SUBJECT: PHYSIOLOGY
TOPIC: REFLEXES
REFLEXES
Definition of Reflex – a stereotyped response to specific
stimulus; any response that occur automatically without
conscious effort
Two types of Reflex
a. Simple or Basic Reflex – built-in, unlearned
responses, e.g., closing of eyes when an object
moves towards them. Processed and integrated in
spinal cord and brainstem
b. Acquired or Conditional Reflex – Results from
practice and learning, e.g., steering car wheel to
follow a curve done automatically but after
considerable training effort. Integrated, processed
in higher brain centers.
Relfex Arc
- Basic unit of integrating neural activity; anatomical
basis for the reflex
- Stereotypical response to adequate stimuli
*Stereotypical response: generally involuntary
- May be innate or learned, but there are reflexes
that you NEED to learn (i.e. in driving).
- Simplest circuit involved for posture, walking,
eating, laughing as well as control of autonomic
functions.
-
*Bell-Magendie Law - Principle that states that the dorsal
(posterior) roots of the spinal cord are sensory and that the
ventral (anterior) roots are motor.
Reflex Arc (parts)
1. Afferent limb
- Would consist of a sensory receptor organ.
- Afferent or sensory neuron and nerve
- The sense organ may be part of the first order
neuron (free or encapsulated nerve endings) or a
specialized independent cell.
2. Center
- The afferent limb will synapse with one or more
neurons in CNS (either in the spinal cord,
brainstem, thalamic nuclei, or the cerebral cortex).
3. Efferent limb
- Efferent or motor neuron and nerve and an
effector organ (glands- exocrine and endocrine and
muscles – smooth, skeletal & cardiac)
PHYSIOLOGY: REFLEXES
LECTURER: DANTE G. SIMBULAN JR. PhD
DATE: FEBRUARY 2011
- Efferent fiber that innervates skeletal muscle -
alpha (α) motor neurons (which is the FINAL
COMMON PATHWAY towards skeletal muscles!).
The soma of skeletal muscle neurons are found in
the ventral horn.
*Cardiac and smooth muscle have different fibers
(Autonomic nerves – parasympathetic or
sympathetic; pre- and post-ganglionic).
- Intrafusal fibers – gamma (γ) motor efferents
Reflex Arcs vary in complexity.
 Simple at level of the spinal cord
 More complex at the level of brainstem
 Most complex in the cerebral cortex
Stimulus – a change in the external/internal environment.
In the body, changes in temperate, pressure, electrolyte
concentration, etc., can act as stimuli
Adequate Stimulus – a stimulus to which a receptor is most
sensitive or to which it has a low threshold, e.g., eye
sensitive to lights; see „stars‟ when punched.
Threshold Stimulus – the weakest stimulus that a sensory
receptor can reliably detect and activate primary afferent
fibers
Motor Unit – a single motor neuron and the muscle cells it
synapses on. Each muscle cell belongs to only one motor
unit. Size of motor units varies and depends on muscle
function: small muscle that generate very finely controlled
movements (e. extra-ocular muscles of the eyes, motor
units tend to be small and may contain just a few muscle
fibers); large muscles that generate strong forces, e.g.,
gastrocnemius muscle of the leg, tend to have large motor
units with more than several thousand muscle fibers.
Two Types of motor neurons:
a. Alpha Motor neurons – innervate the main force-
generating muscle fibers (“extrafusal” fibers).
b. Gamma Motor neurons – innervate only the fibers
of the muscle spindle (“intrafusal” fibers)
Motor Neuron Pool – the groups of all motor neurons
innervating a single muscle
**Not all reflex activity involves clear-cut reflex arcs:
- response may be mediated through neurons
or hormones or both
- local response may not be due to hormones
or nerves but by local metabolites
Page 1
Classification Systems of Reflexes
A. According to NUMBER of SYNAPSES at level of the
SPINAL CORD:
1. Monosynaptic – only one synapse
2. Polysynaptic – two or more synapses in between your 1st
order neuron and your final common
pathway.
B. According to LOCATION of SENSORY RECEPTOR
1. Superficial – skin (cutaneous) and subcutaneous;; result
from stimulation of the receptors present in the skin and
mucous membrain – they are all polysynaptic, e.g.,
withdrawal reflex or scratch reflex.
2. Deep – deep tissues (i.e. muscle, bone, joints); reflexes
that result from stimulation of receptors present in muscles
or tendons, e.g., stretch reflex
3. Visceral – i.e. carotid sinus, carotid arch, baroreceptors,
chemoreceptors; clinically important reflexes
– micturation, defacation and erection.
C. According to LOCATION of EFFECTOR RESPONSE
1. Somatic – i.e. skeletal muscle contraction
2. Autonomic – i.e. tachycardia, bradycardia, increase in
stroke volume
*overlaps such as somato-autonomic (i.e. You get pinched
and then there is an increase in blood pressure aside from
the withdrawal response.)
D. According to SITE of INTEGRATION (in the CNS)
1. Spinal Cord
2. Brainstem
3. Thalamus
4. Hypothalamus
5. Cerebral Cortex (where most learned reflexes are
mediated)
TWO MAIN TYPES OF REFLEX ARCS:
1. Monosynaptic Reflex (e.g. stretch reflex of muscle
spindles) – made up of a two-neuron pathway from
receptor to effector (the afferent or sensory neuron has a
direct synaptic connection with the efferent / motor neuron,
without the intervention of interneurons), e.g., stretch or
myotactic reflex – which is the most rapid of all reflexes,
utilizing 1A afferent which are the largest diameter, fastest/
conducting of any afferent nerves
2. Polysynaptic Reflex / Multi-synaptic
- More than one synapse
- Made up of a few or several interneurons
intersposed between the afferent and efferent
neurons, e.g., withdrawal reflex
- i.e. pain reflex, inverse stretch (of golgi tendon),
and withdrawal flexor cross extensor reflexes
- Autonomic reflexes – cardiovascular baroreceptor
reflex (involving your pre- and post- synaptic
neurons). May elicit a cardioinhibitory response or
cardioaccelatory.
**In both mono- and polysynaptic arcs, the activity is
modified by such phenomena as spatial and temporal
summation, subliminal fringe effects, and other laws.
PHYSIOLOGY: REFLEXES
*A shows 3 interneurons; B shows 4 interneurons;
C shows 4 interneurons and a neuron that sends
fibers back.
Three Target Reflexes (examples of Spinal Reflexes)
A. Stretch or Myotatic Reflex – monosynaptic; the simplest
reflex; passively stretching a skeletal muscle causes a
reflexive contraction of that same muscle and relaxation of
the antagonistic muscle, e.g., “knee jerk or patellar reflex”
– a light tap on patellar tendon  pulls on and briefly
stretches the quadriceps femoris muscles (an extensor) 
reflexive contraction of quadriceps and relaxation of
semitendinosus muscle (a flexor). This is a key reflex that
helps maintain posture; most rapid of all reflexes, It has two
forms:
1. Phasic stretch Reflex – elicited by primary endings
of muscles spindles
2. Tonic stretch reflex – depends on both primary and
secondary endings
The stretch reflex is a monosynaptic reflex,mediated
by 1A and 2 sensory fibers emanating from the muscle
stretch receptor known as muscle spindles. Best studied in
decerebrate animals, also in spinal animals that have
recovered from spinal shock. Examples are seen in deep
tendon reflexes, such as the patellar reflex, Achilles reflex,
masseter, triceps, etc. The muscle that is stretched
contains sensory receptor known as the muscle spindle.
The muscle spindle elicits the reflex contraction
B. Inverse Stretch (or Inverse Myotatic) Reflex/ Autogenic
inhibition – di-, tri- synaptic reflex, extension of stretch
reflex, a.k.a. AUTOGENIC INHIBITION or LENGTHENING
REACTION (but may pertain to the pathologic response
secondary to spinal cord lesions).
- A relaxation in response to a stroing muscle
tension (muscle contraction stretches the tendon). The
receptor for the inverse stretch reflex is the golgi tendon
organ. The fibers from the golgi tendon organs make up the
1B group of myelinated, rapidly conducting sensory nerve
fibers. Stimulation of these 1B fibers leads to the
production of IPSPs on the motor neurons that supply the
muscle from which the fibers arise. The 1B fibers end on
the spinal cord on inhibitory interneurons that in turn
terminate directly on the motor neurons (they also make
excitatory connections with motor neurons supplying
antagonists to the muscle.) The inverse reflex is a by-
synaptic reflex.
C. Flexion Reflex – this is a polysynaptic reflex, This involves
many receptors outside of muscle that contracts.
Afferent volleys arising from activation of sensory receptors
cause:
1. Excitatory interneurons to activate alpha motor
neurons that supply flexro muscles in the
ipsilateral limb.
Page 2
 2. Inhibitory interneurons to prevent the activation of
alpha motor neurons that supply the antagonistic
extensor muscles
3. In addition, commissural interneurons evoke the
opposite pattern of activity in the contralateral side
of the spinal cord, This opposite pattern results in
extension, the Crossed Extension Reflex. The
contralateral effects helps the subject maintain
balance.
- Stimulated by both passive stretch and active
contraction of the muscle; muscle contraction is
more effective than muscle stretch
- Signals force, rather than muscle length or rate of
change of muscle length
- This is the sensory receptor for the inverse stretch
reflex (myotatic reflex)

The most powerful flexion reflex is the flexor

Withdrawal reflex (a pain reflex):
-activated by nociceptors (nociceptors form the
afferent limb of this reflex; includes cutaneous, muscle,
joint and visceral nociceptor
- polysynaptic, flexor cross extensor and post-
synaptic reflex components)
Mammalian Muscle Spindle
-there is considerable divergence of the primary
afferent and interneuronal pathways in the flexion reflex - Activates the stretch reflex
involving major joints in a limb, e.g., hip, knee, ankle, in a - Has a connective tissue capsule
strong flexor withdrawal reflex. - Intrafusal fibers
o Nuclear bag fibers (1-3) – have a highly
- most powerful flexison
nucleated central part
o Nuclear chain fibers (3-9) – its nuclei form
* Both stretch and inverse stretch reflexes are stimulated a chain
by proprioceptive stimuli. - Sensory fibers/endings (histology)
o Group Ia (primary afferent)
SENSORY RECEPTOR OF DEEP REFLEXES  Refers to an A-α sensory fiber
 Muscle spindle  Fast conducting
 Come from nuclear bag fiber, some
 Golgi Tendon Organ
from chain
 One branc of 1A fibers innervates
Muscle Spindle
nuclear bag fiber 1; nne branch
- Wrapped around intrafusal fibers (which are
innervates nuclear bag fiber 2 and
actually part of the muscle spindles which are a
nuclear chain fibers
type of skeletal muscle fiber)
 Group 1A fibers belong to the largest
- the contractile part of skeletal muscle fibers are
diameter clas of sensory fibers and
the EXTRAFUSAL FIBERS.
conduct at 72-120 m/sec. Group 1A
- Both the intrafusal and extrafusal fibers run
fibers wrap around the center of the
parallel with each other and have sensory endings
nuclear bag and nuclear chain fibers
wrapped around them
 Annulospiral ending – sensory endings
Muscle Spindle = Connective Tissue capsule + Sensory that wrap around the intrafusal fibers
endings + Intrafusal fibers o Group II (Secondary afferent)
 Fast conducting (not as fast as Ia)
- Histology: spindle-shaped, about 100 microns in  Group II fibers are intermediate in size
diameter, and up to 10 mm long. It lies freely in the and conduct at 36-72 m/sec.
lymph space between regular extrafusal muscle fibers,  Located near the ends of the intrafusal
in parallel. Within a muscle spindle, there are two main fibers, mainly on nuclear chain fibers
types of intrafusal fibers: (occasionally may contact a nuclear
1. Nuclear bag fibers – with several nuclei in bag fiber.
central or equatorial region; generally two  Nuclear chain fiber = terminate as a
nuclear bag fibers per muscle spindle flower spray ending
a. Nuclear bag fiber 1 has low level
of myosin ATPase activity
b. Nuclear bag fiber 2 has a high
level of myosin ATPase activity
2. Nuclear chain fibers – with one row of
nuclei; about 4 or more nucear chain
fibers per muscle spindle

Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO)

- Arranged in series with extrafusal fibers in the
junction area of muscle and tendon.
- Consist of a netlike collection of knobby nerve
endings among the fascicles of a tendon
- Arranged in series with the extrafusal fibers
- Formed by the terminals of group 1B afferent
fibers (also myelinated, rapidly conducting sensroy
nerve fibers)

PHYSIOLOGY: REFLEXES Page 3

 - 31% of motor fibers from ventral horn are γ
efferents
- ~70% are α motor neurons

- Efferent limb
o Responsible for effector response of a
muscle spindle = REFLEX CONTRACTION.
- A γ fibers (γ efferents) – gamma motor neuron
o Come from spinal cord to innervate the Control of γ efferent Discharge
intrafusal fibers - Increased γ efferent discharge – while muscle is
o Motor innervation not stretched (artificially stimulated in in vitro setup)
o Tonically active to maintain muscle tone o There is stimulation of sensory afferents
o Discharge at resting rate
o Two Types: - Increased γ efferent discharge – when muscle is
 Dynamic gamma motor axons – stretched
end with plate endings on nuclear o Stronger reflex contraction (more impulses)
bag fibers
 Static Gamma motor axons end
with trail endings on nuclear
chain fibers;
*gamma motor axons are smaller in diameter than the
alpha-motor axons to extrafusal fibers, hence conduct more
slowly at 12-48 m/sec.
- Intrafusal fibers have a non-contractile portion
(sensory portion; central) meaning they DO NOT
have actin and myosin.
- Only terminal ends have contractile elements
innervated by γ efferents.
- When γ efferents discharge, the terminal ends
contract and the central portion is STRETCHED
(hence the name of the reflex).
*γ efferents are actually generally tonically active
to maintain muscle tone.
- γ efferents will increase discharge when you inhibit
the negative inhibition signals (or inhibitory
descending signals) coming from the brainstem.
DISINHIBITION happens and their basal discharge
increases. This happens most likely in spinal cord
lesions and leads to HYPEREFLEXIA (increased
sensitivity of the reflexes).

Length feedback system
In vitro setup
- In stretched muscle – sensory nerves increase in
discharge frequency (number of impulses).
- In stimulated muscle (contracted) – Ia and II fibers
are stretched, hence no impulses (but in reality,
there is no silencing since A γ fibers are tonically
active)
* If you severe your γ efferents, most likely your α motor
efferents are severed too because they are together in one
nerve bundle.
Role of Stretch reflex in Postural Reflexes
The upright posture characteristic of mas is
produced, maintained, and restored when upset, by a
series of coordinated reflexes called postural reflexes.
Posture depends on the degree and distribution of muscle

PHYSIOLOGY: REFLEXES Page 4

tone and muscle tone depends principally on stretch reflex, - Autogenic Inhibition – when there‟s passive
hence, the stretch reflex is the basic postural reflex. stretching or an increased muscle tension due to
The role of stretch reflex in the maintenance of forceful muscle contraction it will inhibit itself.
posture is reinforced and modified by afferent impulses to o Inhibition brought about by activity of the
the CNS (central nervous system) from: muscle itself not the muscle concerned.
1. Proprioceptors of the muscles of the neck, - Lengthening Reaction - results in a reflex
trunk and limbs relaxation.
2. Eyes
3. Vestibular apparatus Central Connections
4. Exteroceptors of the skin - Ib afferent from GTO
These impulses are integrated by coordinated
activity of the spinal cord, brainstem, cerebellum, •DRG neuron releases an excitatory
basal ganglia and cerebral cortex. (neck muscles 1 neurotransmitter: Glutamate)
contain the lasrgest concentration of muscles
spindles of any muscle in the body). •The inhibitory interneuron is depolarized and
2 thus releases glycine (for inhibition).
Reciprocal Innervation (Reciprocal Inhibition)
o Muscle agonists and antagonists (i.e. If •The α motor neuron is inhibited.)
your muscle is the biceps brachii, your 3
antagonist is your triceps brachii.)
•Reflex relaxation (that is proportionate to
- Principle of Reciprocal Innervation in Stretch
reflexes 4 amount of reflex contraction)
o Knee jerk reflex
 Tap the quadriceps femoris tendon.
- Similar to interneuron found in reflex relaxation. In
 Hamstrings relax and quads contract.
fact, it might be one and the same, the only
 The inhibitory interneuron (golgi bottle
difference is that it receives descending and/or
neuron) receives an excitatory signal
sensory inputs from periphery.
from the afferent limb which therefore
inhibits the α motor neuron to
stimulate the hamstrings resulting into Releases glutamate (excitatory)
reflex relaxation of the hamstrings.
*This inhibition happens by the release of glycine
(an inhibitory neurotransmitter) by the inhibitory
interneuron that leads to hyperpolarization of the
α motor neuron. Releases glycine (inhibitory)
 The α motor neuron to the quadriceps
femoris also receives an excitatory
signal and therefore causes
contraction of the muscle.
 Both of these happen simultaneously
giving rise to the “knee jerk” action.
o Deep tendon reflexes – excitatory Inhibited = Reflex relaxation
monosynaptic reflex of the stretch reflex.
 Refers to STRETCH REFLEX not
INVERSE STRETCH REFLEX. (Be
mindful of this because it is
misleading).
o Used to test patients with spinal cord
lesions. Polysynaptic Reflexes
- We‟ll focus on the Withdrawal Reflex which is a
Inverse Stretch Reflex and Golgi Tendon Organ pain reflex.
- a.k. a. the Inverse Myotactic Reflex - But there are also many non-noxious reflexes (i.e.
- Sensor for tension feedback itch)
- Very responsive to forceful muscle contraction and
passive stretching. Flexor Cross Extensor Reflex (Withdrawal reflex)
- If you contract muscles too much or if you carry a If you step on a broken bottle (“bubog”) there is:
very heavy object your tendons might severe or o Contraction of hamstrings to evade
tear. There is a receptor similar to a pain receptor damaging stimulus (flexor component)
(but does not respond to pain) that responds to o Contraction of muscles on contralateral
excessive forceful contractions. side for balance (cross extensor
- Anatomically the GTOs can be found at the junction component)
of tendon and muscle fibers - (+) Reciprocal Innervation
- Proportion is 1 GTO : 10-15 extrafusal fibers
- Again, stimulants are: passive stretching and - Others:
contraction o Muscle spasm, injured viscera, muscle
- Produces reflex relaxation brought about by cramps
inhibitory interneuron which causes o Reflexes of posture and locomotion
hyperpolarization of the α motor neuron. o Scratch reflex – automatic response we
can automatically localize the stimulus.
Other terms for inverse stretch reflex: With knowledge of the somatotropic
organization of the sensory homunculus

PHYSIOLOGY: REFLEXES Page 5

 we can localize the area of the stimulus.
*Not just a spinal reflex but it also has a
cerebral cortex component.
o Visceral autonomic reflexes
o Babinski Reflex – found in infants; upon
mechanical stimulation the baby‟s toes
turn downward (toe extension)
 Due to underdeveloped pyramidal
fibers.
 If this happens in adults, there is
a lesion in the CST or pyramidal
tract (upper motor neuron lesion).
o Suckling reflex – has somatic components
(neuroendocrine like oxytocin and
prolactin)
 Also a superficial reflex
o Moro reflex – startling reaction in babies.
o Stepping reflex
Superficial Reflexes – elicited by stimulation of mucous
membrain and skin. They are all polysynaptic
(pleurisynaptic). They include:
1. Corneal Reflex
2. Snout Reflex
3. Rooting Reflex
4. Sucking Reflex
5. Abdominal Reflex
6. Plantar Reflex (all toes flex)
7. Cremasteric Reflex
8. Sphincter Reflex, etc.
**2, 3 and 4 - transposted abdominal muscle reflex,
absent in upper (suprasegmental) motor neuron lesions
Visceral Reflexes/ Other reflexes found in other organ
systtems
A. Cardiovascular System Reflexes
a. Bainbridge Reflex – right heart distention
 increase heart rate; tachycardia caused
by an increase in venous return
b. Baroreceptor Reflex – increased right
atrial pressure  increase in cardiac
output  increase in arterial pressure;
increase in heart rate or relieving stretch
on high pressure arterial receptors 
tachycardia, which increase stretch on
high pressure arterial receptors 
decrease stroke volume (SV)
c. Starling‟s Law – decrease initial fiber
length  decrease stroke volume and vice
versa
d. Chemoreceptor Reflex
e. Ventricular Receptor Reflex
f. Cushing Reflex – increase in arterial
presure occurs in response to an increase
in intracranial pressure
B.
Spinal Cord Transection
- Usually reflexes become hyperactive
(HYPEREFLEXIA) after recovery from spinal shock
(period of hyporeflexia).
- These hypereflexive responses can be utilized by
paraplegics with spinal cord transections to be
able to induce some actions that require voluntary
control or normal physiologic functions.
- “Mass reflexes” – involve hypereflexive responses.
o For example, the patient has a spinal cord
transaction at the level of T12, he can
PHYSIOLOGY: REFLEXES
simply pinch his leg to induce a mass
reflex.
o i.e. The patient wants to defecate (anal
sphincters have voluntary control), he can
pinch just pinch himself that will allow
them to empty their bowel in the toilet.
Two types of hypereflexia:
- ABNORMAL LENGTHENING REACTION (Clasp-knife
/ Swiss-knife reflex)
o Patients with upper motor neuron lesion
o At first there is resistance to stretch when
you bend a limb (knee/elbow) as a result
of stronger muscle contraction brought
about by stretching of the tendons when
you try to bend the limb.
o Hyperactive relfex due to disinhibition of γ
efferents (discharge more than normal)
due to loss of tonic inhibition of upper
motor neuron.
- CLONUS
o Also an example of increased γ efferent
discharge due to upper motor neuron
lesion
o Commonly seen in ankle reflex.
o In video: Try to stretch the gastrocnemius
but it is HYPERSPASTIC.
END OF TRANSCRIPTION
REPORTINGS: (Based on powerpoints of the reporters)
GLUTAMATE TRANSMITTER-RECEPTOR REACTION
- transmitter-receptor interaction
- Central Pain pathways
- Neurotransmitter released : glutamate, substance
P, and CGRP to excite the 2nd order neurons in the
dorsal horn and trigeminal nucleus .
GLUTAMATE
- is one of the 20 amino acids used to assemble
proteins and as a result is abundant in many areas
of the body.
- the most prominent neurotransmitter in the body,
being present in over 50% of nervous tissue.
- Note: The only direct effect of a neurotransmitter is
to activate one or more types of receptors.
GLUTAMATE RECEPTOR
- are synaptic receptors located primarily on the
membranes of neuronal cells.
- responsible for the glutamate-mediated post-
synaptic excitation of neural cells
- important for neural communication, memory
formation, learning, and regulation. (See
supplementary figures on following page.)
- are thought to be responsible for the reception and
transduction of umami taste stimuli.
- Taste receptors of the T1R family, belonging to the
same class of GPCR as metabotropic Glutamate
Receptors are involved
- Additionally, the mGluRs as well as ionotropic
glutamate receptors in neural cells have been
found in taste buds and may contribute to the
umami taste
During Fast Pain Response
- C-Fiber excitation releases Glutamate and
Aspartate
During Slow Pain Response
Page 6
 - in prolonged stimulation, Neuropeptides are - Styrchnine binds to the glycine receptor without
released by the C-Fibers such as Substance-P opening the chloride ion-channel; it inhibits
GLUTAMATE vs. SUBSTANCE P inhibition.
GLUTAMATE - Styrchnine poisoning leads to muscular tetany.
o fast excitatory synapses in the brain and
spinal cord. GLYCINE RECEPTOR (GlyR)
o It is also used at most synapses that are - Ligand-gated ion channel
"modifiable", i.e. capable of increasing or - Pentameric (250 kDa):
decreasing in strength. o 4 α- subunits (48 kDa)
o Modifiable synapses are thought to be the  Ligand-binding site
main memory-storage elements in the o 1 β- subunit (58 kDa)
brain. o Both subunits:
SUBSTANCE P  Span the post-synaptic
o is an undecapeptide responsible for membrane and are glycosylated.
transmission of pain from certain sensory o Composed of 4 hydrophobic segments:
neurons to the central nervous system. M1-M4; as alpha-helices.
o Substance P also stimulates mast cells to
release more histamine as well as more
prostaglandins and bradykinins, further
stimulating the nociceptors.
o Substance P also contributes to swelling
and redness in the area of pain.

GLYCINE TRANSMITTER-RECEPTOR REACTION

GLYCINE
- is the simplest of amino acids, consisting of an
amino group and a carboxyl (acidic) group attached
to a carbon atom. GEPHYRIN
- Links GlyR to the intracellular cytoskeleton
- Profilin (Involved in actin dynamics and
- Collybistin downstream signaling )
- Raft-1 – candidate regulator of dendritic protein
synthesis
- Aggregates GlyR in clusters

- It is one of the non-essential amino acids.

- Some of its main functions include being a
precursor to proteins and a neurotransmitter in
vertebrate CNS.
- It has excitatory (in the forebrain) and mainly
inhibitory (in spinal cord and brainstem) actions.
- The excitatory function of the glycine
neurotransmitter is the coagonist of glutamate N-
methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate
receptor.
- Formed from Serine by Serine
hydroxymethyltransferase (SHMT)
- Packaging to synaptic vesicles by H+ dependent
vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter (VIAAT)
- Glycine release depends on Ca2+ concentration (2
figures)
AGONISTS ANTAGONISTS GLYCINE TRANSPORTER (GlyT)
- Na+/Cl--dependent, high-affinity glycine
B-Alanine Styrchnine
transporters
Taurine Picrotoxin - Facilitates termination of Glycine synaptic actions
Proline Caffeine by rapid reuptake
GlyT1
L-Serine - Found in the plasmalemma of Astrocytes; involved
in removal of glycine from post-synatic receptors

PHYSIOLOGY: REFLEXES Page 7

 GlyT2
- Found in the pre-synaptic membrane; replenishes
the presynaptic glycine pool

FIGURES FOR GLUTAMATE:

PHYSIOLOGY: REFLEXES Page 8

FIGURES FOR GLYCINE:

Glycine potentiate the

effects of Glutamate as
an excitatory
neurotransmitter of the
NMDA receptor in the
forebrain.

PHYSIOLOGY: REFLEXES Page 9

 Formation of Glycine

Glycine Release

PHYSIOLOGY: REFLEXES Page 10

 Glycine receptor is a complex of a glycine-recognition site and an associated Chloride channel. At least 2 glycine
molecules are needed to bind with the receptor to activate and open the Chloride channel.

Here, you can see that the GlyT1 and GlyT2 transporters are found in glial and pre-synaptic terminals, respectively.

GLYCINE TRANSMITTER-RECEPTOR INTERACTION

(Summary)
1. Glycine is produced from precursor: Serine by SHMT
(Serine hydroxymethyltransferase).
2. Then, packaging to synaptic vesicles is by H+ dependent
vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter (VIAAT).
3. The release of Glycine depends on Ca2+ concentration.
4. When released into a synapse, glycine binds to a
receptor which makes the post-synaptic membrane more
permeable to Cl- ion.
5. This hyperpolarizes the membrane, making it less likely
to depolarize and generate an action potential. Thus,
glycine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
6. It is de-activated in the synapse by a simple process of
reabsorption by active transport back into the pre-synaptic
membrane (providing a substrate for the VIAAT) or glial
system (for degradation by the Glycine, GCS).

PHYSIOLOGY: REFLEXES Page 11