Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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INTRODUCTION
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THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL BANKING
Definition of an International Bank
Noting these different definition, Aliber (1984) opted for one close to
the second definition, relating international banking activities to the
association between national currency of the transaction and the
country which has chartered the bank. A bank is said to be engaging
in international banking when it sells deposits and buys loans in
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currencies other than the home currency – that is, the currency of the
country in which it is chartered. Other authors have advocated the
use of the other definitions.
The problem with all of the above definitions is that they are trying to
give one answer to two separate questions in international banking.
In formulating a definition, it is important to distinguish between the
international activities of a home based bank, and the establishment
of cross – border branches and subsidiaries. The existence of
international bank service activity is explained by the traditional theory
of international trade, while multinational banking is consistent with
the economic theory of the multinational enterprise.
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INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN BANKING
SERVICES
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A by- product of intermediation is bank participation in the payments
system, including settlement, direct debit, and chequing facilities. If
some of its corporate or retail customers engage in international trade
activity, they will require global money transmission services. The
simplest example is the provision of foreign exchange facilities across
national frontiers is now well developed. In parts of Europe, it is
possible to use a debit card from one state (for example, the UK) to
obtain local currency in another state (for example, Spain).
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THE INTERNATIONAL PAYMENTS
SYSTEM
FEDWIRE and CHIPS : both of these systems are for high value,
dollar payments. FEDWIRE, the Federal Reserve’s Fund Transfer
System, is a real – time gross settlement transfer system for
domestic funds, operated by the Federal Reserve. Deposit –
taking institutions that keep reserves or a clearing account at the
Federal Reserve use FEDWIRE to send or receive payments,
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which amounts to about 11000 users. In 1992, there were 68
million FEDWIRE funds transfers, with a value of $199 trillion.
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A number of the large global banks run their own electronic payments
systems, primarily to facilitate internal global payments. These
systems are run alongside SWIFT and other public systems. The
internal systems are also used to attract corporate business. For
example, Chase Manhattan and Citibank have offered a relatively
cheap transfer service for their corporate clients.
SWIFT is the most popular electronic fund transfer system because if
offers real time gross settlement 24 hours a day and is a cooperative,
non-profit maximizing system. CHIPS and CHAPs were criticized for
their limited opening hours and excessive charges, especially for
erroneous messages. Also, member banks (money centre banks in
the US, clearing banks in the UK) effect transactions in CHIPS and
CHAPS, so competitors must use these banks as their agents. All
three systems have problems arising from complex and incompatible
software, leading to high staff training costs. A potential competitor in
the future will be a secure internet system which use e-cash to settle
transactions in real time.
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THE INTERBANK MARKETS
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THE COSTS AND BENEFITS OF
INTERNATIONAL BANKING
The costs and benefits of the international banking system are
reviewed with the objective of assessing the effect of the international
banking development on the welfare of the national economies. The
key benefit from international banking is a rise in bank consumer
surplus, the difference between what a consumer is willing to pay for
a bank service and what the consumer (who in the case of
international banking, is probably a corporate customer) does pay.
For bank products, consumer surplus will increase if deposit rates
rise, loans rates fall, and fees for bank service decline.
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pricing in domestic markets, for those customers who have the option
of going offshore (mainly corporates).
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generally, banks lack experience in setting the prices for newer
financial products, commensurate with their risk.
Information asymmetries are normally more pronounced in
international banking. In a domestic system a bank officer is able to
assess creditworthiness on the basis of direct knowledge about the
borrower. In the
Euromarket only the final lender has certain knowledge of who the
borrower is, the average deposit passing through several banks
before being loaned to a non-bank borrower. Often, the exposure of
other banks in the Euromarkets is unknown to each individual bank.
If global banking aggravates information difficulties, confidence is
undermined, making bank runs more likely.
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THE MULTINATIONAL BANK
To complete the theoretical picture of global banking, the second
question should be addressed – that is, why do banks set up
branches or subsidiaries and therefore become multinational banks?
The question is best answered by drawing on the theory of the
determinants of the multinational enterprise. A multinational
enterprise (MNE) is normally defined as any firm with plants
extending across national boundaries. Modifying this definition for
banking, a bank with cross – border branches or subsidiaries is a
multinational bank.
There are two important reasons why an MNE rather than a domestic
form produces and exports a good or service. Barriers to free trade,
due to government policy or monopoly power in supply markets, is the
first explanation for the existence of MNEs. For example, Japanese
manufacturers have set up European subsidiaries, hoping to escape
some of the harsh European trade barriers on the import of Japanese
manufactured goods. The second is imperfections in the market
place, often in the form of a knowledge advantage possessed by a
certain type of firm which cannot be easily traded. American fast food
conglomerates have been very successful in global expansion
through franchises, which profit from managerial and food know-how
originally developed in the USA.
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market imperfections. For example, US regulations in the 1960s
effectively stopped foreigners from issuing bonds in the USA and
American companies from using dollars to finance foreign direct
investment. US banks got round these restrictions by using their
overseas branches, especially in London, because it was a key centre
for global finance. Later, these banks used their London subsidiaries
to offer clients investment banking services, prohibited under US law.
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the services of a home country bank because the cost of local bank
credit, with no local knowledge of the firm, is likely to be higher.
Additionally, the bank may follow the corporate customer overseas to
protect its own assets. If the bank is going to lend funds to a
multinational firm, it will require information on the foreign operations
to properly assess the creditworthiness of the client. The optimal way
of gathering information may be the establishment of a branch or
subsidiary in the foreign country. Effectively, the bank internalizes the
implicit market for this information.
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MULTINATIONAL BANKING
Historical Background
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mother country. Branches were normally subject to tight control by
head office. Their establishment is consistent with the economic
determinants of the MNE, discussed earlier. Branches meant banks
could be better informed about their borrowers engaged in colonial
trade. Since most colonies lacked a
banking system, the home country banks’ foreign branches met the
demand for banking services among their colonial customers.
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from a “passive” international role, where they operated foreign
departments, to one where they became “truly international” by
assuming overseas risks. However, such an argument makes
ambiguous the distinction between the MNB aspect of international
banks and trade in international banking services. As expected, the
key OECD countries, including the USA, UK, Japan, France, and
Germany, have a major presence in international banking.
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INDIA AND GLOBALISATION:
Overview
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A partnership-based programme
Most analysts agree that India has yet to find a voice in world affairs
appropriate to its power and potential and that India’s role on the
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world stage remain unclear. In the short term, key questions remain
about how it relates to the West and other emerging powers,
especially China. More long
term, India has yet to stake out its position as a progressive
international player, a positive broker in the pursuit of multilateral
solutions to global problems and an active player in the promotion of
liberal democracy around the world.
The programme will examine a variety of cutting edge issues and new
ideas
focusing on five areas:
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Publication of policy reports and papers from Indian authors
under the rubric ‘New Thinking from India’
Publication of policy reports and papers from international
observers
(business, government, journalisms and academics) on the various
Indian
perceptions of their country’s place in the world.
Associated public forums, newspaper articles and public
Lecture
1. These forecasts are based on the observation that, over the past
two or three decades, many nations have removed important
regulatory barriers to international banking. Advances in technology
also now allow financial institutions to manage larger information
flows across more locations and to evaluate and manage risks at
lower costs than ever before.
Together, these developments have reduced the costs of supplying
banking services across borders. At the same time, growth in the
international activities and trade of multinational corporations has
increased the
demand for services from financial institutions that operate across
borders.
Despite these developments, the banking industry appears today to
be far from globally integrated, particularly in industrialized countries.
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For example,the foreign share of bank assets in most industrialized
countries remains at or below 10 percent. And although bank
consolidation has been intense within industrialized countries,
mergers and acquisitions
across the borders of these countries have been much less common
The time-series data that might reveal the degree to which global
integration has increased over the past decade. These data cover
European syndicated loans, the ratio of domestic private bank claims
to total (domestic plus foreign) bank claims, and the dispersion of
nonfinancial goods prices across Europe.
In brief, the time-series data show a picture for the current period that
is not substantially different from that at the time of the 1996 survey.
These results are consistent with the idea that affiliates
Value host-nation banks over others because host-nation banks
better understand their own market and may possess superior
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information about local nonfinancial suppliers and customers. The
results also imply that affiliates that have chosen host-nation banks
value the more customized and relationshipbased services offered by
banks with local or regional reach, as opposed to the broad-based
services offered by a host-nation bank that has global reach.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
After peaking in the second half of the 1990s, bank credit to the
private sector has recently risen in a number of emerging
market economies, partly because of stronger demand for loans
associated with robust growth and low interest rates, and partly
because of greater supply of loans associated with improved
bank balance sheets. The share of bank credit to the business
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sector has nonetheless declined in part because lagging
investment spending has curbed corporate loan demand, and
also because of the availability of financing in bond and equity
markets. In some countries risk averse banks have held
government securities rather than lend to the corporate private
sector. Financial institutions have increased lending to
households but this exposes them to new forms of risk, as
illustrated by difficulties in the credit sector in Korea earlier in
this decade. One concern is that banks in some countries have
transferred a significant amount of interest rate or exchange
rate risk to households through floating rate credit or loans
denominated in foreign currency.
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Macroeconomic vulnerabilities (particularly to external shocks)
appear to have declined, reflecting a mix of favourable
temporary conditions as well as improved policies (higher
foreign reserves, more flexible exchange rates, domestic debt
market development and improved fiscal policies). However,
some central banks were still concerned about vulnerability to
certain shocks (eg to domestic demand, to increases in oil
prices or interest rates or declines in property prices),
particularly given the exposure of banks to interest rate or
exchange rate risk and the need in some countries for further
fiscal consolidation. Banks increasingly relied on systematic risk
assessment procedures and quantitative risk management
techniques, with lending being influenced less by government
direction or special bank relationships with borrowers. However,
challenges still arose from lack of data on loan histories for
estimating default probabilities, and risks related to liquidity and
credit risk transfer. Regarding liquidity risk, there is a need to
ensure that banks rely on the interbank markets, rather than the
central bank for liquidity. Regarding credit risk transfer,
notwithstanding significant benefits associated with the growing
use of credit risk transfer instruments, their rapid spread might
in some cases outpace the capacity of financial institutions to
assess and price risks.
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increased authority, independence and legal protection for
supervisors. At the same time, explicit and limited deposit
insurance has helped make clear that not all bank deposits are
guaranteed by the government. The payment of fixed premia
have encouraged banks to monitor the strictness/effectiveness
of supervisory authority and ensured weak banks share the
burden of any payouts. Some of these improvements have been
helped by efforts to adopt international standards for best
practice (Basel Core Principles for Effective Banking
Supervision, Basel I and Basel II) and outside assessments of
financial stability (ie Financial Sector Assessment Programs, or
FSAPs). Challenges remain, including changing the culture in
supervisory agencies as well as audit departments of banks
towards more effective risk management, and the lack of
adequately trained staff.
Bank deregulation and global integration has on the one hand made
monetary policy in emerging markets more potent by allowing a wider
range of transmission channels, including asset market and exchange rate
channels. Domestic bank loan rates also appear to be more responsive to
changes in money market rates in countries with profit-driven banking
systems, perhaps reflecting the recovery in the health in banking systems
(pass through is lower in countries with weak bank systems eg post 1997-
1998 crisis). On the other hand, external factors unrelated to monetary
policy have also shaped bank behaviour. For example, demand for bank
deposits has depended on exchange rate expectations. Global integration
had also led to some convergence in long-term interest rates.
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“Indian banking – global benchmarks”. Today it is
“Global banking – paradigm shift”. This subtle
change of emphasis in themes – from Indian
banking to global banking – clearly reflects today’s
reality: the increasing globalisation of the Indian
economy.
The BIS and its various committees of experts play a major role in
shaping the policies, standards and so on that help to ensure global
financial stability. There are a few of the important committees and
groups. One is the Committee on the Global Financial System
(CGFS). This Committee regularly monitors the latest developments
in financial markets worldwide, and also investigates how structural
changes affect the working of the global financial system.
Representatives of the Reserve Bank of India are active participants
in the work of the CGFS. Another key committee is the Basel
Committee on Banking Supervision, with which many of you will be
familiar. The Basel Committee formulates broad supervisory
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standards and recommends guidelines for sound practices in the
areas of banking system supervision and regulation. The Basel
Committee does not enforce compliance with the standards it issues.
Rather, the expectation is that national authorities will take steps to
put in place the
The FSI and the BIS generally have deepened their contacts with the
financial industry in recent years. The Basel II process provides one
recent obvious instance. This revision of banks’ capital adequacy
requirements was undertaken over a period in which consultation with
the private sector – throughout the world, not just in the main financial
centres – was intense and continuous. This dialogue between the
private sector and the official sector is becoming more and more
important. And this is why conferences such as this one can be so
stimulating and productive.
The first theme is: market forces and the rationale of Basel II .
Because global market forces are increasingly shaping the structures
of national banking systems, supervision needs to be conducted in
ways that harness market discipline.
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The third is that effective market discipline depends on the
harmonisation of standards . Global integration is creating a need for
some degree of harmonisation in this area.
One:
In the past, it was frequently the regulators who directly limited banks’
business and risk-taking and – very often – shielded banks from
competition. Now banks across various jurisdictions are able to take
most of their own decisions – and face the consequences. They also
have to withstand more competition. These developments have
inevitably focused the minds of senior bank managements on the
significance of managing risks.
Two:
Three:
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Banks now face increased competition from the alternative sources
of finance that open capital markets provide. At the same time,
various capital market instruments are now available to banks that
can help them to manage their risk profiles in a more flexible manner.
Banks not only need to price their products based on a better
assessment of risks, but they also need to
Basel I has become widely used – indeed more than 100 countries
around the world have implemented this standard. In the light of the
market developments that I have just mentioned, however, Basel I
has become outdated, especially for the large, sophisticated banks. It
is also not sufficiently risk-sensitive for the more competitive and
more complex banking business that has emerged over the past
decade.
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The importance of market discipline brings the second theme:
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years to allow greater FDI in domestic private sector banks and to
permit the establishment of foreign banking subsidiaries in India are
therefore to be welcomed.
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The process of harmonisation of accounting standards began several
years ago and is being coordinated by the International Accounting
Standards Board (IASB). A number of international financial reporting
standards (IFRS) have been finalised and have been applicable to all
listed companies in the European Union since 1 January 2005.
Several other countries have also adopted IFRS as their national
accounting standards. It is estimated that more than 90 countries will
either permit or require the use of IFRS before or during 2007 for
publicly traded companies.
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greater consistency and quality of information. Ultimately, the
adoption of such common standards will lead to increased
opportunities for global investment, and will boost employment and
growth globally. Not surprisingly, then, there is growing momentum in
the adoption of IFRS across jurisdictions.
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