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Fractography O • R I • A •(continued)
and• Plastics L by Ronald J. Parrington, P.E.
F
ractography is critical to failure analysis of metals and plastics. Fractography of plastics is a rel-
atively new field with
many similarities to
metals. Using case histories,
various aspects of failure analysis
and fractography of metals and
plastics are compared and
contrasted.
Failure modes common to
both metals and plastics include
ductile overload, brittle fracture,
impact, and fatigue. Analogies
can also be drawn between
stress-corrosion cracking (SCC)
of metals and stress cracking of
polymers. Other metal/plastic
failure analogies include corro-
sion/chemical aging, dealloying/
scission, residual stress/frozen-in
stress, and welds/knit lines. Stress raisers, microstructure, material defects, and thermomechanical history
play important roles in both types of materials. The key fractographic features for metals and plastics
are described in this paper.
Historical Perspective analysis methods. Although the cost working knowledge of fracture. Arch-
Plastics have been in existence for of failure analysis may exceed the eological findings of lithic imple-
approximately 130 years. John Hyatt value of the part, the cost of service ments, weapons, and tools shaped from
patented nitrocellulose, the first failures usually far exceeds the cost stone by controlled fracture indicate
commercial plastic, in 1869. However, of failure analysis. Many of the tech- that prehistoric man knew how to select
full-scale development and use of niques used over the years for the eval- rocks with favorable fracture behavior,
plastics is only approximately 50 years uation of metals have been success- use thermal spalling to detach bedrock
old. In contrast, metals have been in fully applied to plastics, with only from the working core, and shape stone
use for hundreds of years. minor modifications. by pressure flaking.
The application of engineering mat- Fractography is arguably the most Fractography, as we know it today,
erials is unavoidably accompanied by valuable tool available to the failure developed in the 16th century as a
the occurrence of failures, many of analyst. Fractography, a term coined quality-control practice employed for
which have been catastrophic. The in 1944 to describe the science of ex- ferrous and nonferrous metalworking.
consequences of material failures, in- amining fracture surfaces, has actually De La Pirotechnia, published by Van-
cluding deaths, financial losses, and been used for centuries as part of the noccio Biringuccio in 1540,[1] is one
legal ramifications, have encouraged field of metallurgy. Even before that, of the first documents to detail frac-
the development of effective failure however, Stone Age man possessed a tographic techniques.
ties as well as requisite mechanical particularly in fatigue. Stress raisers Environmental degradation is one
properties and welding/joining char- include thread roots (Fig.1), sharp of the most important service-related
acteristics. Stress raisers are frequently radii of curvature, through holes, and causes of failure for metals and plas-
a preferred site for fracture origin, surface discontinuities (e.g., gate tics. Other degradation processes in-
marks in molded plastic parts). clude excessive wear, impact, overload-
Similarly, many manufac- ing, and electrical discharge.
turing and material problems
Failure Mechanisms
found in metals also are
observed or have a corollary Another key objective of failure anal-
in plastics. Weldments are a ysis is to identify the failure mechan-
trouble-prone area for metals, ism(s). Once again, some failure modes
as are weld lines or knit lines are identical for metals and plastics.
in molded plastics (Fig. 2). These modes include ductile overload,
High residual stresses can brittle fracture, impact, fatigue, wear,
result from metalforming, and erosion.
heat treatment, welding, and Analogies also can be drawn be-
machining. Similarly, high tween metals and plastics with regard
Fig. 2 Cross section showing fracture along the knit line of frozen-in stresses in in- to environmental degradation.
a perfluoralkoxyethylene-lined impeller jection-molded plastic parts Whereas metals corrode by an elec-
often contribute to failure. trochemical process, plastics are
Porosity and voids are com- vulnerable to chemical changes from
mon to metal castings and aging or weathering. Stress-corrosion
plastic molded parts (Fig. 3). cracking (SCC), a specific form of
Pores and voids serve as metallic corrosion, is similar in many
stress raisers and reduce ways to stress cracking of plastics.
load-carrying capability. Both result in brittle fracture due to
Other manufacturing- and the combined effects of tensile stress
material-related problems and a material-specific aggressive en-
that may lead to failure vironment. Similarly, dealloying or
include adverse thermomech- selective leaching in metals (Fig. 4),
anical history, poor micro- the preferential removal of one
structure, material defects, element from an alloy by corrosion,
Fig. 3 Cross section of a polyacetal hinge that fractured and contamination. is somewhat similar to scission of
(arrow) through an area of porosity
polymers (Fig. 5), a
form of aging that
can cause chemical
changes by selectively
cutting molecular
bonds.
Analogies can also
be drawn between
metals and another
type of polymer:
rubber. Internal hy-
drogen in steels can
Fig. 4 Microbiologically induced corrosion of a 304 SST precipitate and cause
vessel weld, characterized by pitting and selective Fig. 5 Hollowing out of a polyacetal hinge due to acid- hydrogen damage,
leaching (arrow) catalyzed hydrolysis which is frequently
identify the origin and the failure coalescence. Ductile fracture in plas- may result from numerous failure
mode. Beach marks (Fig. 8) are mac- tics (Fig. 11) is characterized by mat- mechanisms, but there are only a few
roscopically visible semielliptical lines erial stretching related to the fibrillar basic microfractographic features that
running perpendicular to the overall nature of the polymer response to clearly indicate the failure mechan-
direction of fatigue crack propagation stress. Although a part may fail in ism. These features are cleavage facets
and marking successive positions of a brittle manner, ductile fracture (Fig. 12), intergranular facets (Fig.
the advancing crack front. Ratchet morphology is frequently observed 13), and striations (Fig. 14). Cleavage
marks are macroscopically visible lines away from the origin. For example, facets form in body-centered cubic
running parallel to the overall the final fast fracture by ductile (bcc) and hexagonal close-packed
direction of crack propagation and overload produces the shear lip in metals when the crack path follows a
formed by the intersection of fatigue many metal failures, even when the well-defined transgranular crystallo-
cracks propagating from multiple crack originated and was propagated graphic plane (e.g., the {100} planes
origins. by SCC, fatigue, or hydrogen em- in bcc metals). Cleavage is character-
Brittle fractures in plastics also ex- brittlement processes. The extent of istic of transgranular brittle fracture.
hibit characteristic features, several of this overload region is an indication Intergranular fracture, recognizable
which are macroscopically visible (Fig. of the stress level. Generally, the larger by its “rock candy” appearance, occurs
9). These features may include a mir- the overload region, the higher the when the crack path follows grain
ror zone at the origin, a mist region, stress level on the failed component. boundaries. Intergranular fracture is
and rib marks. The mirror zone is a Brittle fracture of metallic materials typical of many forms of SCC, hy-
flat, featureless region
surrounding the
origin and associated
with the slow crack-
growth phase of
fracture. The mist
region is located
immediately adjacent
to the mirror zone
and displays a misty
appearance. This area
is a transition zone
from slow to fast
crack growth. Rib Fig. 10 Dimpled appearance typical of ductile fracture of Fig. 12 Brittle fracture of an FC-0205 powder metal
marks are semi- metallic materials control rod displaying cleavage facets
elliptical lines re-
sembling beach
marks in metallic
fatigue fractures.
Microscopically
Visible
Fractographic
Features
On a microscopic
scale, ductile fracture
in metals (Fig. 10)
displays a dimpled
surface appearance Fig. 11 Fracture of a polyethylene tensile-test specimen Fig. 13 Intergranular fracture of an embrittled cast steel
created by microvoid exhibiting material stretching pneumatic wrench
• T.J. Davies and I. Brough: “General Practice • F.R. Larson and F.L Carr: “How Failures • U. Portugall and K. Steinlein: Prac. Met-
in Failure Analysis,” Metals Handbook (9th Occur…Topography of Fracture Surfaces,” allography, 1999, 36(8), pp. 446-62.
ed.), vol. 11, Failure Analysis and Prevention, Source Book in Failure Analysis, American
American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1974.
OH, 1986. Credit Info
th
• M. Ezrin: Plastics Failure Guide: Cause and • Metals Handbook (8 ed.), vol. 9, Fracto- Ronald J. Parrington, IMR Test Labs, 131
Prevention, Hanser Publishers, New York, graphy and Atlas of Fractographs, American Woodsedge Drive, Lansing, NY 14882. Con-
1996. Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1974. tact e-mail: ron@imrtest.com.