusion or carbon dioxide after respiration.
à espiring cells getting oxygen diffused from the blood stream.
à The diffusion of simple sugars and amino acids from the gut to cell membranes.

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Osmosis is the movement of water. Like diffusion it͛s from a low concentration to high concentration
but osmosis is through a semi-permeable membrane. Osmosis does not require energy from the
cells as alike to diffusion molecules have energy.

The cell membrane is partially permeable and osmosis only works with solutions. Water is needed in
cells chemical reactions and support. Partially permeable means that only small molecules can pass
through such as water.



 


 
 

Photo synthesis creates glucose which is stored as an insoluble solution so does not then affect
osmosis. This glucose is used for respiration and is combined with nutrients to make new ones in
plants. The waste gas given off from photosynthesis is oxygen, his is important because it is needed
for respiration for both animals and plants.

In photosynthesis water is collected from the roots and energy from the sun is trapped by the
chlorophyll in chloroplasts. The structure of the leaf is adapted to this:

 


 

If light is limited there is no energy to photosynthesise and so photosynthesise can͛t take place. Even
on a sunny day light may be limited on the floor of a rainforest. If it is cold the enzymes don͛t work
correctly thus slowing down photosynthesis. If there is too little carbon dioxide then photosynthesis͛
will slow again this may be the case in an enclosed place such as a greenhouse or a rapidly
photosynthesising rain forest. For anyone growing plants there is no point increasing one factor of
photosynthesis as then that factor will be limited by the others. All factors need to be increased for
optimal production.




Plants need minerals for a healthy growth. Nitrates are taken from the soil to make amino acids.
These are then made into proteins for growth. If not taken up then the plant has a stunted growth.
Magnesium creates chlorophyll for photosynthesis so if there isn͛t enough the leaves turn yellow.







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Pyramids of biomass are more efficient in seeing the
living mass in each stage in contrast to a pyramid of
numbers. This is because
bio mass is the living
material in an organism
times Number of
organism in that stage.
This makes it easier to
compare the food value of
a small number of large
organisms with a large
number of small
organisms. Another
example apart from that
given in the pictures to
the left is:

Grass (Producer), Cow (herbivore), Human (Consumer).

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Not all food is digested so not all can be used for growth. Some is lost through respiration. This
includes moving so the more an animal moves the more energy it uses. Keeping an animal at a
constant temperature can stop energy being used to keep warm. Some energy is lost through urine
and faeces.

Sankey diagrams are special flow diagrams in which the width of the arrows is shown proportionally
to the flow quantity. We can determine a Sankey diagram for an herbivore and a carnivore. The
biggest difference is that an herbivore gets more energy but then loses a lot of it in faeces and urine.

To make our food more efficient we should just eat plants as it is more efficient as it cuts out the
herbivore from the food chain. But still we insist on eating meat and so we have produced many
ways in which to make our food more energy efficient. We can stop the animal from moving so
energy is not lost through respiration. This is seen as cruelty by most as the animal is not being
treated right and has been evicted from its natural habitat. We can also keep the animal at a
constant temperature so it doesn͛t waste energy warming up.

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Detritus feeders such as some worms start of the decay process. After eating the dead plant or
animal it excretes faeces. Then micro organisms such bacteria and fungi break down the waste.
Decay is faster when it is warm and wet as bacteria reproduce quicker and also enzymes work faster.
All materials are recycled from dead organisms.


  

Plants take away carbon from the atmosphere and when animals and plants respire they put carbon
back into the atmosphere. When animals eat plants they lock carbon into their bodies. When
animals and plants die the micro organisms release this carbon back into the atmosphere. A stable
community recycles all carbon. ͚ecycling carbon͛ means to put carbon back into the atmosphere so
none of it is locked up.



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Enzymes are biological catalysts, they speed up reactions. Enzymes are large proteins. They have an
active site in which the reacting molecule can fit into. An enzymes active site is a particular shape as
some enzymes deal with different types of molecule shapes. Too high temperatures and the active
site can change shape and not work correctly. When this happens we say theenzyme has been
denatured or destroyed. Enzymes can build smaller molecules into larger ones and break down
larger ones to make smaller ones. Enzymes lower the energy needed to for the reaction to take
place, the ͚activation energy͛.

 


 
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Enzymes work best at warm temperatures as
molecules gain energy and collide more often.
But if it gets to hot then the enzymes are
denatures and the active site is destroyed thus
slowing down, maybe even stopping reactions.
An enzyme works best at a certain ph, some
alkaline some acidic. If the PH isn͛t correct again
the active site can the denatured. As we see on
the left we can see the optimal temperature until
the complex protein structure breaks down.

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The formula for aerobic respiration is:

Glucose + Oxygen ї Carbon dioxide + water [+ energy]

This process mostly takes place in the mitochondria and the energy released can be used for:
à Building larger molecules from smaller ones
à Movement in animals ʹ Muscle contractions
à Maintain a constant body temperature in mammals and birds
à Make sugars, nitrates and other nutrients in plants

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Amylase is produced in the small intestine, pancreas and the salivary gland. They catalyse the
digestion of starch to make sugars in the moth and in the small intestine. Protease is made by the
pancreas, small intestine and stomach. They catalyse the digestion on proteins into amino acids in
the stomach and small in intestine. Lipase is made in the pancreas and small intestine. They catalyse
the digestion of lipids (fats and oils) in the small intestine.

Protease works best in acidic conditions. In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is produced by the
stomach walls so enzymes can work well. Amylase works best in the small intestine where it is
slightly alkaline. The liver releases bile which 6neutralizes the stomach acidic but also makes the
conditions slightly alkaline. This bile can be stored in the small intestine.
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à Enzymes are used in biological washing powder and work lower temperatures so can money.
à Protease is used to pre-digest baby food so it is easier for the baby to digest.
à Isomerizes are used to convert glucose in to fructose. Fructose is sweeter so less is needed in
foods making them less fattening.
à Carbohydrates to make starch into sugary syrup for use in foods.
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We experience different temperatures and different rates of respiration in everyday life.
Homeostasis means to regulate internal environment and to maintain a stable, constant condition.
Here are some examples:
à Carbon dioxide is a waste product of respiration and is excreted through the lungs
à Some amino acids are not digested and the liver converts them in to urea. They then are
excreted as urine from storage in the bladder though out from the kidneys.
à The water ion content has to be correct so it does not affect osmosis.

 
 


 

The thermoregulatory centre in the brain and receptors in the skin detect changes in temperatures.
The thermoregulatory centre is what responses to these changes in temperature.

If the core temperature rises:

à We start and the sweat evaporates using energy from the skin to do so thus cooling us down
à The blood vessels near the skin dilate, allowing more blood to flow through and as it is
energy to the surface of the skin energy is lost through radiation
If the core temperature drops:
à Hairs stick up near the skin trapping a layer of insulating air.
à We start to shiver causing respiration to increase. Heat energy is produced from respiration
and so we heat up
à Blood vessels near the skin constrict causing less blood to be taken to the surface of the skin
so energy is not lost through respiration.

 
 

The pancreas monitors blood sugar levels. If there is too much blood sugar then the pancreas
releases a hormone called insulin this causes the sugar being stored as glycogen in the liver. If insulin
is not produced it can make sugar levels fatally high and if this does happen and the pancreas is not
producing insulin this is called diabetes. If someone has this it can be treated by insulin injections
and by the person diet.

Learn about Fredrick Banting and Charles best͛s research on insulin production.
     


  



   

 
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