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Continuous → Discrete
FE Approximation
+
3 2
1
x2 2
x1
+
4
+
3
4
u (x ) = ∑ N a (x ) ⋅ ua
a =1
SDOF → MDOF
δε σ δu f
1 ∂u ∂u
T
ε= 2 + = Bu e
δε = B δu e
∂x ∂x
∫ = ∫ fdS
T T
δε σdV δu
V S
∫ e = ∫ e N fdS
T T T T
δu B σdV δu
V S
FE Approximation
∫ e B σdV =
∫ e N fdS
T T T T
δu δu
V S
∫ = ∫ fdS
T T
B σdV N
V S
∫ σ(u e )dV = F
T
B
V
Linear Problem
Linear Elasticity
σ = Dε = DBu e
∫ B σdV = F ∫ DBu e dV = F
T
T
B
V V
Ku e = F
• Solution usually “straightforward”
• Can be achieved in a single step
• Apply F, invert K, solve for ue
• Go back and determine ε and σ
Non-Linear Problems
Non-linearities can arise for many reasons, e.g.
1 ∂u ∂u
T
∂u ∂u
T
• geometric non-linearities ε= 2 + +
– large deformation kinematics ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
– non-linear ε-u relationship = B(u e )u e
• material non-linearities
– non-linear constitutive law σ = σ (u e )
– non-linear σ-ε relationship
σ1
ε
ε1
Non-linear Material
• Elastic-plastic material
σ
σy
σ0
Strain hardening
ε
εp εe
Plastic Elastic
Non-Linear Problem
FE equations
∫ e σ(u e )dV = F
T
B (u )
V
∫ e σ(u e )dV − F = G (u e ) = 0
T
B (u )
V
Material non-linearity
G (u t + ∆t ) = ∫ B T σ (u t + ∆t )dV − F = 0
V
Continue to iterate
until convergence:
xi +1 − xi < Tolerance
f ( xi +1 ) < Tolerance
Newton-Raphson
For FE same principle G (u t + ∆t ) = 0
u t + ∆t
=u t + ∆t ∂G u
−
( t + ∆t
i ) G (u )
−1
t + ∆t
For ith iteration i +1 i i
∂u
Reorganise δu i +1 = u t + ∆t
−u t + ∆t ∂G u
= −
( t + ∆t
i ) G (u )
−1
t + ∆t
i +1 i i
∂u
K – tangent stiffness matrix
δu i +1 = −K u ( t + ∆t −1
i ) G (u ) t + ∆t
i
( )
K u ti + ∆t δ u i +1 = − G u ti + ∆t ( )
Newton-Raphson
( ) (
K u ti + ∆t δ u i +1 = − G u ti + ∆t )
• Must be solved for each iteration for change
in incremental displacements
• K and G are different for each iteration
• Same form as for linear problems: Ku = F
• Initial guess is usually ut
Convergence: (+ ∆t
G u ti +1 )
< Tolerance
k =1
Newton-Raphson
i
u ti + ∆t − u t = ∆u i = ∑ δu k
k =1
Ft
G (uδt0+u
∆t
) δu2
1
ut ∆u ut+∆t
Newton-Raphson
G (u ti + ∆t )
Method requires accurate evaluation of
For each iteration i K (u ti + ∆t )
G (u ti + ∆t ) = ∫ B T σ (u ti + ∆t )dV − F t + ∆t = 0
V
(
K u ti + ∆t ) =
(
∂G u ti + ∆t )
= ∫ BT
∂σ
dV
∂u V
∂u (u ti +∆t )
∂σ ∂ε T ∂σ
= ∫B T
dV = ∫ B BdV
V
∂ε (u ti +∆t ) ∂u V
∂ε (uti +∆t )
Jacobian of
Consistent ∂σ constitutive law
Tangent Matrix
D tan
=
∂ε (uti +∆t )
( )
K u ti + ∆t = ∫ B T Dtan BdV
V
Form of K
Ft
ut ut+∆t Displacement
Newton-Raphson
• Accurate and displays rapid convergence
• However there are modified methods used
– Simplified methods:
• Constant K – from first iteration in increment
• Initial stress method – K from first increment
– Complex methods: BFGS, etc.
• Can modify K but still must calculate G
accurately (SUA)
Non-Linear Solution Methods
• Implicit methods: Newton-Raphson
– NR: Gold Standard
– Rigorous convergence criterion
• Explicit methods: Kt ∆u = ∆F
• Both involve formation and inversion of the
global stiffness matrix K
• Major computational chore – processing and
storage
– Huge efforts made in developing efficient storage
and processing methods
– Skyline solvers, element by element solvers, etc.
• Alternative?
Dynamic Explicit Methods
• Problems reformulated as dynamic
• Include nodal velocities, accelerations
• Include inertia → mass matrix M
&&i = −M −1G i
u
∆ti +1 + ∆ti
u& i + 1 = u& i − 1 + u
&&i
2 2
2
u i +1 = u i + ∆ti +1u& i + 1
2
Stress Update Algorithm
• To get accurate solution for any
iteration/increment, need accurate Gt+∆t
G (u t + ∆t ) = ∫ B T σ (u t + ∆t )dV − F t + ∆t = 0
V
F
GG((uu t0+)∆t )
t + ∆t
0 G (u1t + ∆t )
Ft+∆t
K (u1t + ∆t )
K (u t0+ ∆t )
Ft
G (uδt0+u
∆t
) δu2
1
ut ∆u ut+∆t
Stress Update Algorithm