Isaiah 40-55 As A Polemic Against The Akitu Festival

A Reading of Isaiah 40-55 as a Polemic Against the Babylonian Akitu Festival
By Krista Whittenburg
Concordia Seminary St. Louis
Spring, 2009
Isaiah 40–55 is a masterfully constructed poetic work with incredible depth.Isaiah is a
master of rhetoric, satire, and drama. He weaves together numerous themes throughout these
chapters, including creation, the Exodus and conquest, Yahweh's hesed, the covenants of
Yahweh and the patriarchs, the Word of Yahweh, justice and righteousness, and many others to
produce a multi-layered text which ultimately sends a message of hope not only for Israel that he
will once again lead them out of bondage, but also to the nations, even to the ends of the earth
that they too will receive receive justice.
One theme in particular, however, has not been studied in depth by biblical scholars to
date—the theme of the polemic against the Babylonian Akitu festival. Westermann,1 Goldingay,2
Baltzer,3 and Watts4 have all written noteworthy commentaries about Isaiah 40–55. Yet none of
these authors includes a sustained argument regarding Isaiah's rhetoric against Marduk and the
Akitu festival. Joseph Blenkinsopp5 identifies several common themes between Isaiah 40–55 and
the Akitu festival, but his commentary on this theme is brief and undeveloped, and Blenkinsopp
1
Claus Westermann, Isaiah 40–66 (ed. Peter Ackroyd et al.; trans. David M. G. Stalker; OTL; Göttingen,
Germany: SCM Press Ltd, 1969).
2
John Goldingay, The Message of Isaiah 40–55: A Literary-Theological Commentary (London, UK: T&T
Clark International, 2005)
3
Klaus Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah (ed. Peter Machinist; trans. Margaret Kohl; Minneapolis, Minn.: Augsburg
Fortress, 2001).
4
John D. W. Watts, Isaiah 34–66 (WBC 33; Waco, Tex.: Word, 1985).
5
Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40-55: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary by Joseph
Blenkinsopp (AB 19A; New Haven & London: Doubleday, 2006).
1
neglects to consult essential Akitu festival studies in the process, including an earlier study of
this very theme by Gerald Larue.6
Thesis
This paper will build upon the work of Babylonian Akitu festival scholars, Blenkinsopp,
and Larue in order to argue that there are a sufficient number of points of contact between Isaiah
40–55 and the texts of the Babylonian Akitu festival to warrant an in-depth study of this theme.
This is by no means a comprehensive study but is rather intended to indicate areas and
approaches for further study.
The Current Status of the Question
The question of whether Isaiah 40–55 can be read as a polemic against the Babylonian
Akitu Festival has been taken up most recently by Joseph Blenkinsopp.7 Blenkinsopp argues that,
the central message of Isa 40–55 can be construed as a kind of mirror-image of the
ideology expressed in the akitu liturgy and the Enuma Elish myth. The fact that the
only foreign deities named in these chapters are Bel and Nebo—that is, Marduk and
his son Nabū (46:1-2), the divine protagonists in the akitu festival—supports this
reading of the text. The Isaian passage in question can be construed as a satirical
rendering of the most visible act of the akitu ceremony and therefore the one most
likely to be familiar to non-Babylonians—namely, the procession of the statues of
the two gods drawn on ceremonial chariots through the city. The idea might then be
that, rather than return in triumph into Babylon from the akitu house, they would
continue on into exile after the fall of the city. 8
Blenkinsopp identifies parallels between Isaiah 40–55 and the Akitu festival with the idol statues
of Bel and Nebo in Is 46:1-2,9 the defeat and murder of Tiamat by Marduk from the Enuma Elish
6
Gerald A. Larue, Old Testament Life and Literature (Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 1968). Cited March 31,
2009. Online: http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gerald_larue/otll/.
7
Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40-55.
8
Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40-55, 107.
9
2
(see the Appendix) in 51:9-10,10 Yahweh as sovereign God and creator king (primarily in chs.
40–48).11 Blenkinsopp's study is plausible and helpful yet superficial in that he consults none of
the significant studies previously written on the Akitu festival. He cites only the Enuma Elish as
a source for his work and hypothesizes about possible connections without sufficient evidence to
support his argument. In discussing the connection of the phrase "'there is none that can save but
me… there is none that can deliver from my hand' (see also 44:6, 8; 45:6, 21)," Blenkinsopp
writes that this claim "resembles a similar formulation attributed to Babylon personified and
therefore in all probablity spoken in the name of the Babylonian imperial deity, Marduk: 'I am,
and there is no other' (47:8, 10)."12 While Blenkinsopp raises interesting possibilities, further
study would certainly make his argument more convincing.
Gerald Larue, whose study of Isaiah 40–55 as a polemic against the Akitu festival preceded
Blenkinsopp's by thirty-eight years, also finds justification for reading Isaiah this way:
The most important religious celebration of Babylon and one that provides a
background for understanding II Isaiah was the Akitu festival observed annually
from the first to twelfth of Nisanu (Hebrew Nisan: March-April).13
Larue identifies the same connections as Blenkinsopp but identifies two additional points
of contact regarding the hand grasp between god and king, 14 and the human scapegoat of
the Akitu festival. 15 Again, like Blenkinsopp, Larue identifies interesting commonalities
with the Akitu festival.
10
11
12
Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40-55, 225. Emphasis mine.
13
Larue, Old Testament Life and Literature, 2.
14
15
Larue, Old Testament Life and Literature, 9, 10.
3
This study will discuss the connections already identified by Blenkinsopp and Larue along
with a description of the relevant Akitu ritual and will raise some new possibilities for
exploration. Again, this work is not intended to be comprehensive but seeks only to highlight the
strengths and weaknesses of existing studies and identify areas for further study.
The Study in the Context of Current Scholarship
The Babylonian Akitu festival is a relatively new area of study, and its relationship to
Isaiah 40–55 is even newer. Julye Bidmead offers a brief history of the study of the Babylonian
Akitu festival in her recent work, The Akitu Festival: Religious Continuity and Royal
Legitimation in Mesopotamia.16 The earliest study was completed by Heinrich Zimmer, entitled,
Zum babylonischen Neujarhsfest I and II.17 Zimmer offered translations of relevant documents
and conducted comparative studies with festivals of other cultures. As part of his studies, he
conducts the first comparative study of the Babylonian Akitu festival and the Biblical text by
comparing the "'suffering and triumph' of Marduk to the Passion events found in the New
Testament."18
The next major study was conducted in 1921 by F. Thureau-Dangin, entitled "Le rituel des
fetes du nouvel an a Babylone."19 In it, Thureau-Dangin compares the early Akitu festival
celebrated at Tashritu to the Nisannu Babylonian New Year festival.
16
Julye Bidmead, The Akitu Festival: Religious Continuity and Royal Legitimation in Mesopotamia
(Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2002), 17–24.
17
Heinrich Zimmern, Zum babylonischen Neujarhsfest (Berichte über die Verhandlungen der sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaftern. Philhist Klasse 53/3. Leipzig, 1906); Heinrich Zimmern, Zum babylonischen
Neujarhsfest, zweiter Beitrag (Berichte über die Verhandlungen der sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaftern.
Philhist Klasse 70/5. Leipzig, 1918). Also see Heinrich Zimmern, "Das babylonische Neujahrsfest," Der alte Orient,
25 (1926), 2–22.
18
Bidmead, The Akitu Festival, 18.
19
François Thureau-Dangin, "Rituels Accadiens (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1921).
4
In 1923, Stephen Langdon published the text of the Enuma Elish. 20 It was through this work
that Langdon became the first to hypothesize the hieros gamos (sacred marriage) in the Akitu
festival. Langdon, on the text of the Enuma Elish, reconstructed the events of the New Year
festival. Next, in 1926, Svend Pallis pulled together previous studies in order to understand the
function of the Akitu festival in society.21 Studies that followed focused on understanding the
"underlying principles of the whole system of Babylonian ritual."22
Next on the scene with a major work was Henri Frankfort with Kingship and the Gods: A
Study of Ancient Near Eastern Religion as the Integration of Society & Nature. 23 Frankfort there
argues that the purpose of the Akitu festival was to establish harmony with nature. Another key
argument was that the hieros gamos was no longer a speculation but an event pivotal to the
festival. 24
More recently, Bidmead's study25 has not only summarized the history of Babylonian Akitu
festival scholarship, but, most importantly, poses a new understanding for the meaning of the
Akkadian phrase qātē DN s[abātum, "the god grasps the hand", which will be critical for this
study.
The Methodological Procedure to Be Employed
The argument that one reading of Isaiah 40–55 is that of Isaiah's polemic against the
Babylonian Akitu festival will be supported first by understanding the centrality of the Akitu
20
Stephen Langdon, The Babylonian Epic of Creation Restored from the Recently Recovered Tablets of Aššur
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1923).
21
Svend Aage Pallis, The Babylonian Akitu Festival (Kobenhavn, Denmark: Bianco Lunos Bogtrykkeri, 1926).
22
23
Henri Frankfort, Kingship and the Gods: A Study of Ancient Near Eastern Religion as the Integration of
Society & Nature (Chicago, Ill.: The University of Chicago Press, 1948).
24
5
festival in Babylonian society and its critical importance as Babylon's "propagandist tool wielded
to promote state ideology."26 This will demonstrate the probable primacy of this festival as a
strategic target of Isaiah's rhetorical attack in order that he might reveal the historical and
enduring reality that lay behind this façade. Second, the practice of the Babylonian Akitu festival
will be detailed in order to show the activities and significance of the festival such that the Isaian
text can be read in their light. Finally, the text of Isaiah 40–55 which most closely relate to the
festival will be analyzed primarily with respect to their circumstantial as well as their rhetorical
intent.
In order for this study to be conducted with integrity, a reasonable approach to this ANE
comparative study will be observed. There are many commonalities which exist between ANE
and Israelite culture which are not dependent upon one another but can easily be misconstrued as
dependent. "For it makes all the difference—all and not some—whether a specific traditum has
been reused or annotated; or whether, on the contrary, it either contains independent reflexes of
common idioms or comments which are original to the particular composition or teaching."27
There is an unfortunate history of scholars who have overemphasized the dependence of the
Biblical text upon ANE sources. John H. Walton begins his work, Ancient Near Eastern Thought
and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible, by warning
readers of this potential danger. 28 First, Franz Delitzsch, noted Assyriologist, gave a series of
lectures in 1902 entitled "Babel and Bibel." In these lectures, he claimed that the Bible was
25
Bidmead, The Akitu Festival.
26
27
Michael A. Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford, U. K.: Clarendon, 1985), 13.
Emphasis original.
28
John H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of
the Hebrew Bible (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2006).
6
dependent on or borrowed from Mesopotamian literature. He believed that the OT was an
uninspired manmade book with roots in pagan mythology. His lectures eventually were viewed
as "a watershed in comparative studies."29
His work spawned the Pan Babylonian movement, which argued that all Christian
Scriptures, OT and NT, were versions of Babylonian mythology. Even the Gospels were
supposedly based on the Gilgamesh epic and Christ's passion was based on Marduk mythology.30
Over time, most pan Babylonian claims were rejected. W. M. Hallo presented a more
balanced approach which explores both similarities and differences between the Bible and the
texts of the ancient Near East. One of the conclusions about comparative studies that came out of
this conflict was that neither Ancient Near Eastern nor Biblical studies should be subordinated to
the other.31
In order for scholars to avoid these potential pitfalls, Walton summarizes a balanced
approach to comparative studies with ten bullet points:
1. Both similarities and differences must be considered.

2. Similarities may suggest a common cultural heritage or cognitive environment rather
than borrowing.
3. It is not uncommon to find similarities at the surface but differences at the conceptual
level and vice versa.
4. All elements must be understood in their own context as accurately as possible before
cross-cultural comparisons are made (i.e., careful background study must precede comparative
study).
5. Proximity in time, geography, and spheres of cultural contact all increase the possibility
of interaction leading to influence.
6. A case for literary borrowing requires identification of likely channels of transmission.
7. The significance of differences between two pieces of literature is minimized if the
works are not the same genre.
29
Ibid., 16.
30
Ibid., 17.
31
Ibid.
7
8. Similar functions may be performed by different genres in different cultures.
9. When literary or cultural elements are borrowed they may in turn be transformed into
something quite different by those who borrowed them.
10. A single culture will rarely be monolithic, either in a contemporary cross-section or in
consideration of a passage of time. 32
In light of these helpful guidelines suggested by Walton, this study will seek not to
overemphasize the significance of potential commonalities where insufficient evidence is
available to defend them. However, at the same time, due to the nature of the assignment, this
study will not be able to adequately employ all of his guidelines. Rather, the study will maintain
a steady course between “parallelomania,” where nothing in the OT appears to be unique and
“parallelophobia” where everything in the OT appears to be unique.
A Brief History of the Babylonian Akitu Festival
Much of the information regarding the Akitu festival comes from the archaeological
expedition of Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon made by the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft (1899–
1917), and writings from the four Neo-Babylonian kings Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar,
Neriglissar, and Nabonidus.33 Marduk along with the city of Babylon first began to be elevated in
status in the 2nd millennium B.C.34 Pallis notes the significance of the festival in Babylon:
That the [above-mentioned] akitu festival was the principal religious festival of
Babylon is a fact stated in all text books. Our [above-cited] passages have shown that
it was celebrated for about two thousand years in Babylonia, from the earliest
Sumerian period until the establishment of Persian rule in Mesopotamia. Cyrus sent
his son Cambyses to take part in the celebration of the akitu festival in the first Nisan
after the conquest of the old empire in the third Arahsamna, thus making it
32
Ibid., 26–27.
33
Pallis, The Babylonian Akitu Festival, 53.
34
"To recount the story of Marduk is to trace the history of his city, Babylon. The relative obscurity of the city
in the third millennium B.C. is reflected in the fact that the name of this god is attested in only three fragmentary
texts… However, his star began to shine in the second millennium B.C." Daniel I.Block, "Chasing a Phantom: The
Search for the Historical Marduk," Archaeology in the Biblical World 2, Fall 1992, 20.
8
dynastically manifest that he and his kin were true successors of the Neo-Babylonian
rulers.35
Block further notes that during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I (1125-1104 BC), Marduk's rise to
legendary status was evidenced by the change in his title. No longer was he simply Marduk, but
rather was identified by the universal epithets "Great Lord", "Lord of the Lands", "King of
Heaven and Earth", "The Foremost of the Universe", "Hero of the Gods", and "Lord of the
Lords."36 Pallis37 indicates that as Marduk rose in status, he took over the functions of the other
gods, including the role of the creator in the Enuma Elish. Bottéro attributes the composition of
the Enuma Elish to the priests of Bel in response to Babylon's political prominence:
Shortly before 1100, Babylon recovered its former independence and glory.
Babylon's grandiose and famous sanctuary of Marduk, the Ésagil (from the Sumerian
é.sag.íl, 'the temple with the sublime pediment'), became in some sense the religious
high place of the entire country. Babylon's clergy, faced with the growing swell of
devotion to their god, decided to elevate him to 'Lord of the Gods and of the World,'
successor to Enlil, just as Enlil, long ago, must have replaced An(u)-an image of the
successive sequence of earthly rulers.
Hoping to impose and justify such a goal, the unknown authors, undoubtedly priests
serving at Esagil, wrote (in Akkadian) and distributed the famous Epic of Creation,
as we call it (in Mesopotamia it was cited by its incipit: Enuma eliš, "When On
High…'), a magisterial 'treatise' of mythological apologetics proclaiming and
defending the extraordinary promotion of their great divine patron. Their argument
was persuasive: Marduk was to be crowned king of the entire divine population by
the unanimous decision of the Council of Gods because he had saved them from the
great original mother goddess (here called 'Sea,' Tiamat), who had been irritated and
had decided to destroy him. He had to be the sacred king of the world because he had
imagined and built it from the remains of Tiamat, whom he had conquered and
sacrificed; and he had to be the sacred king of humans, because he had conceived the
idea of them and had created them.38
35
36
Block, "Chasing a Phantom," 28.
37
Pallis, The Babylonian Akitu Festival, 51-52.
38
Jean Bottéro, Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia (trans. Teresa Lavender Fagan; Chicago, Ill.: The University
of Chicago Press, 2001), 56.
9
Marduk's supremacy, the political reputation of Babylon, and the Akitu festival in which the
Enuma Elish was inextricably connected. To challenge one was to challenge all; this was the
context of Isaiah 40–55.
The Ritual of the Akitu Festival
Nisan 1 Akitu Preparations Begin
Very little is known about the first day of the Akitu festival due to the incompleteness of
existing texts. What is known is that a mubannu opens the gate of Esagila. The precise
identification of this person is not known but is assumed to be a kind of priest.39
Nisan 2 First Prayer to Marduk
On the second day, the sheshgallu (Marduk priest) recites a prayer to Marduk upon which
Bidmead identifies several festival themes:
a) The supremacy of Marduk, the Esagila, and Babylon

b) The preeminence of the kidinnu as a protected group
c) The magnitude of the determining of the destinies
d) The usage of qātē Bel is[bāt or s[abit qātē as a promise or oath"40 translation?
The sheshgallu recites this prayer to Marduk:
6. Bel, who in his anger has no rival

8. Bel, the excellent king, lord of the lands
10. Who returns the favor of the great gods
12. Bel who felled the mighty with his glance
14 Lord of the kings, the light of the people, who determines the destinies
16. Bel, Babylon is your dwelling, Borsippa is your crown
18. The wide heavens are the whole of your liver
19. Bel, with your eyes you see everything
20. With your omens, you verify your omens
21. With your glance, you give the decrees
22. You burn the mighty with your…
39
Bidmead, The Akitu Festival, 46–47.
40
10
23. You bind in your hands with…
24. With your hands you grant mercy!
25. You show them the light; they speak of your heroism.
26. Lord of the lands, light of the Igigi, who speaks of good things
27. Who is there who does not speak of your heroism?
28. Does not speak of your glory, does not exalt your lordship?
29. Lord of the lands, who dwells in the Eudul, who 'grasps the hands' (s[abit qātē) of
the fallen.
30. To the city of Babylon, grant mercy!
31. To the Esagila, your temple, turn your face.
32. For the people of Babylon, your subjects, establish the 'protected citizens' (lú s[ab
kidinni)"41
The fact that the priest recites the prayer in Sumerian, the holy language, and Akkadian, the
secular language, "illustrates a long-standing reverence to Marduk both as a god from distant
days as well as a god for the contemporary Babylonian world." 42 The Persian Achaemenid
dynasty—inaugurated by Cyrus the Great in 550—held sway until the emergence of Alexander
and his program of pan-Hellenism that extinguished what was left of the ancient empire of
Mesopotamia. Having been replaced by Akkadian, and later by Aramaic, the last cuneiform
document known dates from the year 74 AD).43
Nisan 3 Construction of Idols
On the third day, the sheshgallu again reads a prayer to Marduk. The text of the prayer is
thoroughly fragmentary and thus indiscernible. After the prayer, the sheshgallu calls for the idols
to be constructed:
When it is about one and a half double-hours after sunrise (approximately 9:00 am)
the šešgallu sends for a metal worker, a carpenter, and a goldsmith who will fashion
two small wooden images. To the metalworker, the priest gives precious (dušu)
stones and gold from the treasury of Marduk. The carpenter receives tamarisk and
cedar, and the goldsmith receives gold. All of these items are to be utilized in the
construction of the images. The images measure about seven fingers high; one is
made of cedar and the other of tamarisk. Each statue will be adorned with gold and
precious stones… The two constructed small images have generated much scholarly
speculation. Explicit directions are given for the construction of these figurines. They
are made of cedar and tamarisk wood and decorated in gold and precious stones. The
figurines were carefully made of costly materials. The use of valuable metals
41
Bidmead, The Akitu Festival, 47, 48.
42
43
Bottéro, Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia.
11
emphasizes the sacredness of the object. On the sixth day, these images are burned.
Cedar, when burned, produces a sweet fragrance and is often used in purification and
magic ceremonies throughout the ancient Near East. Cedar and tamarisk are
frequently employed in making figurines as suggested in a Neo-Assyrian ritual, 'You
make 2 figurines of cedar, 2 figures of tamarisk.' The costliness of the material, the
pleasant odor when burned, and the frequency of its usage in rituals are the primary
reasons why the akitu texts specify tamarisk and cedar."44
Nisan 4 The Reading of the Enuma Elish to Marduk in the Esagila
On the fourth day of Nisan, the Akitu festival begins. The king goes to Nabu's temple and
receives the scepter of kingship, before starting a ten-mile procession to Borsippa to retrieve the
Nabu idol statue the Ezida.45 Most importantly on this day, the sheshgallu recites the Enuma
Elish to the statue of Marduk. He also recites prayers to Marduk and Zarpānitu, asking them to
"qātē s[abit "grasp the hand" of the people of Babylon, especially the kidinnu."46
223. Powerful lord of the Igigi, exalted among the great gods
225. Lord of the world, king of the gods, Marduk who establishes the decrees
227. Honorable, exalted, lofty, superior
229. Who holds kingship, who grasps lordship
231. Bright light, Marduk, who dwells in the Eudul
233. […] who sweeps the enemies lands
Several lines missing or damaged, resuming with…

240. Who crosses the heavens, who heaps up the earth
241. Who measures the waters of the sea,who cultivates the fields
242. Who dwells in the Eudul, lord of Babylon
243. Who determines the destinies of all the gods
244. Who gives the pure scepter to the king who reveres him
245. I am the šešgallu of Eumuša who speaks good things to you.
246. To your city, Babylon, forgive!
247. To your temple, Esagila, grant mercy!
248. With your exalted command, lord of the great gods
249. Before the people of Babylon, let there be placed light!
After speaking this prayer he turns to the image of Marduk's consort, Zarpānitu, addressing
her as Bēltīya:
44
45
46
12
251. Powerful goddess, most exalted of the goddesses
252. Zarpānitu, brightest of (all) the stars; who dwells in the Eudul.
253. […] of the goddesses, whose garment is light
254. who crosses the heavens, heaps up the earth
255. Zarpānitu, whose station is high
256. Bright is Bēltīya, high and lofty
257. Among the goddesses, no one exists like her
258. Who denounces, who defends
259. (the one) who impoverishes the rich; who causes the poor to become wealthy
260. (the one) who fells the enemy who do not respect her divinity
261. Who saves the captives (and) "grasps the hands" of the fallen.
262. Speak good things about the slave who speaks well of your name.
263. For the king who respects your name, decrees the destinies
264. Grant life to the people of Babylon, the "protected citizens" citizens' (lú s[ab
kidinni)
265. In the presence of the king of the gods, Marduk, defend them!
266. May they speak of your praise, magnify your ladyship.
267. May they utter your heroism, may they extol your name
268. Grant mercy to the slave who speaks good things of you.
269. In difficulty and trouble, grasp his hand.
270. Grant him life (when he is) in sickness and pain.
271. Let him walk constantly in happiness and joy
272. Let him talk of your heroism to all the people.47
Nisan 5 Day of Atonement for the King
Nisan 5 is the "central and climatic zenith of the festival."48 Nabu arrives at Esagila,
Marduk's temple, after taking a voyage along the Borsippa Canal south of Babylon and north up
the Euphrates River49 (cf. Is 43:14) and spending one evening in one of the city gates. At
Ehursagtila, the temple of the ancient warrior god Ninurta, Nabu symbolically kills two rival
deities by decapitating their gold-coated figurines. The figurines are then bound in fetters and
taken to Esagil, where Nabu is honored and takes his seat in his chapel under a gold-embroidered
canopy. 50
47
Bidmead, The Akitu Festival, 60–62.
48
49
50
Karel Van der Toorn, "The Babylonian New Year Festival," 335.
13
The most significant event of the day is the atonement of the king. At Esagil, the temple of
Marduk, the king is stripped of his sceptre and the crown and is slapped him on the cheek by the
sheshgallu and forced by his ear to kneel. The appropriate response for the king was a plea of
innocence. Marduk promises the king that he will extol his rule and destroy his enemies. The
king is slapped yet once more. Marduk will only be faithful to his promise if the slap causes the
king to cry.51
Nisan 6 Other Gods Arrive by Boat
On Nisan 6, gods from the surrounding cities come by boat to Babylon to participate in the
Akitu festival. The idols constructed on Nisan 3 are brought by Nabu into the temple
Ehursagtilla.52
Nisan 7
There are no cultic texts detailing the events of Nisan 7.53
Nisan 8 First Determination of Destiny
On Nisan 8, the destinies of Marduk and the king are declared in the presence of the other
gods. Marduk is glorified and proclaimed to reign supreme. 54 It is on this day that the king grasps
the hand of the king.55
51
Karel Van der Toorn, "The Babylonian New Year Festival: New Insights From the Cuneiform Texts and
Their Bearing on Old Testament Study." In Congress Volume, Leuven 1989, 332–333.
52
53
54
55
14
Nisan 9–12 Triumphal Procession to the Bit Akitu
The procession to the Bit Akiti took place which proceeded from the Kasikilla, the main
gate of the Esagila along Marduk's processional street through the Ishtar Gate. The procession
concluded on boats at the Bit Akiti.56 The second determination of destiny, revealing the fate of
the land and its citizens57 was revealed on the eleventh day. To ensure fertility, the hieros gamos
was performed. 58
Isaiah's Polemic Against the Babylonian Akitu Festival
Blenkinsopp and Larue identify several themes in Isaiah that link the Biblical text to the
Akitu festival: the festival procession with the idols of Bel and Nebo, the defeat and murder of
Tiamat by Marduk from the Enuma Elish, the claim to sovereignty and the creation of the
cosmos, the hand grasp between god and king, and the human scapegoat of the Akitu festival.
Additional commonalities may exist regarding the kidinnu and the construction and burning of
idols. The commonalities between the Akitu festival and the Isaian text will be illustrated for
each of these common themes.
The Festival Procession with the Idols of Bel and Nebo.
Isaiah 40:3 3 A voice cries: "In the wilderness prepare the way of the Yahweh; make
straight in the desert a highway for our God.
Larue argues that the preparation of the highway for Yahweh referred to in this verse was
an indication of Yahweh's comforting act on behalf of his people, illustrating for them that just as
56
57
58
15
Marduk entered Babylon on a level, paved, processional way, so also Yahweh would bring his
people safely back to Jerusalem.59 Meanwhile, Yahweh himself will be entering Zion (cf. 52:8).
Isaiah 43:14-15 14 Thus says the LORD, your Redeemer, the Holy One of Israel: "For
your sake I send to Babylon and bring them all down as fugitives, even the Chaldeans, in the
ships in which they rejoice. 15 I am the LORD, your Holy One, the Creator of Israel, your
King."
A portion of the Akitu procession took place on ships. On Nisan 6 the other gods, high
officials, priests, and dignitaries arrived by boat to participate in the Akitu festival. 60 On the last
days of the festival, the procession concluded on boats at the bit akiti. This is a possible
connection but would require further investigation into what other festivities may have taken
place among Babylonian ships. Neither Blenkinsopp nor Larue makes this connection.
Blenkinsopp alternatively translates the verse: "These are the words of Yahveh your Redeemer,
the Holy One of Israel: 'For your sake I send to Babylon to lay low all those who flee; the
triumphant cries of the Chaldeans will be turned to lamentations," thus eliminating the potential
connection. 61 However, the phrase ~t'(N"rI tAYðnIa\B' “in the boats of their cry” is oblique; normally
hnr denotes a shout of joy (e.g., 14:7; 35:10; 51:11). Here, however it is a cry of distress (cf. Ps
106:44; Jer 14:12).
Isaiah 46:1-7 Isaiah 46:1 Bel bows down; Nebo stoops; their idols are on beasts and
livestock; these things you carry are borne as burdens on weary beasts. 2 They stoop; they bow
down together; they cannot save the burden, but themselves go into captivity. 3 "Listen to me, O
house of Jacob, all the remnant of the house of Israel, who have been borne by me from before
your birth, carried from the womb; 4 even to your old age I am he, and to gray hairs I will carry
you. I have made, and I will bear; I will carry and will save. 5 "To whom will you liken me and
make me equal, and compare me, that we may be alike? 6 Those who lavish gold from the
purse, and weigh out silver in the scales, hire a goldsmith, and he makes it into a god; then they
59
60
61
Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40-55, 225. Blenkinsopp's translation is based on the assumption that the MT is
defective, reading 'ăniyyôt, "lamentations" for the MT 'oniyyôt, "ships." Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40-55, 226.
16
fall down and worship! 7 They lift it to their shoulders, they carry it, they set it in its place, and
it stands there; it cannot move from its place. If one cries to it, it does not answer or save him
from his trouble.
Isaiah anthropomorphizes the idols of Bel and Nebo. In the Biblical text, the idols bow,
they stoop. Although to a modern reader, this view of idols appears absurd,
To the Babylonian mind, it was not just the statue of Nabu who came to visit, but the
god himself. The magnificent architecture and the setting of the parade on the finely
paved Processional Way winding through the Ishtar gate also figure prominently in
the ideology of the festival procession.62
Because the gods lived hidden away in their cellas and common worshipers were not
admitted into this holy sanctuary, the everyday citizens had rare opportunities to see
the god. As gods were paraded through the city during the akitu processions, the
people were allowed a yearly opportunity to view the splendor of their gods. The
cultic relationship between the city and its god was formalized in these processions.
This was one of the highlights of the akitu festival; the people could revere their
gods. To be in the presence of the deity meant that miracles were possible. 63
Bidmead indicates that this view of idols as embodiments of gods was so strong that the
viewers of the procession would even note Marduk's changing facial expressions, interpreting
unusual occurrences as negatives omens for the coming year.64 She compares this phenomenon to
current-day incidents in which people claim to have seen statues of Jesus or the Virgin
Marycrying, bleeding, or moving. 65 Such a situation would provide a setting in which Isaiah's
rhetoric against the idols as animate beings would have been entirely appropriate. Isaiah is
calling for the people to see the truth; these idols are the handiwork of men. They have no ability
to save them.
These verses are key to Blenkinsopp's interpretation of Isaiah 40–55 as a polemic against
the Babylonian Akitu festival. Blenkinsopp argues that the Akitu festival procession served to
62
63
64
17
legitimate and reinforce Babylonian imperialism. Larue also reads these initial verses of Is 46 as
an "indirect reference to the Akitu festival," indicating Yahweh's "scorn for those who worship
immobile and mute statues."66 These verses then function rhetorically to demonstrate the
impotence of the Babylonian gods who are central to the festival—they are unable to save their
people, their city, and their idols. 67 By destroying the mythology of the Babylonian gods, Isaiah
discredits the entire festival. In so doing, he not only reveals the hollowness of the Babylonian
religion but also exposes the Babylonian state as an ephemeral man-made institution that has
been falsely promoted through empty propaganda.
The Defeat and Murder of Tiamat by Marduk.
Isaiah 43:16-17 16 Thus says the LORD, who makes a way in the sea, a path in the
mighty waters, 17 who brings forth chariot and horse, army and warrior; they lie down, they
cannot rise, they are extinguished, quenched like a wick:
Isaiah 51:9-10 9 Awake, awake, put on strength, O arm of the LORD; awake, as in days of
old, the generations of long ago. Was it not you who cut Rahab in pieces, that pierced the
dragon? 10 Was it not you who dried up the sea, the waters of the great deep, who made the
depths of the sea a way for the redeemed to pass over?
These two sections of text encourage Isaiah's hearers to see the lack of historical reality
behind the myth of the Enuma Elish. The Babylonians revere Marduk for his mythological defeat
of Tiamat (Yam-sea),68 whereby he created the cosmos. However, the historical reality, which the
forefathers of the Israelite exiles experienced firsthand, is that Yahweh was the one who split the
sea—the Reed Sea—in order to purchase His people Israel and bring them out of bondage to
65
66
67
68
Baltzer associates Rahab here with Egypt. "For the OT, Rahab and Tannin are associated with Egypt.
Ugaritic texts clearly show the connection between Yam as sea and the battle between the gods." Klaus Baltzer,
Deutero-Isaiah (ed. Peter Machinist; trans. Margaret Kohl; Minneapolis, Minn.: Augsburg Fortress, 2001), 357.
Blenkinsopp makes a similar connection, "The references to Egypt as Rahab (Isa 30:7; Ps 87:4) and the Dragon
(Ezek 29:3; 32:2) bring in the Sea by association, and the Sea (Yamm) in its turn conjures up the miraculous crossing
18
Egypt.69 This foreshadows the second Exodus with which he will lead His people out of Babylon.
Blenkinsopp argues,
By analogy with the psalms of communal lament, recall of these great deeds
demands a response. Yahveh does not agree to take on the monsters once again;
rather, he reminds the petitioners of some things that they have forgotten. Nothing of
this is new. The comfort of God and the fact of human impermanence were
announced at the beginning of the prophecy (40:1, 6–8). That the God who reassures
is the Creator of heaven and earth has been endlessly repeated. Here, too, as we
would expect, the language of liturgical address is heard. Given what we know of
ancient Israelite cosmology, the central act was the setting of the earth on its
foundations (verb ysd c. Pss 89:12[11], 102:26 [25]; 104:5).70
The Enuma Elish was read to Marduk on Nisan 4, reminding him of his "dutiful contract
with the people of Babylon, especially the privileged citizens [the kidinnu]."71 The kidinnu were,
A circle of 'privileged citizens' known as the s[abe kidinni or simply kidinnu. The
CAD defines kidinnu as 'divine protection (mainly for the citizens of a city), divinely
enforced security (symbolized by a sacred insignia), or a person(s) under such
protection. Kidinnutu refers to the status of being under the kidinnu. This privileged
group was exempt from royal taxation, corvée, imprisonment and military draft or
duty.72
Here and in the hand grasping ceremony Isaiah may be drawing parallels between the
Babylonian kidinnu and Yahweh's chosen people Israel. Just as the kidinnu were a privileged
class of people whom Marduk swore to protect each year in the Akitu festival, Yahweh sets
Israel apart and shows them through the words of Isaiah that they have had knowledge all along
that He has been their protector and savior and He fully intends to continue that practice by
leading them out of Babylon. This link to a historical past personally experienced by the
of the Papyrus Sea during the escape from Egypt (Exod 15:8). Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40-55, 333.
69
"The present text has to do with the exodus and according to v. 11 with 'the ransom, liberated ( yyE“Wdp.)
people." Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 355.
70
71
72
19
forefathers of the Israelite exiles would have been critical to their understanding of Yahweh, not
Marduk, as their sovereign Lord:
In the ancient pursuit of coherence, hindsight was not only important, it was
essential. Likewise, a transcendent view of history was essential. A sense of what
'really happened' was gained in light of the outcome, not in light of what any given
eyewitness thinks he might have seen, since eyewitnesses were also limited by their
perspective and compromised by their opinions. What one saw could barely begin to
offer insight into what really happened. Indeed, it was particularly what could not be
seen that was often critical. It was only as events blended together into a continuum
that significance could be identified. Individual events find their value in the
continuity and relationship they share with other events. Time and hindsight
therefore allow for increasing coherence, the hallmark of narrative historiography. 73
Isaiah masterfully takes advantage of this worldview by using the events narrated in the Enuma
Elish and tying them back to the Exodus, a concrete historical event whose significance would be
well understood by these exiles who had had the benefit of time to appreciate its importance.
The Claim to Sovereignty and the Creation of the Cosmos.
Isaiah 41:21 Set forth your case, says the LORD; bring your proofs, says the King of
Jacob.
Isaiah 43:15 I am the LORD, your Holy One, the Creator of Israel, your King."
Isaiah 44:6 Thus says the LORD, the King of Israel and his Redeemer, Yahweh of hosts:
"I am the first and I am the last; besides me there is no god.
Isaiah 52:7 How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him who brings good news,
who publishes peace, who brings good news of happiness, who publishes salvation, who says to
Zion, "Your God reigns."
Isaiah, building on royal Psalms 93 to 99 (excluding Ps 94), pronounces the kingship of
Yahweh in the verses above. Yahweh's kingship is predicated on his role as diviner and creator,
and Isaiah illustrates Yahweh's actions in these roles throughout the text. In the Enuma Elish (IV
28) Marduk agrees to battle Tiamat if the divine assembly will appoint him as supreme god. The
73
Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament, 226.
20
deities respond with the acclamation “Marduk is king” (Marduk-ma šarru). Re-enacted every
year during the New Year akitu festivities, the ceremonies end with a poem that lists fifty names
for Marduk and praises for his incomparable power, “none among the gods can equal him”
(Enuma Elish VII 14).
The theme of Yahweh as diviner, unmasking Marduk and Nabu as the frauds and impotent
idols that they are is prominent in Isaiah 40–55:
Isaiah 41:21-29 21 Set forth your case, says the LORD; bring your proofs, says the King
of Jacob. 22 Let them bring them, and tell us what is to happen. Tell us the former things, what
they are, that we may consider them, that we may know their outcome; or declare to us the things
to come. 23 Tell us what is to come hereafter, that we may know that you are gods; do good, or
do harm, that we may be dismayed and terrified.1 24 Behold, you are nothing, and your work is
less than nothing; an abomination is he who chooses you. 25 I stirred up one from the north, and
he has come, from the rising of the sun, and he shall call upon my name; he shall trample on
rulers as on mortar, as the potter treads clay. 26 Who declared it from the beginning, that we
might know, and beforehand, that we might say, "He is right"? There was none who declared it,
none who proclaimed, none who heard your words. 27 I was the first to say1 to Zion, "Behold,
here they are!" and I give to Jerusalem a herald of good news. 28 But when I look there is no
one; among these there is no counselor who, when I ask, gives an answer. 29 Behold, they are all
a delusion; their works are nothing; their metal images are empty wind.
Isaiah 43:9-13 9 All the nations gather together, and the peoples assemble. Who among
them can declare this, and show us the former things? Let them bring their witnesses to prove
them right, and let them hear and say, It is true. 10 "You are my witnesses," declares the LORD,
"and my servant whom I have chosen, that you may know and believe me and understand that I
am he. Before me no god was formed, nor shall there be any after me. 11 I, I am the LORD, and
besides me there is no savior. 12 I declared and saved and proclaimed, when there was no strange
god among you; and you are my witnesses," declares the LORD, "and I am God. 13 Also
henceforth I am he; there is none who can deliver from my hand; I work, and who can turn it
back?"
Isaiah 43:18-19 18 "Remember not the former things, nor consider the things of old. 19
Behold, I am doing a new thing; now it springs forth, do you not perceive it? I will make a way
in the wilderness and rivers in the desert.
Isaiah 45:19-23 19 I did not speak in secret, in a land of darkness; I did not say to the
offspring of Jacob, 'Seek me in vain.'1 I the LORD speak the truth; I declare what is right. 20
"Assemble yourselves and come; draw near together, you survivors of the nations! They have no
knowledge who carry about their wooden idols, and keep on praying to a god that cannot save.
21
Declare and present your case; let them take counsel together! Who told this long ago? Who
declared it of old? Was it not I, the LORD? And there is no other god besides me, a righteous
God and a Savior; there is none besides me. 22 "Turn to me and be saved, all the ends of the
earth! For I am God, and there is no other. 23 By myself I have sworn; from my mouth has gone
21
out in righteousness a word that shall not return: 'To me every knee shall bow, every tongue shall
swear allegiance.'1
Isaiah 46:8-13 8 "Remember this and stand firm, recall it to mind, you transgressors, 9
remember the former things of old; for I am God, and there is no other; I am God, and there is
none like me, 10 declaring the end from the beginning and from ancient times things not yet
done, saying, 'My counsel shall stand, and I will accomplish all my purpose,' 11 calling a bird of
prey from the east, the man of my counsel from a far country. I have spoken, and I will bring it to
pass; I have purposed, and I will do it. 12 "Listen to me, you stubborn of heart, you who are far
from righteousness: 13 I bring near my righteousness; it is not far off, and my salvation will not
delay; I will put salvation in Zion, for Israel my glory."
Isaiah 47:11-15 11 But evil shall come upon you, which you will not know how to charm
away; disaster shall fall upon you, for which you will not be able to atone; and ruin shall come
upon you suddenly, of which you know nothing. 12 Stand fast in your enchantments and your
many sorceries, with which you have labored from your youth; perhaps you may be able to
succeed; perhaps you may inspire terror. 13 You are wearied with your many counsels; let them
stand forth and save you, those who divide the heavens, who gaze at the stars, who at the new
moons make known what shall come upon you. 14 Behold, they are like stubble; the fire
consumes them; they cannot deliver themselves from the power of the flame. No coal for
warming oneself is this, no fire to sit before! 15 Such to you are those with whom you have
labored, who have done business with you from your youth; they wander about each in his own
direction; there is no one to save you.
Isaiah 48:3-8 3 "The former things I declared of old; they went out from my mouth and I
announced them; then suddenly I did them and they came to pass. 4 Because I know that you are
obstinate, and your neck is an iron sinew and your forehead brass, 5 I declared them to you from
of old, before they came to pass I announced them to you, lest you should say, 'My idol did them,
my carved image and my metal image commanded them.' 6 "You have heard; now see all this;
and will you not declare it? From this time forth I announce to you new things, hidden things that
you have not known. 7 They are created now, not long ago; before today you have never heard
of them, lest you should say, 'Behold, I knew them.' 8 You have never heard, you have never
known, from of old your ear has not been opened. For I knew that you would surely deal
treacherously, and that from before birth you were called a rebel.
This sustained polemic exposes the false divinations of Nisan 8–12. The Babylonian people
were incredibly fearful about the future and depended heavily upon these Akitu divinations to
provide a sense of security:
Insofar as we can judge, given the current status of our knowledge, everything
fundamentally revolved around the image of a universal new beginning: the renewal
of the king's power but above all of the great adventure of the creation of the world
and of humanity, following the formidable victory that had won Marduk his
elevation. It was as if, in the minds of those people, everything was essentially
extremely fragile and perishable, constantly dependent on the sovereign activities of
the gods, to such a degree that only their intervention, constantly renewed, could
22
prevent things from perishing and disappearing. The world truly began again with
the New Year, in a succession of annual cycles, and this is an aspect of the religious
vision of the ancient Mesopotamians to be remembered-it was no doubt more an
amorphous feeling, linked to their profound conviction of total dependence, than a
rigorous, defined theory.74
Isaiah again meets his people where they are—steeped in Babylonian culture and cosmology—
and uses the Babylonian ideology to lead them back to Yahweh. Yahweh puts Marduk and Nabu
on trial in order to demonstrate that He, not Marduk, has a history of stating what He will do and
remaining true to his promises of deliverance and that the divinations of the Akitu festival were
meaningless and empty.
Isaiah shows the Israelite exiles that, unlike Marduk, Yahweh had no need to consult a
council in order to foresee the future of His people:
In the Akitu ritual an assembly of gods determined the shape of things to come for
the year ahead; Deutero-Isaiah argued that the future, like the past and present, was
in Yahweh's hands. Babylonian techniques for discerning events were unnecessary
(40:13) for Yahweh had revealed his will in summoning the prophet to explain
current happenings as acts of Yahweh. The validation of the future rested in the
accuracy of past predictions. As Yahweh had chosen Israel (Jacob) while still in the
womb and had delivered the people from Egypt to lead them to the promised land, so
Yahweh called them again, and using the great Persian warrior Cyrus, would deliver
them again to the promised land.75
He demonstrates that the universal new beginning that they anticipated through the events of the
Akitu festival will be brought to reality in Yahweh's re-newal of the Exodus. The lemma vdx
appears five times in these chapters (41:15, 42:9, 42:10, 43:19, 48:6), indicating Yahweh's
intention to bring about renewal for His people.
Citing vss. 40:12, 26, 28; 42:5; 43:1, 15; 44:24; 45:7–8, 12, 18, and 48:12–13,
Blenkinsopp argues that "the presentation of Yahveh as cosmic creator is one of the most salient
74
Bottéro, Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia, 164.
75
23
features of chs. 40–48."76 He argues that Marduk's universal and supreme kingship is closely
related his role as creator as illustrated in the Enuma Elish. Larue also notes the importance of
the creator theme in Isaiah's polemic against Marduk and the Akitu festival:
The emphases on the creative role of Yahweh and on the revealing of future destiny
are best understood against the background of the Akitu festival. Unlike Marduk who
annually sought guidance for the creation ritual from the assembled gods, Yahweh
needed no advisor. Passages mocking the stupidity of idol worship (40:18-20, which
should be read with 41:7) reflect preparatory rites of the opening of the Akitu festival
when images were carved. The dramatic contrast between man-made objects of
adoration and the transcendent Yahweh illustrates the superiority of Israel's God, the
true creator.77
Closely related to this is the claim to universal kingship based on incomparability which
Marduk claims for himself in the Enuma Elish. Isaiah counters this claim with what Blenkinsopp
calls "one of the great leitmotifs of chapters 40–48 (40:18, 25; 43:11; 44:6–8; 45:5–6, 14, 18,
21–22; 46:9)."78
The Hand Grasp between God and King.
Isaiah 41:8-13 8 But you, Israel, my servant, Jacob, whom I have chosen, the offspring of
Abraham, my friend; 9 you whom I took from the ends of the earth, and called from its farthest
corners, saying to you, "You are my servant, I have chosen you and not cast you off"; 10 fear not,
for I am with you; be not dismayed, for I am your God; I will strengthen you, I will help you, I
will uphold you with my righteous right hand. 11 Behold, all who are incensed against you shall
be put to shame and confounded; those who strive against you shall be as nothing and shall
perish. 12 You shall seek those who contend with you, but you shall not find them; those who
war against you shall be as nothing at all. 13 For I, the LORD your God, hold your right hand; it
is I who say to you, "Fear not, I am the one who helps you."
Isaiah 45:1 Thus says the LORD to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I have
grasped, to subdue nations before him and to loose the belts of kings, to open doors before him
that gates may not be closed:
76
77
78
24
The ceremony in which god and king grasp hands is critical to a reading of Isaiah 40–55 as
a polemic against the Akitu festival. In 40–55, Isaiah refers to Yahweh grasping the hands of
both His servant Israel and his servant Cyrus. Both in the prayer which the sheshgallu recites to
Marduk on day 2 and on day 4, Marduk grasps the hands of the kidinnu, promising to provide
and care for the people whom he has set apart (day 2, line 29; day 4, lines 261 and 269).79 On day
8, Marduk grasps the hand of the king. Bidmead argues that this grasp between king and god
signified: (1) "a legal and binding contractual agreement between the king, as representative of
the people, and the patron deity,"80 (2) "a guarantee between parties. This translation of the
phrase agrees with the interpretation of the hand holding as a form of oath or contract between
the king and Marduk."81, and (3) "a positive omen as it was a symbol of union and peace. This is
exemplified on one omen text which reads ''if the king takes the hand of the god, (then) the 'bad
tongue' (i.e., the secret enemy) will be silent against the king, (and) the king will defeat his
enemy.'"82
In light of Bidmead's interpretation of the significance of the grasp between king and god,
it is possible to understand Yahweh's grasp of Cyrus' hand in 45:1 as a contractual obligation
between them, ensuring Cyrus' care for the people of Israel, Yahweh's holy people, and
Yahweh's promise to Cyrus that He will defeat his enemies for him.83 Likewise, when Yahweh
79
Bidmead, The Akitu Festival, 49, writes, "Line 29 of the prayer calls upon Marduk to 'grasp the hands' of the
people. Just as the king will take the hand of the god, Marduk is being asked to enter into the same contractual
agreement with the people of Babylon, particularly the s[ab kidinni, Babylon's privileged citizens (Line 32)."
80
81
82
83
Larue Old Testament Life and Literature, 3, writes, "On this day [Nisan 8] the king took the right hand of the
god, perhaps in a ritual in which the god was led to his throne but certainly as a symbol of divine favor and blessing
(cf. Isa. 45:1 Thus says the LORD to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I have grasped, to subdue nations
before him and to loose the belts of kings, to open doors before him that gates may not be closed)."
25
grasps the hand of His servant Israel in v. 41:13, He swears an oath to them to provide unity and
peace. Blenkinsopp observes no connection between these verses and the Akitu festival.
The Human Scapegoat.
The last connection observed by Larue between Isaiah 40–55 and the Akitu festival is that
of the servant as scapegoat. Larue indicates that after the atonement of the king, a human
scapegoat was paraded through the streets, carrying with him the sins of the community. His
expulsion and destruction cleansed the people for the new year. Larue argues that in Isaiah 40–
55, the suffering servant serves the scapegoat role for the people:
Within this section is the portrait of the suffering servant, a motif of redemptive
suffering drawn from the Akitu rites where the human scapegoat bore the sins of
many to bring new purification to the nation (52:13-53:12). In Deutero-Isaiah's use
of this concept, the servant suffers and is cut off from the land of the living like the
Akitu victim, but unlike the Babylonian scapegoat, the servant is promised that he
will witness the fruits of his suffering (53: 10 f.) and will share the booty of the rich
and powerful (53:12). Chapter 54 is a comfort hymn contrasting the state of abject
misery with the promised good fortune… Israel was the scapegoat for the whole
world, just as the poor stumbling sufferer in the Akitu festival was for Babylon. On
Israel's head were the sins of the nations, and out of Israel's suffering would come
redemption, salvation, a new beginning and a new world.84
The scapegoat ritual that Larue cites here requires verification. Bidmead documents only a
sacrificial sheep as a scapegoat as part of the activities of Nisan 5. Of course, many other
would argue that the co-text is from Lev 16.
Conclusion
Blenkinsopp and Larue offer an excellent starting point for a reading of Isaiah 40–55 as a
polemic against the Babylonian Akitu festival, which is intended to prompt the exiles to leave
Babylon (Is 48:20 52:11-12). To bring this about Isaiah interfaces with textual ideas from the
84
Larue Old Testament Life and Literature, 9, 12.
26
akitu festival using satire, myth, polemic, and comparison to construct his rhetorical argument.
ANE scholars paint a picture of the Babylonian Akitu festival as a festive procession which
served as the primary propaganda tool of the Babylonian empire's imperialism and the status of
their god Marduk. In his oracle against Babylon Jeremiah says in part, “It is a land of images and
they are mad over idols” (Jer 50:38). As people entered Babylon through the Ishtar Gate and
walked onto the great Processional Way they would walk on imported limestone slabs that each
were inscribed with the phrase, “To the honor of Marduk.” The name Babylon, Bab-ilu, means
“gate of the gods.” It was the city that promised heaven on earth. In light of the significance of
the Akitu festival, it would seem inconceivable for Isaiah to have attempted to demythologize
Babylonian religion and culture in order to get his people out of Babylon without confronting the
false teachings embodied in the Akitu festival.
Given the similarities which have been observed between Isaiah Isaiah 40–55 and the
Babylonian Akitu festival—the Akitu procession and the highway of Yahweh (40:3), the slaying
of Tiamat in the Enuma Elish and the theme of the slaying of Rahab (55:9–10), Marduk's and
Yahweh's claims to kingship (41:21, 43:15, 44:6, 52:7), the processional boats of the Akitu
procession and the boats of Is 43:15, and the hand grasps of the Akitu prayers and those of
Yahweh with Cyrus (45:1) and the Israelites (41:13—this reading of Isaiah 40–55 certainly
warrants further attention.
Additional study on the topic should include an an analysis of Isaiah's literary style and
rhetorical intent, an in-depth study of the prayers and rituals of the Akitu festival in the original
languages (Sumerian and Akkadian) in conjunction with a study of Isaiah 40–55 in the original
Hebrew in order to facilitate literary comparisons, in-depth studies of the use of boats for
Babylonian festivals, the significance of hand grasping in Babylon and the ANE, the rituals
relating to scapegoats in the Akitu festival, and the identity and rights of the kidinnu. This
27
additional research will not only help to strengthen observations already made by Blenkinsopp,
Larue, and this author but may also bring new connections to light. Care must be taken however,
because it is in this additional research where Walton's caveats must especially be observed in
order to maintain a healthy tension between finding either nothing or everything in the OT to be
unique.
28
Bibliography
Baltzer, Klaus. Deutero-Isaiah. Edited by Peter Machinist. Translated by Margaret Kohl.

Minneapolis, Minn.: Augsburg Fortress, 2001.
Batto, Bernard F. Slaying the Dragon: Mythmaking in the Biblical Tradition. 1st ed. Louisville,
Kent.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992.
Bidmead, Julye. The Akitu Festival: Religious Continuity and Royal Legitimation in
Mesopotamia. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2002.
Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Isaiah 40-55: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary by
Joseph Blenkinsopp. Anchor Bible 19A. New Haven & London: Doubleday, 2006.
Block, Daniel I., "Chasing a Phantom: The Search for the Historical Marduk," Archaeology in
the Biblical World 2, Fall 1992.
Bottéro, Jean. Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia. Translated by Teresa Lavender Fagan. Chicago,
Ill.: The University of Chicago Press, 2001.
Fishbane, Michael A. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford, U. K.: Clarenden Press,
1985.
Franke, Chris. Isaiah 46, 47, and 48: A New Literary-Critical Reading. Edited by William
Hentry Propp. Biblical and Judaic Studies 3. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1994.
Frankfort, Henri. Kingship and the Gods: A Study of Ancient Near Eastern Religion as the
Integration of Society & Nature. Chicago, Ill.: The University of Chicago Press, 1948.
Goldingay, John. The Message of Isaiah 40-55: A Literary-Theological Commentary. London,
UK: T&T Clark International, 2005.
Larue, Gerald A. Old Testament Life and Literature. Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 1968.
———. Old Testament Life and Literature. Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 1968. Cited March
31, 2009. Online: http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gerald_larue/otll/.
Nielsen, Kirsten. Yahweh as Prosecutor and Judge. Edited by Philip R. Davies David J. A.
Clines David M. Gunn. Translated by Frederick Cryer. Journal for the Study of the Old
Testament: Supplement Series 9. Sheffield: Journal for the Study of the Old Testament,
1978.
Pallis, Svend Aage. The Babylonian Akitu Festival. Kobenhavn, Denmark: Bianco Lunos
Bogtrykkeri, 1926.
van der Toorn, Karel. "The Babylonian New Year Festival: New Insights From the Cuneiform
Texts and Their Bearing on Old Testament Study." In Congress Volume, Leuven 1989,
331-44.
Walton, John H. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the
Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2006.
Watts, John D. W. Isaiah 34-66. Word Biblical Commentary 33. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1985.
Westermann, Claus. Isaiah 40-66. Edited by Peter Ackroyd, James Barr, Bernhard W. Anderson,
and James L. Mays. Translated by David M. G. Stalker. The Old Testament Library.
29
Göttingen, Germany: SCM Press Ltd, 1969.
30
Appendix
The Enuma Elish
THE FIRST TABLET
When in the height heaven was not named,

And the earth beneath did not yet bear a name,
And the primeval Apsu, who begat them,
And chaos, Tiamut, the mother of them both
Their waters were mingled together,
And no field was formed, no marsh was to be seen;
When of the gods none had been called into being,
And none bore a name, and no destinies were ordained;
Then were created the gods in the midst of heaven,
Lahmu and Lahamu were called into being...
Ages increased,...
Then Ansar and Kisar were created, and over them....
Long were the days, then there came forth.....
Anu, their son,...
Ansar and Anu...
And the god Anu...
Nudimmud, whom his fathers, his begetters.....
Abounding in all wisdom,...'
He was exceeding strong...
He had no rival -
Thus were established and were... the great gods.
But Tiamat and Apsu were still in confusion...
They were troubled and...
In disorder...
Apru was not diminished in might...
And Tiamat roared...
She smote, and their deeds...
Their way was evil...
Then Apsu, the begetter of the great gods,
Cried unto Mummu, his minister, and said unto him:
"O Mummu, thou minister that rejoicest my spirit,
Come, unto Tiamut let us go!
So they went and before Tiamat they lay down,
They consulted on a plan with regard to the gods, their sons.
Apsu opened his mouth and spake,
And unto Tiamut, the glistening one, he addressed the word:
...their way...
By day I can not rest, by night I can not lie down in peace.
But I will destroy their way, I will...
31
Let there be lamentation, and let us lie down again in peace."
When Tiamat heard these words,
She raged and cried aloud...
She... grievously...,
She uttered a curse, and unto Apsu she spake:
"What then shall we do?
Let their way be made difficult, and let us lie down again in peace."
Mummu answered, and gave counsel unto Apsu,
...and hostile to the gods was the counsel Mummu gave:
Come, their way is strong, but thou shalt destroy it;
Then by day shalt thou have rest, by night shalt thou lie down in peace."
Apsu harkened unto him and his countenance grew bright,
Since he (Mummu) planned evil against the gods his sons.
... he was afraid...,
His knees became weak; they gave way beneath him,
Because of the evil which their first-born had planned.
... their... they altered.
... they...,
Lamentation they sat in sorrow
..................
Then Ea, who knoweth all that is, went up and he beheld their muttering.
[about 30 illegible lines]
... he spake:
... thy... he hath conquered and
... he weepeth and sitteth in tribulation.
... of fear,
... we shall not lie down in peace.
... Apsu is laid waste,
... and Mummu, who were taken captive, in...
... thou didst...
... let us lie down in peace.
... they will smite....
... let us lie down in peace.
... thou shalt take vengeance for them,
... unto the tempest shalt thou...!"
And Tiamat harkened unto the word of the bright god, and said:
... shalt thou entrust! let us wage war!"
... the gods in the midst of...
... for the gods did she create.
They banded themselves together and at the side of Tiamat they advanced;
They were furious; they devised mischief without resting night and day.
They prepared for battle, fuming and raging;
They joined their forces and made war,
Ummu-Hubur [Tiamat] who formed all things,
32
Made in addition weapons invincible; she spawned monster-serpents,
Sharp of tooth, and merciless of fang;
With poison, instead of blood, she filled their bodies.
Fierce monster-vipers she clothed with terror,
With splendor she decked them, she made them of lofty stature.
Whoever beheld them, terror overcame him,
Their bodies reared up and none could withstand their attack.
She set up vipers and dragons, and the monster Lahamu,
And hurricanes, and raging hounds, and scorpion-men,
And mighty tempests, and fish-men, and rams;
They bore cruel weapons, without fear of the fight.
Her commands were mighty, none could resist them;
After this fashion, huge of stature, she made eleven [kinds of] monsters.
Among the gods who were her sons, inasmuch as he had given her support,
She exalted Kingu; in their midst she raised him to power.
To march before the forces, to lead the host,
To give the battle-signal, to advance to the attack,
To direct the battle, to control the fight,
Unto him she entrusted; in costly raiment she made him sit, saying:
I have uttered thy spell, in the assembly of the gods I have raised thee to power.
The dominion over all the gods have I entrusted unto him.
Be thou exalted, thou my chosen spouse,
May they magnify thy name over all of them the Anunnaki."
She gave him the Tablets of Destiny, on his breast she laid them, saying:
Thy command shall not be without avail, and the word of thy mouth shall be established."
Now Kingu, thus exalted, having received the power of Anu,
Decreed the fate among the gods his sons, saying:
"Let the opening of your mouth quench the Fire-god;
Whoso is exalted in the battle, let him display his might!"
THE SECOND TABLET
Tiamat made weighty her handiwork,

Evil she wrought against the gods her children.
To avenge Apsu, Tiamat planned evil,
But how she had collected her forces, the god unto Ea divulged.
Ea harkened to this thing, and
He was grievously afflicted and he sat in sorrow.
The days went by, and his anger was appeased,
And to the place of Ansar his father he took his way.
He went and, standing before Ansar, the father who begat him,
All that Tiamat had plotted he repeated unto him,
Saying, "Tiamat our mother hath conceived a hatred for us,
With all her force she rageth, full of wrath.
All the gods have turned to her,
With those, whom ye created, thev go at her side.
33
They are banded together and at the side of Tiamat they advance;
They are furious, they devise mischief without resting night and day.
They prepare for battle, fuming and raging;
They have joined their forces and are making war.
Ummu-Hubur, who formed all things,
Hath made in addition weapons invincible; she hath spawned monster-serpents,
Sharp of tooth, and merciless of fang.
With poison, instead of blood, she hath filled their bodies.
Fierce monster-vipers she hath clothed with terror,
With splendor she hath decked them; she hath made them of lofty stature.
Whoever beholdeth them is overcome by terror,
Their bodies rear up and none can withstand their attack.
She hath set up vipers, and dragons, and the monster Lahamu,
And hurricanes and raging hounds, and scorpion-men,
And mighty tempests, and fish-men and rams;
They bear cruel weapons, without fear of the fight.
Her commands are mighty; none can resist them;
After this fashion, huge of stature, hath she made eleven monsters.
Among the gods who are her sons, inasmuch as he hath given her support,
She hath exalted Kingu; in their midst she hath raised him to power.
To give the battle-signal, to advance to the attack.
Unto him hath she entrusted; in costly raiment she hath made him sit, saving:.
I have uttered thy spell; in the assembly of the gods I have raised thee to power,
The dominion over all the gods have I entrusted unto thee.
May they magnify thy name over all of them
She hath given him the Tablets of Destiny, on his breast she laid them, saying:
'Thy command shall not be without avail, and the word of thy mouth shall be established.'
Decreed the fate for the gods, her sons, saying:
'Let the opening of your mouth quench the Fire-god;
Whoso is exalted in the battle, let him display his might!'"
When Ansar heard how Tiamat was mightily in revolt,
he bit his lips, his mind was not at peace,
..., he made a bitter lamentation:
... battle,
... thou...
Mummu and Apsu thou hast smitten
But Tiamat hath exalted Kingu, and where is one who can oppose her?
... deliberation
... the ... of the gods, -Nudimmud.
[A gap of about a dozen lines occurs here.]
34
Ansar unto his son addressed the word:
"... my mighty hero,
Whose strength is great and whose onslaught can not be withstood,
Go and stand before Tiamat,
That her spirit may be appeased, that her heart may be merciful.
But if she will not harken unto thy word,
Our word shalt thou speak unto her, that she may be pacified."
He heard the word of his father Ansar
And he directed his path to her, toward her he took the way.
Ann drew nigh, he beheld the muttering of Tiamat,
But he could not withstand her, and he turned back.
... Ansar
... he spake unto him:
[A gap of over twenty lines occurs here.]
an avenger...
... valiant
... in the place of his decision
... he spake unto him:
... thy father
" Thou art my son, who maketh merciful his heart.
... to the battle shalt thou draw nigh,
he that shall behold thee shall have peace."
And the lord rejoiced at the word of his father,
And he drew nigh and stood before Ansar.
Ansar beheld him and his heart was filled with joy,
He kissed him on the lips and his fear departed from him.
"O my father, let not the word of thy lips be overcome,
Let me go, that I may accomplish all that is in thy heart.
O Ansar, let not the word of thy lips be overcome,
Let me go, that I may accomplish all that is in thy heart."
What man is it, who hath brought thee forth to battle?
... Tiamat, who is a woman, is armed and attacketh thee.
... rejoice and be glad;
The neck of Tiamat shalt thou swiftly trample under foot.
... rejoice and be glad;
The neck of Tiamat shalt thou swiftly trample under foot.
0 my son, who knoweth all wisdom,
Pacify Tiamat with thy pure incantation.
Speedily set out upon thy way,
For thy blood shall not be poured out; thou shalt return again."
The lord rejoiced at the word of his father,
His heart exulted, and unto his father he spake:
"O Lord of the gods, Destiny of the great gods,
If I, your avenger,
35
Conquer Tiamat and give you life,
Appoint an assembly, make my fate preeminent and proclaim it.
In Upsukkinaku seat yourself joyfully together,
With my word in place of you will I decree fate.
May whatsoever I do remain unaltered,
May the word of my lips never be chanced nor made of no avail."
THE THIRD TABLET
Ansar opened his mouth, and

Unto Gaga, his minister, spake the word.
"O Gaga, thou minister that rejoicest my spirit,
Unto Lahmu and Lahamu will I send thee.
... thou canst attain,
... thou shalt cause to be brought before thee.
... let the gods, all of them,
Make ready for a feast, at a banquet let them sit,
Let them eat bread, let them mix wine,
That for Marduk, their avenger they may decree the fate.
Go, Gaga, stand before them,
And all that I tell thee, repeat unto them, and say:
'Ansar, vour son, hath sent me,
The purpose of his heart he hath made known unto me.
He saith that Tiamat our mother hath conceived a hatred for us,
With those, whom ye created, they go at her side.
They are banded together, and at the side of Tiamat they advance;
Sharp of tooth and merciless of fang.
With splendor she hath decked them; she hath made them of lofty stature.
Whoever beboldeth them, terror overcometh him,
And hurricanes, and raging bounds, and scorpion-men,
They bear merciless weapons, without fear of the fight.
Her commands are miahty; none can. resist them;
36
To give the battle-signal, to advance to the attack,
Unto him hath she entrusted; in costly raiment she hath made him sit, saying:
I have uttered thy spell; in the assembly of the gods
I have raised thee to power,
May they magnify thy name over all of them ... the Anunnaki."
She hath given him the Tablets of Destiny, on his breast she laid them, saying:
Thy command shall not be without avail, and the word of thy mouth shall be established."
Decreed the fate for the gods, her sons, saving:
Let the opening of your mouth quench the Fire-god;
Whoso is exalted in the battle, let him display his might!"
I sent Anu, but he could not withstand her;
Nudimmud was afraid and turned back.
But Marduk hath set out, the director of the gods, your son;
To set out against Tiamat his heart hath prompted him.
He opened his mouth and spake unto me, saying: "If I, your avenger,
In Upsukkinaku seat yourself joyfully together;
May whatsoever I do remain unaltered,
May the word of my lips never be changed nor made of no avail."'
Hasten, therefore, and swiftly decree for him the fate which you bestow,
That he may go and fight your strong enemy.
Gaga went, he took his way and
Humbly before Lahmu and Lahamu, the gods, his fathers,
He made obeisance, and he kissed the ground at their feet.
He humbled himself; then he stood up and spake unto them saying:
"Ansar, your son, hath sent me,
He saith that Tiamat our mother hath conceived a hatred for us,
With those, whom ye created, they go at her side.
They are banded together and at the side of Tiamat they advance;
37
Sharp of tooth and merciless of fang.
With splendor she hath decked them, she hath made them of lofty stature.
Whoever beboldeth them, terror overcometh him,
And hurricanes, and raging hounds, and scorpion-men,
They bear merciless weapons, without fear of the fight.
Her commands are mighty; none can resist them;
To give the battle-signal, to advance to the attack, To direct the battle, to control the fight,
Unto him hath she entrusted; in costlv raiment she hath made him sit, saving:
I have uttered thy spell; in the assembly of the gods I have raised thee to power,
May they magnify thy name over all of them...the Anunnaki.
She hath given him the Tablets of Destiny on his breast she laid them, saving:
Thy command shall not be without avail, and the word of thy mouth shall be established.'
Decreed the fate for the gods, her sons, saying:
'Let the opening of your mouth quench the Fire-god;
Whoso is exalted in the battle, let him display his might!'
I sent Anu, but he could not withstand her;
Nudimmud was afraid and turned back.
But Marduk hath set out, the director of the gods, your son;
To set out against Tiamat his heart hath prompted him.
He opened his mouth and spake unto me, saying:
'If I, your avenger,
In Upsukkinaku seat yourselves joyfully together;
May, whatsoever I do remain unaltered,
May the word of my lips never be changed nor made of no avail.'
Hasten, therefore, and swiftly decree for him the fate which you bestow,
That he may go and fight your strong enemy!
Lahmu and Lahamu heard and cried aloud
All of the Igigi [The elder gods] wailed bitterly, saying:
What has been altered so that they should
We do not understand the deed of Tiamat!
38
Then did they collect and go,
The great gods, all of them, who decree fate.
They entered in before Ansar, they filled...
They kissed one another, in the assembly...;
They made ready for the feast, at the banquet they sat;
They ate bread, they mixed sesame-wine.
The sweet drink, the mead, confused their...
They were drunk with drinking, their bodies were filled.
They were wholly at ease, their spirit was exalted;
Then for Marduk, their avenger, did they decree the fate.
THE FOURTH TABLET
They prepared for him a lordly chamber,

Before his fathers as prince he took his place.
"Thou art chiefest among the great gods,
Thy fate is unequaled, thy word is Anu!
O Marduk, thou art chiefest among the great gods,
Thy fate is unequaled, thy word is Anu!
Henceforth not without avail shall be thy command,
In thy power shall it be to exalt and to abase.
Established shall be the word of thy mouth, irresistible shall be thy command,
None among the gods shall transgress thy boundary.
Abundance, the desire of the shrines of the gods,
Shall be established in thy sanctuary, even though they lack offerings.
O Marduk, thou art our avenger!
We give thee sovereignty over the whole world.
Sit thou down in might; be exalted in thy command.
Thy weapon shall never lose its power; it shall crush thy foe.
O Lord, spare the life of him that putteth his trust in thee,
But as for the god who began the rebellion, pour out his life."
Then set they in their midst a garment,
And unto Marduk,- their first-born they spake:
"May thy fate, O lord, be supreme among the gods,
To destroy and to create; speak thou the word, and thy command shall be fulfilled.
Command now and let the garment vanish;
And speak the word again and let the garment reappear!
Then he spake with his mouth, and the garment vanished;
Again he commanded it, and. the garment reappeared.
When the gods, his fathers, beheld the fulfillment of his word,
They rejoiced, and they did homage unto him, saying, " Marduk is king!"
They bestowed upon him the scepter, and the throne, and the ring,
They give him an invincible weapony which overwhelmeth the foe.
Go, and cut off the life of Tiamat,
And let the wind carry her blood into secret places."
After the gods his fathers had decreed for the lord his fate,
39
They caused him to set out on a path of prosperity and success.
He made ready the bow, he chose his weapon,
He slung a spear upon him and fastened it...
He raised the club, in his right hand he grasped it,
The bow and the quiver he hung at his side.
He set the lightning in front of him,
With burning flame he filled his body.
He made a net to enclose the inward parts of Tiamat,
The four winds he stationed so that nothing of her might escape;
The South wind and the North wind and the East wind and the West wind
He brought near to the net, the gift of his father Anu.
He created the evil wind, and the tempest, and the hurricane,
And the fourfold wind, and the sevenfold wind, and the whirlwind, and the wind which had no
equal;
He sent forth the winds which he had created, the seven of them;
To disturb the inward parts of Tiamat, they followed after him.
Then the lord raised the thunderbolt, his mighty weapon,
He mounted the chariot, the storm unequaled for terror,
He harnessed and yoked unto it four horses,
Destructive, ferocious, overwhelming, and swift of pace;
... were their teeth, they were flecked with foam;
They were skilled in... , they had been trained to trample underfoot.
... . mighty in battle,
Left and right....
His garment was... , he was clothed with terror,
With overpowering brightness his head was crowned.
Then he set out, he took his way,
And toward the raging Tiamat he set his face.
On his lips he held ...,
... he grasped in his hand.
Then they beheld him, the gods beheld him,
The gods his fathers beheld him, the gods beheld him.
And the lord drew nigh, he gazed upon the inward parts of Tiamat,
He perceived the muttering of Kingu, her spouse.
As Marduk gazed, Kingu was troubled in his gait,
His will was destroyed and his motions ceased.
And the gods, his helpers, who marched by his side,
Beheld their leader's..., and their sight was troubled.
But Tiamat... , she turned not her neck,
With lips that failed not she uttered rebellious words:
"... thy coming as lord of the gods,
From their places have they gathered, in thy place are they! "
Then the lord raised the thunderbolt, his mighty weapon,
And against Tiamat, who was raging, thus he sent the word:
Thou art become great, thou hast exalted thyself on high,
And thy heart hath prompted thee to call to battle.
40
... their fathers...,
... their... thou hatest...
Thou hast exalted Kingu to be thy spouse,
Thou hast... him, that, even as Anu, he should issue deerees.
thou hast followed after evil,
And against the gods my fathers thou hast contrived thy wicked plan.
Let then thy host be equipped, let thy weapons be girded on!
Stand! I and thou, let us join battle!
When Tiamat heard these words,
She was like one posessed, .she lost her reason.
Tiamat uttered wild, piercing cries,
She trembled and shook to her very foundations.
She recited an incantation, she pronounced her spell,
And the gods of the battle cried out for their weapons.
Then advanced Tiamat and Marduk, the counselor of the gods;
To the fight they came on, to the battle they drew nigh.
The lord spread out his net and caught her,
And the evil wind that was behind him he let loose in her face.
As Tiamat opened her mouth to its full extent,
He drove in the evil wind, while as yet she had not shut her lips.
The terrible winds filled her belly,
And her courage was taken from her, and her mouth she opened wide.
He seized the spear and burst her belly,
He severed her inward parts, he pierced her heart.
He overcame her and cut off her life;
He cast down her body and stood upon it.
When he had slain Tiamat, the leader,
Her might was broken, her host was scattered.
And the gods her helpers, who marched by her side,
Trembled, and were afraid, and turned back.
They took to flight to save their lives;
But they were surrounded, so that they could not escape.
He took them captive, he broke their weapons;
In the net they were caught and in the snare they sat down.
The ... of the world they filled with cries of grief.
They received punishment from him, they were held in bondage.
And on the eleven creatures which she had filled with the power of striking terror,
Upon the troop of devils, who marched at her...,
He brought affliction, their strength he...;
Them and their opposition he trampled under his feet.
Moreover, Kingu, who had been exalted over them,
He conquered, and with the god Dug-ga he counted him.
He took from him the Tablets of Destiny that were not rightly his,
He sealed them with a seal and in his own breast he laid them.
Now after the hero Marduk had conquered and cast down his enemies,
And had made the arrogant foe even like
41
And had fully established Ansar's triumph over the enemy
And had attained the purpose of Nudimmud,
Over the captive gods he strengthened his durance,
And unto Tiamat, whom he had conquered, he returned.
And the lord stood upon Tiamat's hinder parts,
And with his merciless club he smashed her skull.
He cut through the channels of her blood,
And he made the North wind bear it away into secret places.
His fathers beheld, and they rejoiced and were glad;
Presents and gifts they brought unto him.
Then the lord rested, gazing upon her dead body,
While he divided the flesh of the ... , and devised a cunning plan.
He split her up like a flat fish into two halves;
One half of her he stablished as a covering for heaven.
He fixed a bolt, he stationed a watchman,
And bade them not to let her waters come forth.
He passed through the heavens, he surveyed the regions thereof,
And over against the Deep he set the dwelling of Nudimmud.
And the lord measured the structure of the Deep,
And he founded E-sara, a mansion like unto it.
The mansion E-sara which he created as heaven,
He caused Anu, Bel, and Ea in their districts to inhabit.
THE FIFTH TABLET
He (Marduk) made the stations for the great gods;

The stars, their images, as the stars of the Zodiac, he fixed.
He ordained the year and into sections he divided it;
For the twelve months he fixed three stars.
After he had ... the days of the year ... images,
He founded the station of Nibir [the planet Jupiter] to determine their bounds;
That none might err or go astray,
He set the station of Bel and Ea along with him.
He opened great gates on both sides,
He made strong the bolt on the left and on the right.
In the midst thereof he fixed the zenith;
The Moon-god he caused to shine forth, the night he entrusted to him.
He appointed him, a being of the night, to determine the days;
Every month without ceasing with the crown he covered him, saying:
"At the beginning of the month, when thou shinest upon the land,
Thou commandest the horns to determine six days,
And on the seventh day to divide the crown.
On the fourteenth day thou shalt stand opposite, the half....
When the Sun-god on the foundation of heaven...thee,
The ... thou shalt cause to ..., and thou shalt make his...
... unto the path of the Sun-god shalt thou cause to draw nigh,
42
And on the ... day thou shalt stand opposite, and the Sun-god shall...
... to traverse her way.
... thou shalt cause to draw nigh, and thou shalt judge the right.
... to destroy..."
[Nearly fifty lines are here lost.]
The gods, his fathers, beheld the net which he had made,
They beheld the bow and how its work was accomplished.
They praised the work which he had done...
Then Anu raised the ... in the assembly of the gods. He kissed the bow, saving, " It is...!"
And thus he named the names of the bow, saving,
"'Long-wood' shall be one name, and the second name shall be ...,
And its third name shall be the Bow-star, in heaven shall it...!"
Then he fixed a station for it...
Now after the fate of...
He set a throne...
...in heaven...
[The remainder of this tablet is missing.]
THE SIXTH TABLET
When Marduk heard the word of the gods,

His heart prompted him and he devised a cunning plan.
He opened his mouth and unto Ea he spake
That which he had conceived in his heart he imparted unto him:
"My blood will I take and bone will I fashion
I will make man, that man may
I will create man who shall inhabit the earth,
That the service of the gods may be established, and that their shrines may be built.
But I will alter the ways of the gods, and I will change their paths;
Together shall they be oppressed and unto evil shall they....
And Ea answered him and spake the word:
"... the ... of the gods I have changed
... and one...
... shall be destroyed and men will I...
... and the gods .
... and they..."
[The rest of the text is wanting with the exception of

the last few lines of the tablet, which read as follows.]
They rejoiced...
In Upsukkinnaku they set their dwelling.
Of the heroic son, their avenger, they cried:
" We, whom he succored.... !"
43
They seated themselves and in the assembly they named him...,
They all cried aloud, they exalted him...
THE SEVENTH TABLET
O Asari, [Marduk] "Bestower of planting," "Founder of sowing"

"Creator of grain and plants," "who caused the green herb to spring up!"
O Asaru-alim, [Mardk] "who is revered in the house of counsel," "who aboundeth in counsel,"
The gods paid homage, fear took hold upon them!
O Asaru-alim-nuna, [Marduk] "the mighty one," "the Light of the father who begat him,"
"Who directeth the decrees of Anu Bel, and Ea!"
He was their patron, be ordained their...;
He, whose provision is abundance, goeth forth...
Tutu [Marduk] is "He who created them anew";
Should their wants be pure, then are they satisfied;
Should he make an incantation, then are the gods appeased;
Should they attack him in anger, he withstandeth their onslaught!
Let him therefore be exalted, and in the assembly of the gods let him... ;
None among the gods can rival him!
15 Tutu [Marduk] is Zi-ukkina, "the Life of the host of the gods,"
Who established for the gods the bright heavens.
He set them on their way, and ordained their path;
Never shall his ... deeds be forgotten among men.
Tutu as Zi-azag thirdly they named, "the Bringer of Purification,"
"The God of the Favoring Breeze," "the Lord of Hearing and Mercy,"
"The Creator of Fulness and Abundance," " the Founder of Plenteousness,"
"Who increaseth all that is small."
In sore distress we felt his favoring breeze,"
Let them say, let them pay reverence, let them bow in humility before him!
Tutu as Aga-azag may mankind fourthly magnify!
"The Lord of the Pure Incantation," " the Quickener of the Dead,"
"Who had mercy upon the captive gods,"
"Who removed the yoke from upon the gods his enemies,"
"For their forgiveness did he create mankind,"
"The Merciful One, with whom it is to bestow life!"
May his deeds endure, may they never be forgotten ,
In the mouth of mankind whom his hands have made!
Tutu as Mu-azag, fifthly, his "Pure incantation" may their mouth proclaim,
Who through his Pure Incantation hath destroyed all the evil ones!"
Sag-zu, [Marduk] "who knoweth the heart of the gods," " who seeth through the innermost part!"
"The evil-doer he hath not caused to go forth with him!"
"Founder of the assembly of the gods," who ... their heart!"
"Subduer of the disobedient," "...!"
"Director of Righteousness," "...,"
44
" Who rebellion and...!"
Tutu as Zi-si, "the ...,"
"Who put an end to anger," "who...!"
Tutu as Suh-kur, thirdly, "the Destroyer of the foe,"
"Who put their plans to confusion,"
"Who destroyed all the wicked," "...,"
... let them... !
[There is a gap here of sixty lines. But somewhere among the lost lines belong the following
fragments.]
who...
He named the four quarters of the world, mankind hecreated,
And upon him understanding...
"The mighty one...!"
Agil...
"The Creator of the earth...!"
Zulummu... .
"The Giver of counsel and of whatsoever...!"
Mummu, " the Creator of...!"
Mulil, the heavens...,
"Who for...!"
Giskul, let...,
"Who brought the gods to naught....!"
...............
... " the Chief of all lords,"
... supreme is his might!
Lugal-durmah, "the King of the band of the gods," " the Lord of rulers."
"Who is exalted in a royal habitation,"
"Who among the gods is gloriously supreme!
Adu-nuna, " the Counselor of Ea," who created the gods his fathers,
Unto the path of whose majesty
No god can ever attain!
... in Dul-azag be made it known,
... pure is his dwelling!
... the... of those without understanding is Lugaldul-azaga!
... supreme is his might!
... their... in the midst of Tiamat,
... of the battle!
[Here follows the better-preserved ending.]
... the star, which shineth in the heavens.

May he hold the Beginning and the Future, may they pay homage unto him,
Saying, "He who forced his way through the midst of Tiamat without resting,
Let his name be Nibiru, 'the Seizer of the Midst'!
45
For the stars of heaven he upheld the paths,
He shepherded all the gods like sheep!
He conquered Tiamat, he troubled and ended her life,"
In the future of mankind, when the days grow old,
May this be heard without ceasing; may it hold sway forever!
Since he created the realm of heaven and fashioned the firm earth,
The Lord of the World," the father Bel hath called his name.
This title, which all the Spirits of Heaven proclaimed,
Did Ea hear, and his spirit was rejoiced, and he said:
"He whose name his fathers have made glorious,
Shall be even as I, his name shall be Ea!
The binding of all my decrees shall he control,
All my commands shall he make known! "
By the name of "Fifty " did the great gods
Proclaim his fifty names, they, made his path preeminent.
EPILOGUE
Let them [i.e. the names of Marduk] be held in remembrances and let the first man proclaim
them;
Let the wise and the understanding consider them together!
Let the father repeat them and teach them to his son;
Let them be in the ears of the pastor and the shepherd!
Let a man rejoice in Marduk, the Lord of the gods,
That be may cause his land to be fruitful, and that he himself may have prosperity!
His word standeth fast, his command is unaltered;
The utterance of his mouth hath no god ever annulled.
He gazed in his anger, he turned not his neck;
When he is wroth, no god can withstand his indignation.
Wide is his heart, broad is his compassion;
The sinner and evil-doer in his presence...
They received instruction, they spake before him,
... unto...
... of Marduk may the gods...;
... May they ... his name... !
... they took and...
...................................!
END OF THE CREATION EPIC

THE FIGHT WITH TIAMAT
(ANOTHER VERSION)
[Note: Strictly speaking, the text is not a creation-legend, though it gives a variant form of the
principal incident in the history of the creation according to the Enuma Elish. Here the fight with
the dragon did not precede the creation of the world, but took place after men had been created
and cities had been built.]
46
The cities sighed, men ...
Men uttered lamentation, they ...
For their lamentation there was none to help,
For their grief there was none to take them by the hand.
· Who was the dragon... ?
Tiamat was the dragon.....
Bel in heaven hath formed.....
Fifty kaspu [A kaspu is the space that can be covered in two hours travel, i.e. six or seven miles]
in his length, one kaspu in his height,
Six cubits is his mouth, twelve cubits his...,
Twelve cubits is the circuit of his ears...;
For the space of sixty cubits he ... a bird;
In water nine cubits deep he draggeth...."
He raiseth his tail on high...;
All the gods of heaven...
In heaven the gods bowed themselves down before the Moon-god...;
The border of the Moon-god's robe they hastily grasped:
"Who will go and slay the dragon,"
And deliver the broad land from...
And become king over... ?
" Go, Tishu, slav the dragon,
And deliver the broad land from...,
And become king over...!"
Thou hast sent me, O Lord, to... the raging creatures of the river,
But I know not the... of the Dragon!
[The rest of the Obverse and the upper part of the Reverse of the tablet are wanting.]
47

Isaiah 40-55 As A Polemic Against The Akitu Festival

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Isaiah 40-55 As A Polemic Against The Akitu Festival

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A Reading of Isaiah 40-55 as a Polemic Against the Babylonian Akitu Festival

Isaiah 40–55 is a masterfully constructed poetic work with incredible depth.Isaiah is a

that they too will receive receive justice.

this very theme by Gerald Larue.6

approaches for further study.

The Current Status of the Question

study would certainly make his argument more convincing.

with the Akitu festival.

The Study in the Context of Current Scholarship

celebrated at Tashritu to the Nisannu Babylonian New Year festival.

"underlying principles of the whole system of Babylonian ritual."22

The Methodological Procedure to Be Employed

as "a watershed in comparative studies."29

approach to comparative studies with ten bullet points:

1. Both similarities and differences must be considered.

overemphasize the significance of potential commonalities where insufficient evidence is

“parallelophobia” where everything in the OT appears to be unique.

A Brief History of the Babylonian Akitu Festival

expedition of Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon made by the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft (1899–

context of Isaiah 40–55.

The Ritual of the Akitu Festival

Nisan 1 Akitu Preparations Begin

identification of this person is not known but is assumed to be a kind of priest.39

Nisan 2 First Prayer to Marduk

Bidmead identifies several festival themes:

a) The supremacy of Marduk, the Esagila, and Babylon

The sheshgallu recites this prayer to Marduk:

6. Bel, who in his anger has no rival

Nisan 3 Construction of Idols

Nisan 4 The Reading of the Enuma Elish to Marduk in the Esagila

Several lines missing or damaged, resuming with…

Nisan 5 Day of Atonement for the King

Nisan 6 Other Gods Arrive by Boat

There are no cultic texts detailing the events of Nisan 7.53

Nisan 8 First Determination of Destiny

the hand of the king.55

Isaiah's Polemic Against the Babylonian Akitu Festival

each of these common themes.

The Festival Procession with the Idols of Bel and Nebo.

106:44; Jer 14:12).

been falsely promoted through empty propaganda.

The Defeat and Murder of Tiamat by Marduk.

Marduk, as their sovereign Lord:

The Claim to Sovereignty and the Creation of the Cosmos.

Isaiah, building on royal Psalms 93 to 99 (excluding Ps 94), pronounces the kingship of

(Enuma Elish VII 14).

idols that they are is prominent in Isaiah 40–55:

provide a sense of security:

meaningless and empty.

council in order to foresee the future of His people:

intention to bring about renewal for His people.

The Hand Grasp between God and King.

it is possible to understand Yahweh's grasp of Cyrus' hand in 45:1 as a contractual obligation

The Human Scapegoat.

would argue that the co-text is from Lev 16.

false teachings embodied in the Akitu festival.

warrants further attention.

Baltzer, Klaus. Deutero-Isaiah. Edited by Peter Machinist. Translated by Margaret Kohl.

The Enuma Elish

THE FIRST TABLET

When in the height heaven was not named,

[about 30 illegible lines]