Intan Shafika Saiful Bahri ECG305 - Surveying FKA, UiTMPP

Chapter 1: Introduction

Objectives of this lecture:

This lecture focuses on the introduction to broad aspect of surveying works and its
application to civil engineering. After this lecture the student should:

1. Understand the theory and practice of various surveying works applicable to civil
engineering.

2. Understand the various equipments in surveying

Surveying has been used for several thousands of years. It is the sciences of determining the
dimensions of contour (or three dimensional characteristics) of Earth’s surface by making
measurement of distances, directions and elevations (McCorrmac, 2004)

Bannister defined surveying as the art of making measurements of the relative positions of
natural and man-made features on the Earth’s surface and the presentation of this information
either graphically or numerically (Bannister et.al.,1998)

1.1 Types of Survey

Surveying is divided primarily into geodetic surveying and plane surveying. In geodetic
surveying large areas of the Earth’s surface are involved and the curvature of the Earth must be
taken into account. In plane surveying relatively small areas are under consideration and it is
taken that the Earth’s surface is flat eg: it gives a horizontal plane. Curvature of the Earth is
neglected.

Geodetic surveys are typically carried out with great precision and high accuracy, often over
long distances and are used not only to determine the size, shape and gravity field of the Earth
but also to establish highly accurate Control Networks.

Plane surveys are used for the determination of legal boundaries, for engineering surveys for
the construction of buildings, roads and for small-scale topographic surveys.
Notes: Survey is primarily divided to two types: Plane Surveying and Geodetic Surveying

1.2 Proper Classification according to Purpose or Use

1.2.1 Geodetic Surveying

A survey of a great accuracy which takes into account the curvature of the Earth and may also
provide control for surveys of lower accuracy by creating a three dimensional framework of very
accurately located points on the surface of the Earth.

1.2.2 Topographical Survey

A survey which results in the production of maps showing the topography of an area normally
shown by contour, the natural and artificial features on the surface of the Earth
Intan Shafika Saiful Bahri ECG305 - Surveying FKA, UiTMPP

Figure 1: Topographical map showing contour lines and spot heights

1.2.3 Cadastral survey

A survey related to property or land ownership, showing and defining legal boundaries.

1.2.4 Engineering survey

Any types of survey that is related to engineering projects/works such as roads, railways, dams
etc. this type of survey is done before, during and after construction.

Figure 2: Surveys conducted before commencement of construction

1.2.5 Hydrographic survey

Survey to portrays the ground under the water surface to produce nautical navigation charts and
control works, construction of harbors and waterways etc

1.2.6 Photogrammetry

Science of making measurements from aerial photograph to determine size, shape and location
of points/objects of the Earth’s surface.
Intan Shafika Saiful Bahri ECG305 - Surveying FKA, UiTMPP

1.2.7 Geographic Information System (GIS)

A geographical information system is an information management process for organizing

spatially related data so that it can be analyzed and displayed.

Figure 3: Sample of GIS map

Notes:
No Type of survey Description
1 Topographic Produce a plan or map
2 Engineering Embrace all survey work required before, during and after engineering works
3 Cadastral Produce plan of properties boundaries for legal purpose
4 Hydrography Deal with mapping of large water body
5 Photogrammetry Produce plan or map using photographs technique

1.3 Surveying Instrumentation

1.3.1 Chain

As a unit measurement within the Imperial System, the chain is defined as 22 yards, 66 feet or 4
rods. Ten chains made of one furlong and 8 furlongs to a mile means there are 80 chains to a
mile. In metric units, a chain equals to 20.1168 metres. A chain is divided into 100 links.
Intan Shafika Saiful Bahri ECG305 - Surveying FKA, UiTMPP

1.3.2 Tape

Tapes are used for linear measurements. Survey tapes can be of steel or plastic-coated steel.

Figure 4: Offset tape (left) and plastic-coated tape (right)

1.3.3 Prismatic Compass

The prismatic compass is used to determine north direction and also bearing.

Figure 5: Prismatic compass

1.3.4 Theodolite

Theodolite is used to establish straight or curved lines and to measure horizontal and vertical
angles.

Figure 6: Electronic theodolite

Intan Shafika Saiful Bahri ECG305 - Surveying FKA, UiTMPP

1.3.5 Level

The level and rod are used to measure differences in elevation.

Figure 7: Auto level (left) and leveling rod (right)

1.3.6 Electromagnetic Distance Measurement

Electronic microprocessor-controlled instruments can measure long distances to within a few

millimeters at the press of a button. Can be identified into two groups: electronic, or microwave
and the electro-optical with an infrared beam.

Figure 8: Distance meter

1.3.7 Total Station

Total station measures horizontal and vertical angles as well as horizontal and vertical
distances. All data can be captured into electronic field books or onboard storage as the data
received.
Intan Shafika Saiful Bahri ECG305 - Surveying FKA, UiTMPP

1.3.8 Global Positioning System (GPS) Receiver

GPS receiver captures data from several satellites to determine position co-ordinates (north,
east and elevation) of a survey station.

Figure 9: Fixed receiver (left) and mobile receiver(right)

1.3.9 Target Prism

Theodolite, EDMs and Total Stations need to have target prism to reflect the signal sent by the
instruments.

Figure 10: Target prism for total station and theodolite

1.3.10 Other Instruments

Figure 11: From left; ranging poles, pegs, tripod and plumb bobs

Notes:
Intan Shafika Saiful Bahri ECG305 - Surveying FKA, UiTMPP

2 major components of survey equipments: measure distance & angle

No Conventional instruments Modern equipments Other equipments

1 Prismatic compass Theodolite Staff, peg, ranging
2 Plane table EDM rods, arrows,
3 Chain GPS tripod, umbrella,
4 Abney level tape, parang.
5 Dumpy level

1.4 Principles and Types of Framework

On any area of the land to be measured, it will always be possible to choose two points and to
measure the distance between them.

A B

Other points can be located relative to the AB line by taking two other measurements.
Additional lines have to be defined, relative to the first when the whole area needs to be
surveyed. Control points / control station are the points of junctions of these lines. They should
be visible together with several other change points.

4 types:

A A

C C

B B
a) Two distance b) Two angles

C C
A A

B B

c) One distance one angle d) One distance one angle

1.5 Errors in surveying

No measurement in a survey is ever exact and every measurement whether linear or angular
will contain some form of error. Error is the difference between measured value and its true
value.
Intan Shafika Saiful Bahri ECG305 - Surveying FKA, UiTMPP

Sources of error:

1. Natural or nature

2. Instrumental

3. Personal or human being

3 types of errors

1. Mistakes (blunders or gross errors)

• Cause by human being eg: incorrect booking, reading, writing

• Mistakes can happen at any stages eg: early, middle or end of survey work

• To overcome, check the reading and follow the procedures stipulated.

2. Systematic (cumulative error/constant error)

• Due to instrument not standard

Eg: measured length 20m but when actual length compared to standard is
20.03m.

3. Random (accidental)

• Cause by the different capabilities of the instrument and the surveyor itself

• The remaining error after all mistakes and systematic error eliminated is called
random.

• These error are small and they cannot be eliminated

i. small error occur more often than large one

ii. positive and negative error are equal and alike.

iii. very large error seldom occur

iv. the distribution of the errors approximates closely to the normal

distribution curve.
Notes:

No Types of error Description Precaution

1 Mistake/blunders/gross errors Occurred at any stage of survey when • Strictly follow a well planned observing
observing, booking, computing or procedures
Intan Shafika Saiful Bahri ECG305 - Surveying FKA, UiTMPP

plotting. • Independent checks at each stage

2 Systematic Arise from sources that act in similar
manner of observation such as:
• Method of measurement (type of
technique)
• Instrument used (calibration
periodically)
• Physical condition (weather,
observer, environment)
3 Random errors • Those discrepancies remain once
the blunder and systematic errors
have been removed even if the
quantity is measured many times
with the same instrument in the
same way
• Random errors are the difference
caused by limitation of instruments
and observers.
Redo measurement of quantity by an entirely
different method using different equipment.
• Use correct observing procedures
• Applying correction
In practice, random error has the following
characters:
• Very large errors seldom occur
• Small errors frequent occur more than
large ones
• Negative and positive errors are equal and
likely to occur.
Errors elimination:
• Observing procedures are designed
• Additional or redundant observation are
taken
• Many quantities are observed several
times
• Use simplest possible framework and high
quality measurement

1.6 Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy is the relationship between the value of measurement and the true value of
dimension being measured. The accuracy ratio of a measurement or series of measurement is
the ratio of error of closure to the distance measured.

Precision describes the refinement of the measuring process and the ability to repeat the same
measurement with consistently small variation in the measurements.

Figure 12: Accuracy and Precision Diagram

Notes:

1. Identification of Errors and Errors Elimination

Human = Unavoidable Errors

So, surveyors must be aware of all sources and type of error to achieve required accuracy.

2. Accuracy = The Nearness of That Value To the True Value

Intan Shafika Saiful Bahri ECG305 - Surveying FKA, UiTMPP

3 elements to produce sufficiently accurate results:

i. How accurate they need to be?
ii. How to achieve this accuracy?
iii. How to check the required accuracy is achieved?

1.7 Calibration and General Handling

Standard procedure for calibration is accordance to SIRIM or by the supplier periodically. All
equipments must be handled with care as stipulated in manuals or laboratory instruction
manuals.