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c = Lr / ( Ls L r − Lm 2 ) , ω r = − ( Te − Tl − βωr ) / J ..................(11)
The state space model of the electrical subsystem
a1 = cR s + cR r Lm 2 / Lr 2 , is:
.
a2 = cRr Lm / Lr 2 , a3 = cLm / Lr , a4 = Rr / Lr , x1 = ( A1 x1 + B1u1 ) .................(12)
a5 = Rr Lm / Lr , y1 = C1 x1 ..................(13)
The torque developed by the motor is: Where X1= [ids ψdr] T, y1-ids , B1= [1 0]T , C1=[1
( )
Te = K t ψ dr iqs − ψ qr ids ..........(2) 0]
The state model of the mechanical subsystem is:
Where, torque constant, Kt=3PLm/2Lr, P-number of .
pole pairs. x 2 = ( A2 x2 + B2u2 + D2TL ) .................(14)
The speed dynamics of the motor is given as,
ωr = ( T e −T1 − βωr ) / J ……… (3) y2 = C2 x2 ..................(15)
Where X2= [Te ωr] T, y2=Te , B2= [1 0]T , C2=[1
Equations (1) and (3) describe the fifth order state 0]
model of the induction motor. In the motor model D2=[0 -1/J]T
described by eqns (1-3), nonlinearities and interactions The rotor flux is estimated by applying The
exist. The conditions required for decoupling control Kalman Filter to discrete time form of eqns.
.
of the motor areψ (12-13). The motor speed ωr is estimated by
qr = 0,ψ qr = 0..........(4)
applying the same algorithm to discrete time
From (1), decoupling is obtained, when form of eqns. (14-15). The Kalman’s
Rr Lm iqs algorithm for state estimation in linear systems
ωsl = . .............(5) is explained in the next section.
Lr ψ dr 3. KALMAN FILTER FOR FLUX AND
The nonlinearity in the overall system are eliminated SPEED ESTIMATION:
by using input-output linear zing control The discrete time model of both electrical
approach8.This approach consists of change of subsystem and mechanical subsystem is:
coordinates and use of nonlinear inputs to linearize the x(k+1)=F(k)x(k)+u(k)……………………. (16)
system equations. Developed torque, Te is considered y(k)=H(k)x(k)+w(k)………………………(17)
as a state variable, replacing iqs to describe the motor Where, x(k) and y(k) are the state vector and
dynamics. Nonlinear control inputs U1 and U2 are output, respectively at the k-th sampling instant.
used to linearize8 the input voltages, vds, vqs to the F(k) is the state transition matrix (2×2). is the
motor in terms of U1 and U2 are: measurement matrix (1×2). is the random
disturbance input. It is the sum of physical input
and the system noise. w(k) is the measurement
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 137
noise. Both u(k) and w(k) are assumed to be white Kpd = 151.24, Kid = 43640, Kpw = 0.26, Kiw =
noise with zero mean. 1.98, Kpq = 100, Kiq = 29877.
Let, x^(k)=estimate of x(k) by Kaman’s algorithm
from the measurement of y(k)
x-(k)=extrapolated value of x(k) from the previous 4.2 Flux weakening controller
estimate, x^(k) The flux weakening controller is used to regulate
x^(0) = priori estimate of x(k), or the initial guess of the magnitude of rotor flux linkage command
x^(k) such that the motor will operate in constant
P(0) = Error covariance matrix of initial guess x^(0) torque mode when motor speed is below base
The first step of Kalman’s algorithm in estimating is to speed and in constant power mode when motor
determine the extrapolated value as follows: speed is above the base speed. The flux
− ^ weakening control algorithm is as follows.
x(1) = F (0) x(0) ^
For a general notation at any sampling instant, Rψ if ω r ≤ ωb
dropping the arguments: ψ dr* = ωb ^ ...............(23)
− ^ ψ R ^ if ω r ≥ ωb
x = F x ..............(18)
ω r
Where, x^ is the previous estimate, and x- is the present where, ψr = rated rotor flux linkage in V· s
extrapolated value based on previous estimate.The ωb= base speed in rad/s,
error covariance matrix of the new x- is: ωr^ estimated rotor angular (mechanical) speed
−
The rotor flux command is then converted to an
P (1) = FP (0) F T + Q
equivalent field current command in the rotating
Again dropping arguments for a general notation, reference frame.
−
4.3 Flux and Speed Estimator
P = FPF T + Q..........(19) The flux and speed estimator using Kalman filter
Dr. Kalman says the new optimal estimate is: is described in section 3. Only two voltage
^ − −
(x= sensors and two current sensors are used. Current
x + K ( y − H x ..........(20) measurements are required for both estimation
Where, K is the Kalman filter gain and control purposes. But, voltage measurements
The optimal gain of Kalman filter is given by12 : are taken only for control purpose. Measured
− − currents are transformed from 3-phase to rotating
K = P H T ( H P H T + R )T ..........(21) d-q reference frame components, ids and iqs,
The new estimate x^has an error covariance matrix, through the flux vector angle,θe. Current
which is given component, ids is used to estimate the rotor flux
− through eqns. (18-22). Then the estimated rotor
P = ( I − KH ) P( I − KH )T + KRK T .........(22) flux and the current component, iqs are used to
The Kalman filter consists of repeated use of eqns . determine the developed torque, Te using eqns.
(18-22) for each measurement. (2) and (4). The speed is estimated by Kalman
4. SENSORLESS CONTROL SCHEME filter eqns.(18-22) using this developed torque.
The block diagram of the sensorless speed control The estimated speed added with slip speed, given
scheme is shown in Fig. 1. This sensorless speed by eqn.(5) is integrated to obtain the flux vector
control system consists of three major parts: P-I angle,θe Which is used in coordination
controllers for speed and current, flux weakening
Controller, flux and speed estimator.
4.1 P-I Controllers for speed and current
One P-I controller is used for the flux, or flux
component of current as it is adequate for good
dynamic response. One P-I controller is used for the
speed control, and another for the torque, or torque
component of current. The reason for using two P-I
controllers (one for speed and the other for torque) in a
nested fashion is the significant difference in the time
constants of the speed and current, or the
electromagnetic torque. The design procedure for these
P-I controllers are detailed8. The gains are:
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 138
transformation.
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 139
6. CONCLUSIONS IFAC World Congress, IFAC, Munich, July
The estimation of rotor flux and speed of induction 1987.
motor, using Kalman filter is presented. Torque and [11]G.C.Verghese,and S. R. Sanders, “Observers
rotor flux are decoupled and the induction motor for flux estimation in induction machines”, IEEE
model is linearize using input output linearization Trans. on Indust. Elec, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 85-94,
approach. Rotor flux and speed are estimated by 1988.
Kalman filter. Sensorless control of the linearize and [12] P. L. Jansen, and R. D. Lorenz, “A
decoupled drive using estimated flux and speed, is physically insightful approach to the design and
simulated and results presented. Kalman filter is found accuracy assessment of flux observers for field
to be very good and fast for flux and speed estimation oriented induction machine drives”, IEEE Trans.
in the presence of system and measurement noise. The on Ind. Appl., vol. IA-30, no. 1, pp. 101-110,
dynamic response of the sensorless drive is as fast as 1994.
that of drives with physical sensors. Sensorless speed [12]. Y. Hori, and T. Umeno, “Flux observer
control scheme works for a wide speed control range. based field orientation (FOFO) controller for
high performance torque control”, Proc. IPEC,
7.REFERENCES pp. 1219-1226, Tokyo, 1990.
[1] K. S. Narendra and A. M. Annaswamy. Stable [13] K. B. Mohanty, Study of Different
adaptiveSystems. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Controllers and Implementation for an Inverter
1989. Fed Induction Motor Drive, Ph. D. Thesis, IIT
[2] Y. D. Landau. Adaptive control - The model Kharagpur, May 2001.
referenceapproach. Marcel Dekker Inc., 1979. [14] K. Ohnishi, N. Matsui, and Y. Hori,
[3]Colin Schauder. Adaptive speed identification for “Estimation, identification and sensorless control
vectorcontrol of induction motors without rotational in motion control system,” Proc. of IEEE, vol.
transducers.IEEE Trans. Indust. Appl., 28(5):1054– 82, no. 8, pp. 1253-1265, Aug. 1994.
1061, Set1992.
[4] H. Tajima and Y. Hori. Speed sensorless field- 8. BIOGRAPHIES
orientation control of the induction machine. IEEE K.Bhaskar, He received B.Tech. in Electrical and
Trans. Indust.Appl., 29(1):175–180, Jan/Feb 1993. Electronics Engineering from N.I.T
[5]R. Blasco-Gimenez, G. M. Asher, M. Sumner, and WARANGAL in 2006 and perusing M.Tech
K.J.Bradley. Dynamic performance limitations for (2006-2008)in Electrical Engineering from
MRASbased sensorless induction motor drives. Part 1: Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of
Stability analysis for the closed loop drive. IEEE Proc. Technology(PS&PE) (C.B.I.T).
Electr.
Power Appl., 143(2):113–122, Mar 1996. K.Krishnaveni, she is working as ASSOCIATE
[6] Fang-Zheng Peng and Tadashi Fukao. Robust PROPESSOR in Chitanya Bharathi Institute of
speed identification for speed-sensorless vector control technology, gandipeta (Hyderabad) she has
of induction motors. IEEE Trans. Indust. Appl., presented a thesis On FLEXIBLE A.C.
30(5):1234–1240, Sep/Oct 1994. TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS in J.N.T.U
[7] W. Leonhard, Control of Electrical Drives, HYDERABAD
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990.
[8] D. W. Novotny,and R. D. Lorenz (eds.),
“Introduction to Field Orientation and High
Performance AC Drives”, IAS Annual Meetings:
Tutorial book, IEEE, 1986.
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 140
2. Modelling and Simulation of Interline Power Flow
Controller
D. Ravishankar, Dr. K.Udayakumar, professor
Abstract—An Interline power flow controller is VSC unique capability of power flow management
based FACTS controller for series compensation with among multi lines with
in same corridor of a transmission line. FACTS active/reactive power between transmission lines
controllers can control series impedance, shunt and transfer power from overloaded lines to
impedance, current, voltage and phase angle. Real power under loaded lines.[10]
can be transferred via common dc-link between the
VSC’S and each VSC is capable of exchanging reactive
power with its own transmission system .In this paper, 2. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF IPFC
the different controller circuit models of IPFC is modeled The interline power flow controller employs a
and simulated in PSPICE software package and the number of dc to ac inverters each providing series
power balance between two transmission lines is clearly compensation for a different line. and the
analyzed. compensating inverters is shown in fig 1.
Index Terms—flexible ac transmission, static
synchronous series compensator ,interline power flow
controller
1. INTRODUCTION
1 00 0V d c V7
-
+
E 1
-
+
1 2 1 2 1 2 E
3 0m H
.0 0 1 30 m H
R 5
angles δ1= δ2=30.for two systems.[2] fig5. a transmission line model with SSSC(a part
The System 1is selected to be prime system for which of IPFC)A transmission line shows improved
controllability is real power and reactive power is receiving end voltage and power handling
stipulated. the reason for stipulation is free capability is increased.
controllability of system 1imposes on power control of 4..SIMULATION RESULTS
system 2.[2] The interline power flow controller two
identical transmission lines(impedance, torque
angle, voltage).upper line operating at
11Kv(overloaded) and lower line under loaded
10kv.when it is uncompensated IPFC is disabled
and it is enabled when two transmission lines are
connected diode bridge and VSC based converter
.coupled with DC link and connected with
current controllers and voltage controllers.
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 142
Fig 1 0KV
R 3 L1 L5
1 2 1 2 1 2
.0 0 1 30 m H 3 0m H
H 1 2
+ -
H R 1
10
1
1
V 1
V O FF = 0 L6
FR E Q = 50 10 0m H
V A M P L = 11 00 0
2
0V
0
S 2
S 1
+ +
+ + V 2 - -
V 5 - -
S
D 1 D 3 S
1 0
0
C 1
2 50 m
S 4 S 3 -1 0KV
D 2 D 4 V 4
+ +
- - V 3
+ +
- - 2 . 9 0 2 s . 9 1 2s . 9 2 2s . 9 3 2 s . 9 4 2s . 9 5 2s . 9 6 2s . 9 7 2 s . 9 8 2s . 9 3 9 . s 0 0 s
S
V ( V 6 : +V ,( 0L )4 : 2 , 0 )
0 0 Ti me
E 1
-+
E
R 2 L2 L4
1 2 1 2 1 2
.0 0 1 30m H
3 0m H Influence of the Compensation voltage
depends on two factors (i) Magnitude of DC
1
R 5
0 V
0V
- 2 0 K V
2 . 9 02 s. 9 12 s. 9 22 s. 9 32 s. 9 42 s. 9 52 s. 9 62 s. 9 72 s. 9 82 s. 93 9. s0 0 s
-20KV
2 . 9 0 s2 . 9 1 s2 . 9 2 s2 . 9 3 s2 . 9 4 s2 . 9 5 s2 . 9 6 s2 . 9 7 s2 . 9 8 s2 . 9 39 .s 0 0 s V ( R 2 : V2 (, L0 2) : 1 V, (E 1L :2 4: )1 , 0 )
V ( V 1 : + V, (0 L) 5 : 2 , 0 ) T i m e
Time
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 143
40MW
SYSTEM
W(L 8)
T i me
R 14
M U R 150 M U R 15 0
10
V 3
V O F F = 0
3 .0 MW
V A M P L = 10 000 2
F R E Q = 5 0
L 9
D 14 D 16
15 m
2 .0 MW
M U R 1 5 0M U R 1 5 0
S 6
V 1 1 0 C 2
+ +
V O FF = 0 - -
V A M P L = 2 000 1 .0 MW
4 000 u
FR E Q = 5 0 S R 19
V O F F = 0 .0 VR 1
TD = 1 V O N = 2
R 2 50 . 0 9 k 9 9 .1 k
1 000 k 0W
0.814 s 0. 85 0s 0.9 00 s 0. 95 0s 1.000 s 1. 050s 1.1 00s 1. 15 0s 1. 191s
W (R14)
Ti me
30 000
U 2
0 R 2 1 2k
0 - Fig7c.real power of the 1st line
E 6
O U T R 2 3
+
+ 149.7MW
R 26
-
- +
1 k 1 k
R 2 4
H 6 E O P A M P
R 17 L 6 R 1 6 L 7 0 0 30 k
+-
1 2 H 1 2
0
1 1 .5 m 1 1 .5 m
D 1 7 D 18
100.0MW
2 .5 2 .5 R 15
10 M U R 150 M U R 15 0
2
V O F F = V0 4 D 1 9 D 20
V A M P L = 10 000 L 8
F R E Q = 5 0
15 m M U R 150 M U R 15 0 50 .0M W
C 3
1 0
400 0u
R 20 R 2 1
0 .1 k 9 9 .9 k 0W
0.8 496 s 0.8 800 s 0 .9 200 s 0 .96 00s 1 .00 00s 1. 040 0s 1.0 80 0s 1 .1 20 0s
0
.
W( R1 5)
--
T ime
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 144
1.0MW
presented..It is observed that the real and reactive
powers are increased by the presence of IPFC.
0.5MW
References
[1].L.Gyugyi, “Application Characteristics of
0W Converter-Based FACTS Controllers”, International
Conference on PowerCon 2000, Vol.1, pp.391~396
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 145
3. ANALYSIS OF CHOPPER FED D.C. DRIVE WITH PWM &
HYSTERESIS CURRENT CONTROL SCHEME
* MAULIK. R. DHANDHARA ** SABHA RAJ ARYA *** Mrs. V.A. SHAH
CONTROL STRATEGIES
Output voltage Vo can be controlled through α by opening
and closing the semiconductor switch periodically.
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 146
(a) Const frequency System :Ton is varied
but chopping frequency f is kept constant.
adjustment of Pulse width as such this
scheme is also called Pulse – width –
modulation scheme or time ratio control
(TRC) scheme,.
(b) Variable frequency Scheme The
f
chopping frequency ‘ ’ is varied and either
Ton of Toff is kept Const. this method of
controlling ‘α ’ is also called frequency
modulation Scheme High efficiency of 70%
to 95% are typically obtained using
switched-mode, or chopper, circuits. Pulse-
.
width modulation (PWM) allows control and
regulation of the total output voltage. A Fig(2) PWM CONTROLLING SCHEME
basic dc-dc converter circuit known as the
The output voltage is sensed and is compared with a reference
buck converter is illustrated in Fig.1. An
SPDT switch is connected to the dc input voltage Vr . The resulting error signal is compensated to derive
voltage V g as shown. The switch network analog voltage Vc (t ) . The pulse-width modulator produces a
changes the dc component of the voltage. switched voltage waveform that controls the gate of the power
Since 0≤ D ≤ 1, the dc component of V s is switch Q1. If this control system is designed such that duty cycleis
automatically adjusted and v follows the reference voltage Vr
less than or equal to V g . In addition to dc
independent of variations in V g or load current.
voltage component V s , V s (t ) contains
CHOPPER CONTROL DC DRIVE
undesired harmonics of the switching
frequency. A low-pass filter is employed for this the constant-voltage d.c supply input allows improved
purpose converter of Fig. contains a single- power factor and wave form of A.C side. Also the relatively high
section L-C low-pass filter. The filter has corner chopping frequency employed permits reduced ripple current,
1 which ensures better motor performance as well as reduced time
frequency f 0 = . lay in the system response due to the lower value of filter
2π LC
inductance required. However energy is lost at each commutation
the conversion ratio M(D) is defined as the
and the efficiency of the chopper decreases as the chopping
ratio of the dc output voltage V to the dc input frequency is increased.
voltage Vg under stead-state condition: In CLC ,α is varied in directly by controlling the motor
current between certain specified maximum and minimum values.
In effect, this type of control is a variable frequency control,
V
M ( D) = For the buck converter, M(D) is variable on-time and off-time. The diagram of a chopper fed to a
Vg motor load is shown in below.
given by M(D) = D Chopper control of separately excited dc moto:
When δ (t) is high (for 0< t < DTs), then A chopper controlled separately excited dc motor drive is
MOSFET Q1 conducts with negligible drain-to- shown in Fig.(3)
source voltage. Hence, Vs(t) is approximately Raia + La dia/dt+ E=V, 0 ≤ t ≤ ton
equal to Vg , and the diode is reverse-biased. The
positive inductor current i1(t) flows through the In this interval, armature current increases from ia1to ia2.
MSOFET. Since motor is connected to the source during this interval.
control system: control system can be constructed. Which is called duty interval.
that varies the duty cycle to cause the output voltage to
follow a given reference Vr Figure(2) shown below
illustrates the block diagram of a simple converter
feedback system
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 147
The permanent magnet DC motor may be represented by small
L/R ratio.
Average motor current is a function of the electrical time constant
of the motor,τ a, where. τ a = L/R For a PWM waveform with a
period T the ratio of pulse width to switching period is denoted by
δ . The average pulse current will depend upon the ratio of the
current pulse width, δ T, to the motor electrical time constant, τ a.
Va b) Va
Vdc Vdc
ia ia
Now we have
Ia = (δ V- E) / Ra , ωm = δ V/ K – RaT/K2 Motor which has high armature inductance will require a lower
PWM drive frequency in order to establish the required current
levels, and hence develop the necessary torque. A low inductance
motor allows the use of a high switching drive frequency thus
resulting in an overall faster system response, the printed circuit
Banking motor
Va is one of the lowest inductance DC motors available with
Motoring electrical time constants in the order of 100 us, allow these motors
to be used with switching rates as high as 100kHz, with typical
ia = I1e −( t −δt ) / τ a
The motor current at the end of the period, T,
Fig (7) MOTOR CURRENT WAVEFORM, τ a << T
remains at a level l2, which is then the starting current
For a low inductance motor where the electrical time constant is
for the next cycle, as shown in Fig.(6)
much less than the duty cycle then the motor current waveform will
va
closely follow the applied voltage waveform, as shown in
Fig.above. An approximate expression for the average motor
t
current is given by:
Ia
Vdc − E a
I ave = δ
Ra
t In summary, the principle control variable in the
PWM motor control system is ‘duty cycle’, δ Motor torque
Fig. (6) Motor current waveforms at start-up and velocity can be tightly
As the switching sequence repeats, sufficient current
controlled by controlling the PWM duty cycle and motor
begins to flow to give an accelerating torque and thus
current.
cause armature rotation. As soon as rotation begins,
BASIC HYSTERESIS CONTROLLER
back emf is generated which subtracts from the supply
Basic self oscillating controllers is based on hysteresis
voltage. controller. The hysteresis controller can be made with either
The motor equation then becomes: a current or a voltage loop.
La. di a / dt + Ra. ia = Vα - Ea The benefits of hysteresis controllers are primarily the linear
modulation caused by the saw-tooth shaped carrier with ideally
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 149
straight slopes, and by the infinite power supply
∗
rejection ratio PSRR, if the supply variation can be ia ≤ ia - ∆ i , Set Va =Vs
considered by very slow compare by the switching ∗
ia ≥ ia + ∆ I , Reset Va = o
frequency. Power supply variation at higher frequencies
are not suppressed totally, and will result in sum and
difference products of the reference signal and the
power supply variation, but these steel meets high
suppression for use in audio amplifier applications the
hysteresis controller is very desirable due to the high
linearity and simple design. However hysteresis
controller suffers from a switching frequency dependent
on the modulation index, M, of the amplifier. All other
types of self oscillating modulator suffers this
phenomena too.
The basic operation of the current mode hysteresis
operation is : The out put inductor integrates the Fig(8): HYSTERESIS –CONTROLLER OPERATION
differential voltage between the out put voltage of the
power stage and the out put voltage of the amplifier.The
If disadvantages of this controller is higher Switching loss due to
the out put voltage of the amplifier can be considered
the high switching frequency. Hysteresis control is inherently
constant within one switching period the integration
Robust, Since the Switchs Operate to enforce a desired O/P,
results in a saw-tooth shaped inductor current, whichirrespective
is of time scale or line or load values. There are still
subtracted from the reference current programming fundamental limitations but (a low voltage i/p bus can force only a
voltage, and fed into a hysteresis window to control limited
the current slew rate on inductor for instance), but hysteresis
switching frequency by controlling the time delay can help keep a converter near any feasible operating condition.
through the controller loop. In hysteresis control, The
the loop gain function is
power converter O/P is monitored an active switch (1 + ST M )
ia ( s )
operates as the O/P crosses the threshold. The =K
ia * ( s ) (1 + ST1 )(1 + ST 2 ) + H C * K (1 + STr )
simplest technique is to compare the O/P to a reference
wave form, Switching on when the O/P is too low and
Where K=Kc*Kr*Ki ,TM= mechanical time constant
when it is too high.
,Tr=converter time delay
The current is controlled with in a narrows band
Speed feed back filter is used in the control system. The
of excursion from its desired value in the hysteresis
parameter of filter which are in the MATLAB simulation
controller. The hysteresis window determines the
programme are the combination parameter of tachno
allowable or present deviation of current
generater & filter. The transfer function of speed feed back
Commanded current and actual current are shown in
filter is Gω(s)=Hω / (1+STω) =0.065/(1+0.01s)
the fig. with the hysteresis windows. The voltage
RESULTS:
applied to the load is determined by the following logic.
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 150
SIMULATION OF CHOPPER FED DC DRIVE WITH
PWM CONTROL
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 151
The simulation results such that the out put of In this work separately excited d.c motor drive with the
the DC drive with Hysteresis control (Armature speed,
control strategies are simulated using SIMULINK tool box of
Armature Current & Out put electro magnetic torque
MATLAB
) Software Package. This control can also be applied to a
are shown in figure. Both steady state and ripple
real drive by using Hardware.
present in the speed current and torque at no load
condition also shown in the result fig.(10). REFERENCES:
Comparison: the comparison table between theoretical
1 . B.H. KHAN, G.K.DUBEY & SESHAGINI R. DORADLA, “AN ECONOMICAL
value are shown in table (1) FOUR-QUADRANT GTO CONVERTER AND ITS APPLICATION TO DC DRIVE”, IEEE
Speed & No load Half load Full load TRAN. ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 8, NO. 1 JAN 1993.
current 2. JOACHIM HOLTZ & BERND BEYER, “FAST CURRENT TRAJECTORY TRACKING
Theoretical 175.4 - 166 rad/sec CONTROL BASED ON SYNCHRONOUS OPTIMAL PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION”,
value rad/sec IEEE INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS SOCIETY ANNUAL MEETING, DENVER, 1994.
0.69 amp. - 5.1 amp. 3. AKIRA NABAE, SATOSHI OGASAWARA & HIROFURNI AKAGI, “ A NOVEL
PWM 175.20 167.16 161.235
CONTROL SCHEME FOR CURRENT — CONTROLLER PWM INVERTER”,
control rad/sec rad/sec rad/sec
IEEE TRAN. ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS VOL. IA-22, NO. 4,
0.68 amp. 2.6 amp. 5.1 amp.
Hysteresis 174 174.95 174.93 JULY/AUGUST 1986.
current rad/sec rad/sec rad/sec 4. LUIGI MALESANI, PAOLO MATTAVELLI AND PAOLO TOMASIN, “IMPROVED
control 0.61 amp. 2.45 amp. 5.1 amp. CONSTANT
FREQUENCY HYSTERESIS CURRENT CONTROL OF VSI INVERTERS WITH.
Table (1) : CONCLUSION AND SCOPE FOR
SIMPLE FEEDJÖRWARD
FUTURE WORK:
BAN WIDTH PREDICTION”, IEEE TRAN. ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS,
The simulation work of gate pulse, PWM and hysteresis
VOL. 33, NO. 5,
current control of chopper fed separately excited d.c
SEP/OCT 1997.
motor drive, demonstrates that the hysteresis control is
5. PROF. STVAN NAGY & ZOLTAN SUTO, “ NON-LINEAR PHENOMENON IN
more accurate control among the three scheme and is
CURRENT CONTROL ()FIFLDUCTIOFL MOTOR”, IEEE PRESS, PP 328-
able to over come the disadvantages of gate pulse and
33 1.
PWM control of d.c motor drive. This improve
6. JOCOVE W. VANDER WOUDE, WILLEM L. DE KONING & YUSUF FUAD, “ ON
performance is possible due to the current control in the
THE PERIODIC BEHAVIOR OFPWM DC- DC CONVERTERS”, IEEE TRAN. ON
hysteresis band i.e. the out put of motor compares with
POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 17, NO. 4, JULY 2002.
a reference waveform and the chopper switch is on
7. SOREN POULSEN AND MICHAEL A. E. ANDERSEN, “HYSTERESIS CONTROLLER
when the output is low or off when the output is high.
WITH CONSTANT SWITCHING FREQUENCY”.
The deviation in speed incase of hysteresis current
8. ROBERT W. ERICKSON DRAGAN MAKSIMOVIC, FUNDAMENTALS OFPOWER
control as compare to the ideal case is very less. In
ELECTRONIC 2ND EDITION 2001, PAGE 657-659.
hysteresis current control output characteristics is
9. N. MOHAN, T. UNDELAND, W. ROBBINS, POWER ELECTRONICS. CONVERTERS,
uniformed but in case of pulse , it is non uniform and in
APPLICATIONS, DESIGN, 3’ EDITION, NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS 2003.
PWM it is intermediate. This hysteresis control is
10 . R. KRISHNAN ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVES MODELING ANALYSIS AND CONTROL
possible only in buck converter.
1 ST EDITION
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 152
2003.
11. PROF DR. M. MARARI, DR. F.J. KRAUS, “C’ONTROI OF
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 153
APPENDIX
For step function :
Data considered for simulation(PWM) Initial step = 0.3638 (From PWM calculation)
For 1 H.P. DC motor (From the machine Final step = 0.3638
calculation) For repeating sequence : Frequency = Fc =
Armature resistance = Ra=3Ω 1KHz
Armature inductance = La=56mH FOR HYSTERESIS CURRENT CONTROL:
Field resistance= Rf = 570 Ω Magnitude of Amplitude = 2
Field inductance = Lf =13.5H Gain of speed controller Ks= 373.529
Mutual inductance = 2.75 H For current controller Hc = 1.135294
2
Moment of inertia J= 0.1kg-m Speed reference ωref = 157 rad / sec
Frictional constant = Bt = 0.03 N.m / (rad/ sec) For filter numerated part 0.065 & denominated
Motor field voltage = Vf = 220volt part (1+0.01s)
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 154
4. Harmonic Reduction in a Single-Switch, Three-Phase Boost Rectifier
with High Order Harmonic Injected PWM
V. Krishna Murthy, Roll. No. 010611-204 ,M.E (IDC) PTPG – V Semester
College Of Engineering, Osmania University.
Abstract
A Traditional three -phase controlled
rectifiers draw non- sinusoidal currents from
the source, the power quality of the
distribution network is greatly deteriorated,
resulting in low efficiency of utilities.
Switching mode rectifiers have gained greater
attention as a good solution, since they draw
perfect sinusoidal currents from the power
distribution network.
Among switching mode rectifiers, a single-
switch three phase boost rectifier is an
attractive topology because of its simplicity,
low cost and high efficiency. Fig 1- A Single –Switch Three -Phase Boost Rectifier
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 155
Vb = Vm sin(ωt - 2π/3) The proposed constant fs with harmonic injected PWM scheme
(1) uses sixth order harmonic to modify the duty cycle D:
Vc = Vm sin(ωt - 4π/3) d(t) = D[1 + m sin(6ωt + 3π/2)] (3)
The average input current over the (0, π/2) interval in a Therefore, that the THD can be reduced to meet the requirement and
single-switch rectifier with constant fs PWM is given the harmonic contents can be optimized to meet the IEC standard,
by [3, 6] where m(0<m<1) is modulation index.
ia = Vo T2on sin(ωt) Since the fifth order harmonic is the dominant harmonic with
(0 ≤ωt constant fs PWM, the three phase currents in Eq. (2) can be
≤π/6)
approximately expressed as
2LTsw √ 3M-3 sin(ωt)
ia= I1 sin ωt + I5 sin (5ωt + π)
2
ib = Vo T on M sin(ωt) + ½ sin(2ωt - 2π/3)
ib= I1 sin (ωt – 2π/3) + I5 sin (5ωt - π/3) (4)
2LTsw [√ 3M-3 sin(ωt + 2π/3)][M - sin(ωt + π/6)] ic= I1 sin (ωt – 4π/3) + I5 sin (5ωt + π/3)
(π/6≤ ωt ≤
π/3) Where the initial phases of the fifth order harmonics are obtained by
ic = 2
Vo T on M sin(ωt) + sin(2ωt + /3) using Fourier analysis. Substituting D in Eq. (4) with the variable
duty cycle defined in Eq. (3), and ignoring the presence of m2
2LTsw [√ 3M + 3 sin(ωt + 2π/3)][M - sin(ωt + π/6)] (m2<<1) terms and high-order harmonics (n>7), Eq. (4) becomes:
(π/3≤ ωt ≤ π/2)
(2) ia= I1 sin ωt + (I5 - mI1 ) sin(5ωt + π) - mI1 sin 7ωt
Where, Ton = DTsw, D is the duty cycle, Tsw is the ib= I1 sin(ωt – 2π/3) + (I5 - mI1 ) sin(5ωt – π/3) - mI1sin(7ωt - 2π/3)
switching period, L is the input inductor and M is the ic= I1 sin(ωt – 4π/3) + (I5 - mI1 ) sin(5ωt + π/3) –
rectifier voltage gain, which is defined as: M = Vo/Vlp ,
m I1sin(7ωt - 4π/3) (5)
where Vo is rectifier output voltage and Vlp is input
line peak voltage.From above equation, the THD and It can be seen that for each phase, the fifth order harmonic is
harmonic contents for different power levels can be suppressed by sixth order harmonic in the duty cycle.Even though
calculated by Fourier analysis.The lower the M, the the seventh order harmonic is increased by the same amplitude at the
higher the current distortion. same time, the THD is improved. Obviously, the following inequality
is satisfied:
In Fig. 4(a), the THD is plotted with respect to M.
√(I5 - mI1 )2 +(mI1 )2
It can be seen that in order to meet the THD<10%
requirement, M should be at least 1.7, or the output THD = < I5 / I1 I1
voltage should be larger than 900V with 3X220V (6)
input.
The plot between THDs and rectifier voltage gain ‘M’ is shown in
fig. 4
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Fig 5- Harmonic Contents With Harmonic Injected PWM @ 3X220
input/800V output
Expected waveforms
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 157
for the rectifier with a 3X220V input/800V output;Indeed the
single switch three phase rectifier is a high efficiency rectifier.
REFERENCES
1) Qihong Huang and Fred C. Lee, “Harmonic Reduction In A
Single-Switch Three-Phase Boost Rectifier With High Order
Harmonic Injected PWM”, Conference Record IEEE 1996, pp. 1266-
1271.
2) Prasad, P. D. Ziogas, and S. Manias, “An Actives Power
Factor Correction Technique For Three Phase Diode Rectifiers”,
Conference Record IEEE PESC 1989, pp. 58-65.
Fig 9- Frequency Spectra Of The Currents With Harmonic
Injection (m=4.6%) 3) L. Simonetti, J. Sebastain and J. Uceda. “Single-Switch
Three-Phase Power Factor Preregulator Under Variable Switching
III.CONCLUSIONS Frequency And Discontinuous Input Current”, Conference Record
The proposed approach, sixth order harmonic injected IEEE PESC 1993, pp. 657-662.
PWM, simply realizes the injection concept at the
4) Kolar, H. Ertl, and F. C. Zach, “Space Vector-Based
control circuit so that the cost of the power stage is
reduced.By using harmonic injected PWM, the THD Analysis Of The Input Current Distortion Of A Three-Phase
in a single-switch rectifier is improved, especially for Discontinuous-Mode Boost Rectifier System”, Conference Record
lower M values.To meet THD<10% requirement, the IEEE PESC 1993, pp. 696-703.
rectifier voltage gain can be designed down to 1.45.So
an application with 3x220v input/800v output becomes 5) Gataric, D. Boroyevich, and F. C. Lee, “Soft-Switched
practical.To meet the IEC555-2 standard (class A), the Single-Switch Three-Phase Rectifier With Power Factor Correction”,
output power can be pushed up to around 10kW level Conference Record IEEE APEC 1994, pp. 738-744.
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 158
5. Sensorless Speed Control of Induction Motor Using
Adaptive Technique
Pothana Santhosh1, D.R.Patil2
1
P.G Student, Walchand College of Engg, Sangli (M.S) – 416415
2
Head of Elec. Dept, Walchand College of Engg, Sangli (M.S) – 416415
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 161
other at 0.4 s the estimated flux also converge to
real flux at the same time.
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Case 3: Speed Reversal Command
(Reference speed = 100 rad/sec; speed reversal
command is applied at t = 0.5 sec.)
6. Conclusion
Fig 11 (a) Line currents in Amps (b) Speed in This paper presents a MRAS-based APFO
rad/sec (c) Torque in N-m on step change in sensorless induction motor drive. This method
load has been applied to a direct field-oriented
induction motor control with and without speed
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 164
sensors. The simulation results demonstrated that, with [8]. I.D. Landau, “Elimination of the real
larger PI gains for the adaptive PI regulators, the positivity condition in the design of parallel
convergence for the speed estimation is fast, however, MRAS “, IEEE Trans. Automat Contr. 23 (6)
higher order harmonics and noises are included in the (1978) 1015–1020
estimated speed. The validity of the MRAS-based
pseudoreduced-order flux observer has been verified
by simulation.
7. REFERENCES
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6. Modeling and Simulation of High Efficiency DC–DC Converter for an
Auxiliary Power Unit
GVSSNS Sarma, Assistant Professor, Centre for Energy Research, EEE Dept., Aurora’s Engineering
College, Bhongir, A.P.
E-mail : music_sarma@yahoo.com
I. INTRODUCTION
B. Operation
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the transformer continues to rise
linearly, but now at a slower rate, as
is shown in Fig. (4).
[t2-t3]: Switch S2 is turned off while
S3 is kept on. D4 conducts to carry
the inductor current as a result of the
turn-off of S2. The inductor current
flows as shown in Fig 3(c) and is
given as
Vor Eqn.
I L = IT 2 − t
L
(3)
where IT2 is the current through the
transformer at time instant t2, and
can be calculated using Eqn.(2).
[t3-t4]: No current or energy flow in
the converter. S3 is turned off at t =
Fig. 4. Waveforms of key components of the converter in one complete cycle. t4. It should be noted that S3 is
turned off at zero current condition.
The proposed converter is operated at
a fixed switching frequency. As can
Using VL = Vi and VL = L(dlL/dt), where
be seen from the description of the working of the
L is the leakage inductance of the
converter, time periods T1 and T2 control the
transformer, one can derive
Vi current through the transformer and hence the power
I L = t. Eqn.(1) of the converter. It can also be seen that switches S5
L
and S6 are turned on for time period T1, with a 180°
It should be noted that S2, S3, and S5 are phase difference. Switches S1 and S2 are turned on
turned on at zero current condition for a time period equal to T1 + T2, with a 180° phase
[t1-t2]: Switches S2 and S3 are kept on difference. And switches S3 and S4 are turned on for
while switch S5 is turned off. D7 conducts half of the switching time period (T/2), with a 180°
to carry the inductor current as a result of phase difference.
the turn-off of S5. A closed current path is
C. Control
created as shown in Fig. 3(b). One can
derive that Vp = Vi, Vsr= Vor and VL = Vp The control strategy of the proposed converter is
- Vsr = Vi — Vor. Similar to Eqn. (1), one shown in Fig. 5. The output voltage of the converter
can have is sensed and compared to the reference voltage
Vi − Vor (VOref). The voltage error thus obtained is passed
I L = IT 2 = t + IT1 Eqn.(2)
L through a proportional-integral (PI) controller to
obtain the reference output current (IOref). The
where IT1 is the current through the
output current Io is sensed and compared to the
tansformer at time instant t1, and can be
Ioref. The current error thus obtained is passed
calculated using (1). As a result, the current in
through two different PI circuits. The signals thus
obtained are compared to a high frequency (equal to
switching frequency) saw tooth signal to generate
pulse-width modulated (PWM) control signals with
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 168
pulse widths T1 and T1+ T2. A constanttransformer continues to rise, but at a very slow rate
value signal is also compared to the same(because of small difference between Vp and Vs ).
saw tooth signal to generate PWM controlDuring time period T3, switch S2 is switched off and
signal with pulse width T/2. These threeonly switch S3 is on. Now Vs is positive and Vp = 0.
PWM control signals of pulse width T1, T1 +The transformer current starts to fall and falls until it
T2, and T/2 are individually phase delayedreaches zero. During time period T4, all three
by 180° to obtain three more PWM controlswitches are off, Vp and Vs both are zero, and there
signals. is no current through the transformer. Thus, by
comparing Fig. 6 to Fig. 4, it is seen that the sim-
Thus a total of six PWM control signals areulated results match the designed waveforms, and
obtained which are used to control the sixthus the proposed converter working is verified by
active switches of the proposed converter, assimulation.
indicated in Fig. 5.
Closed Loop Control:
III. SIMULATION RESULTS
The closed-loop performance of the proposed
Performance of the proposed converter isconverter is also investigated by simulation and the
simulated on a open loop for a fixedresults are shown in Figs 7,8,9,10. Before t = 0.3s,
operating point of 20Volts input voltage andthe converter is in a stable state with the output
an output voltage 250Volts DC. voltage at 350 V and the output current equals to 1
Amps. The fuel cell voltage is 20 V and the fuel cell
The simulation results are shown in Fig. 6current is 34Amps Avg.
where from top to bottom is primary side
voltage(Vp), secondary side voltage (Vs),At time instant t = 0.5s the input voltage is stepped
transformer primary current (IL) and outputup to 25Volts from 20Volts initial condition. It can
voltage Vdc. As shown in Fig. 6, during timebe seen that the output voltage is maintained at 350
period T1, all switches S2, S3, and S5 are on,V constantly and the load current also settled at
Vp is positive and Vs = 0. Thus, the current1Amps.The fuel cell average current is increased
through the transformer rises linearly. from 34Amps to 52Amps as duty ratio is reduced to
maintain the
output
voltage
constantly.
At time
instant t =
0.9s, the
output
During time period T2, S5 is turned off andcurrent is stepped up to 1.35A, and it is seen that the
S2 and S3 are kept on. Both Vp and Vsr areoutput voltage again maintains at 350 V only, after a
positive, but Vp > Vsr, where VSr is thesmall dip. It is therefore verified by simulation that
secondary side voltage referred to the primarythe proposed converter can maintain designed output
side. Therefore, the current through thevoltage when the input voltage changes within the
specified limits as well for the load change.
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 169
Fig.5: Closed loop block diagram
Fig.6:
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 170
efficiency make the proposed converter
suitable for APU application.
REFERENCES
[1] S. Shaffer and J. Garback, Solid Oxide Fuel
Cell System Development for Auxiliary power
CONCLUSION
A new dc–dc converter for APU application
GVSSNS Sarma received the B.E. degree in
is proposed. The leakage inductance of the electrical and electronics engineering from
transformer is used for energy conversion. Andhra University and M.Tech. Degree in IT in
This not only mitigates the low efficiency and Power Engineering from JNTU, Hyderabad in
difficulty in a control problem resulting from 2000 and 2003 (January) respectively. He is
the leakage inductance but also eliminates the currently working as Assistant Professor in
Aurora’s Engineering College.
need for a separate filter inductor. Soft
switching is achieved to reduce the stress on J Kathir Velan received the B. E. degree in
the load and to reduce the switching losses. Electrical and Electronics Engineering from
As a result, the achieved low cost and high Madras University and currently pursuing M.Tech
in Power Electronics Engineering in Aurora’s
Engineering College (JNTU Hyderabad).
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 171
7. Reduction of Conducted EMI in SMPS using EMI Filter
Ramalingam.J, Dr. Udaya Kumar.K, ramalingam_hve@yahoo.co.in, DEEE, College of
engineering, Anna University, Chennai-25
Abstract— Almost every electronic device requires some minimization. In [3] the frequency domain
level of power conversion in which the required analysis of the boost PFC is explained. In that
operational voltages are generated from the input power. paper the noise sources and all other circuit
Using switched mode power supply (SMPS) for this components are expressed as functions in the
purpose generates higher level of conducted EMI in the
frequency domain and the predicted EMI
high frequency range and it negatively affects the
performance of other near by electronics. So prediction
spectrum is calculated by solving the matrixes
of conducted EMI is necessary. Time domain simulation formed by these functions.
plus Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is a good method to
predict the conducted EMI. In this paper the Boost PFC The common mode and differential mode
circuit is modeled considering parasitic parameters for switching noise together with the input filter
all the components. This circuit is simulated using design and lot of design considerations such as
PSPICE and the conducted EMI is predicted. The EMI printed circuit board layout, the effect of gate
filter is one of the techniques to reduce the conducted snubber, the shield inserted between the device
EMI. The combined CM and DM mode filter
and the heat sink and also the heat sink
configuration is discussed. For different filter component
values the circuit is simulated using PSPICE. A better grounding connections are described in [4]. It
configuration is suggested from the simulated models. also reports the conducted EMI measurements
for different filter capacitor values and
placements, for different power switch drive
circuits which turned out to be decisive factors in
Index Terms—Common mode (CM), differential mode the reduction of the generated EMI.
(DM), electromagnetic interference (EMI), PFC
converter In [5] PFC noise source characteristics and its
effect on EMI noise, impedance mismatch and
INTRODUCTION
filter parasitic parameters are discussed. PFC
An electromagnetic disturbance is any electromagnetic DM and CM noise source models and their
phenomenon which may degrade the performance of a characteristics are analyzed. A filter is built and
device or equipment or a system. The electromagnetic the analysis is verified.
disturbance can be in nature of the electromagnetic
noise, or an unwanted signal, or a change in the The basics of conducted EMI measurement,
propagation medium itself. Electromagnetic suppression techniques and discussed in [6].it
interference is the degradation in the performance of a also explains how to design filter theoretically
device or equipment or a system caused by an and making modifications using practical
electromagnetic disturbance. So improve the approach to get a fast and accurate filter solution.
performance of a device or equipment or a system the
EMI has to be reduced. In [7] a very practical EMI filter design
according to military standard MIL-STD 461 is
In [1] the conducted EMI of the CCM PFC circuit is discussed. In [8] design procedure for ac line
predicted using a simulation circuit also DM and CM EMI filters are discussed. This procedure is
loop models of the PFC EMI are based on the analysis of conducted EMI
problems and the use of EMI diagnostic tool,
noise separator.
proposed for describing the noise generation and
propagation mechanisms. It also describes the effects EMC design aspects for high power ac/dc
of PFC inductor and the parasitic capacitances at the rectifier and some design guide lines are
MOSFET drain node. discussed in [9].other papers in this subject
includes[10],[11],[12] and so on.
The EMI spectrum of a discontinuous conduction
mode PFC converter is predicted using a simulation An overview of boost PFC circuit, parasitic
circuit in saber in [2]. It also gives the design guide model of boost PFC components are described in
lines on circuit layout and packaging for EMI noise section II. Prediction of conducted EMI using
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 172
simulation circuit is explained in section III. Section The simulated output wave form is
IV explains CM and DM filter arrangement and shown in fig 2.
different filter configurations. Section V concludes the The output is about 475V dc. Thus the converter
work. boosts the input 220V ac to 475V dc with 2.15
percent of Boost factor.
II. PARASITIC MODEL OF BOOST CONVERTER
COMPONENTS Figure 3 shows the circuit diagram of
CCM PFC converter. Some stray inductance is
Fig 1 shows the simulation circuit in PSPICE for associated with the layout and the parasitic
Boost PFC. Diodes used here are MUR140; the input capacitance at the device drain node is also
is ac 220V, 50 Hz. The MOSFET used here is depicted.
IRPF450.The gate driving circuit is 100 KHz, square L 1 p a r a s i t i Dc 5 p a r a s it ic
pulse generator. In the On-state, i.e., MOSFET is 1 2 1 2 1 2
3
V 1 2 0 C 1
1
D5, the capacitor C1 and the load R1. This result in p a r a s i t i c
r a1 s
state into the capacitor. The Boost PFC can be 1
p a
2
i t ic
1
p a r a
2
s i t i c
L 1 D 1 1
1 2
3 2 0 u
V+
M U R 1 4 0
D 6 D 7
M U MR U1 4R 0 1 4 0
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Fig 4 Higher order inductor model
Fi
Fig 5 shows the equivalent circuit of the g 7. LISN model
capacitor. This simple network equivalent circuit will
provide a good approximation of the impedance III PREDICTION OF CONDUCTED EMI IN
characteristics up to 30 MHz for the capacitors. BOOST PFC CIRCUIT
Figure 8 shows the detailed simulation circuit,
Fig 5. Equivalent circuit of capacitor considering all the parasitic parameters.
Input is 220V ac supply with a frequency of 50
This model includes equivalent series inductance Hz. The diodes used in the simulation are
(ESL) and the Equivalent series resistance (ESR) of MUR140.The inductor and the capacitor is
the capacitor.The capacitance, ESR, ESL are 125.9nF, considered with parasitic models.
26.2 milli ohms, 7.0nH respectively as shown in fig 6. The MOSFET circuit used in the simulation is
In the real hardware another ceramic capacitor is IRPF450.the gate drain parasitic parameters also
paralled with the output capacitor (F.C.Lee, modeled. The gate drive circuit used here is a
W.G.Odendaal -2004). square pulse generator with a frequency of 100
KHz R 3
R 2
6 . 8k
67 . 5 k L 5
L R1 L2 1 L 8 L 6 L D 7 5 1 2
12 12 12 12 12
6 5 n
3 .8 u R 6
3 07 .05u 4 1 4 9 1 .5 9 n n1 M 4 .1 U n R 1 4 0
D D 3 1 L 12
L 1 7 C1 2 2 R 11 57 0 m
12 M M U U R R 1 1 40 4 0
9p 1 .2 u
R 1 1 1 30 L 5 1 m 0
5 0 u
C C1 2 1 21 C 15 R 8 RV 2 + 1 0
3 L 1 4 0 . 6n
1 0u 0 .1 u L 1 1 M 4 1 2 6 .2 1 m 5 0
1 1 .1 8 p
R R1 4 1 41 12 R R 8 8 1 9. 9 6 n
M 3 L 32 2 V -
5 5 0 4 7 .6 n
C IR 1 F C1 P 1 2 1 0 3 6 4 0 .2 50 5 m C m 1 4
L1 5 72n
2 2 2. . 7 7p p 2 7 9 u
VV 1 2 = 1 2 1IR 0F P 45 L 0 L 3 3 1 C 8
V 2 = 0 0 0
26 n 7 9 n . 2 96 0. n 9 2 n
T D = R0 1 2
V 1 T R = 0 0
. 1 u C 9 2
V O 0 F F = 0 T F = 0 9 . 0 1u
V A M P L = P 2 W 2 0 = 5 u 2 2 1 2 5. 9 n
Fig 6. Capacitor model F R E Q D = D 5 4 P 2 0 E R = L 10 13 u C C 9 9 1
12
R R1 5 1 M M 51 U U R R 1 1 40 4 0 1 0 2 . 5 92 .9 n n
LISN presents defined standard impedance to the EUT 3 9. 5 n
5 5 0
power input terminals at high frequency
Any incoming unwanted conducted EMI on the mains 1
C L 1 C1 8 3 1 31
power supply is filtered out by the LISN and a clean 12 L 9
1 0u 0 .1 u
input power supply is provided to the EUTFigure 7 5 0 u
R 9 8 5. n
shows a LISN circuit used in this simulation model. R L 1 16 3 L 1 4 L 1 9
1 2 1 21 0 0 0 k 12
2
0 . 9 1 .9 n 2 .7 0 n 1 0 .9 n
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 175
Fig 15. FFT of the EMI spectra
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 176
The filter configuration is shown in the
figure 18.The filter components are specified as Table I comparison of predicted EMI
follows Con Wit Filte Filt Filt Filt Filt
• Cx=0.3 µF figu hout r er2 er3 er4 er5
• Cy=2.0 nF ratio filte 1
• LCM=13 mH n r mV mV mV mV
• LDM=400 µH mV mV
At 11.0 9.63 0.7 1.4 0.6 3.0
10 9 1 26 03 56 74
KH
z
freq
uen
cy
Max 2.3 2.2
imu 47 07
m
freq
Fig 18. Filter configuration 5 uen
cy
1.3
MH
z
• From the table the maximum
predicted EMI is 11.093 mV at 10 KHz
for Boost PFC without filter. But while
selecting a particular filter from above
configuration maximum conducted EMI
has to be considered.
• Even though the conducted
EMI for the filter configurations 2 and 4
gives the total conducted EMI in micro
volts at frequency of 10 KHz, the
Fig 19. FFT of the EMI spectra maximum EMI produced them are 2.3479
mV and 2.2070 mV. It may be due to the
Fig 19 shows FFT of the EMI Spectra. From poor capacitor selection.
the simulation output, the maximum frequency at • The configuration which gives
which the maximum conducted EMI is predicted as 10 the least total conducted EMI is filter 3
KHz and the maximum voltage is about 3.0745 mV and the value is 1.4035 mV at 10 KHz. So
this can be selected to install in the real
V CONCLUSION time application.
Table I shows the comparison of the
predicted EMI without EMI filter and with EMI filter REFERENCES
for the five configurations simulated in the previous
sections. 1. Liyu Yang, Bing Lu, Wei Dong, Zhiguo
Lu, Ming xu, F.C. Lee and W.G.
Odendaal (2004),” Modeling and
Characterization of a 1KW CCM PFC
converter for conducted EMI prediction
”,IEEE transactions on Power
Electronics.
8. Fu-Yuan shih, Chen, D.Y. (1996), “A 12. Mohit Kumar and vivek Agarwal
procedure for designing EMI FILTERS for ac (2006),” Power Line Filter Design for
line applications”, IEEE transactions on conducted electromagnetic interference
Power electronics. using Time-Domain Measurements”
IEEE transactions on electromagnetic
9. Qing Chen (1998),”Electromagnetic compatibility.
interference design considerations for a high
power ac/dc converter”, Power electronics 13. A book by V.Prasasd Kodali(2001)
specialists’ conference. Describes “Engineering electromagnetic
compatibility principles,
10. Y.F.Zhang, L.Wang and C.Q.Lee Measurments,technologies and
(1995)”Optimal design of integrated EMI computer models” Second
filter” Applied electronics conference and edition,2001,IEEE PRESS.
exposition.
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 178
8. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL BASED BRUSH LESS DC
DRIVES WITH REDUCED TORQUE RIPPLE
S.Bharath Babu1, G.Venu Madhav 2 and Guruswamy Revana3
Persuing M.Tech from P.R.R.M Engineering College, Shabad, R.R.Dist.,Andhra Pradesh, India.
2&
Assistant Professors,Padmasri Dr. B. V. Raju Institute of Technology, Narsapur, Medak Dist., A.P
e-mail : guru_revana@yahoo.com
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 179
instantaneous back-EMF and current. However, rotor and stator flux linkages,
the winding resistance was neglected and the respectively.
inverter output voltage had to be calculated, which After a d–q transformation, a fundamental
assumed that the back-EMF waveform was component of flux linkage is transformed into a
known. The real-time estimation of the back EMF, dc component, while 5th and 7th harmonics
using the model reference adaptive method, was transform into 6th harmonics, 11th and 13th
reported in [10], which also employed a variable- harmonics transform into 12th harmonics, 17th
structure torque controller with space-vector and 19th harmonics transform into 18th
PWM. harmonics, and so on. Thus, for a machine
Direct torque control (DTC) was originally having a sinusoidal permanent-magnet flux, ψ rd
developed for induction machine drives [11], [12], = constant and ψ rq= 0. However, ψ rd for
and directly controls the flux linkage and nonsinusoidal flux, is composed of a dc
electromagnetic torque. A relationship is component and 6th, 12th, 18th harmonics, etc.,
established between the torque, the flux and the while ψ rq consists of 6th, 12th, 18th harmonics,
optimal inverter switching so as to achieve a fast etc.
torque response. DTC has been applied, more Torque pulsations are
recently, to BLAC machines [13], [14]. associated mainly with the flux
This paper considers the application of direct harmonics, the influence of higher
torque control, to a three-phase BLDC drive order harmonics in the stator winding
operating in the 120° conduction mode (i.e. two inductance usually being negligible
phases conducting) to achieve instantaneous [17]. Therefore, for machines equipped
torque control and reduced torque ripple. As will with a surface-mounted magnet rotor
be shown, the essential differences between the (i.e., nonsalient), it can be assumed
DTC of BLDC and BLAC drives are in the torque that Ld and Lq are constant, i.e., Ld=
calculation and the representation of the voltage Ld0 , Lq= Lq0 , and the electromagnetic
space vectors. Simulated and experimental results torque can be expressed as
are presented to illustrate the application of DTC
to a BLDC drive.
II. DTC OF BLAC AND BLDC DRIVES
In general, neglecting the influence of mutual coupling
between the direct and quadrature axes, the
electromagnetic torque of a permanent-magnet ----------- (4)
brushless machine in the synchronously rotating d–q At this stage, it is worth considering
reference frame can be expressed as [10], [15], [16] the following cases. 1) When the stator
flux linkage due to the permanent
magnets varies sinusoidally, ψ rd is
constant and ψ rq= 0, dψ rd/dθ e= 0, and
dψ rq/dθ e= 0 . The electromagnetic
torque equation, for both BLAC and
( BLDC operation, with either a
1) nonsalient- or salient-pole rotor, can
where then be
simplified as
(
2)
(5)
( or, in the stationary α -β reference frame, as
3)
and θ e is the rotor electrical angle, p is the
number of poles, isd and isq are the d- and q- (6)
axes currents, Ld and Lq are the d – and q- where isα , isβ , ψ sα , and ψ sβ are the α - and β -
axes inductances, respectively, and ψ rd, axes stator currents and flux linkages,
ψ rq , ψ sd , and ψ sq are the d- and q -axes respectively, viz.
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 180
can be obtained from the measured
(7)
stator voltages and currents and as
(8)
(9)
(17)
(10)
However, if the stator flux-linkage variation
is nonsinusoidal, which is generally the
case for BLDC machines, the general (18)
where R is the stator winding resistance. The
torque equation (1) must be employed, magnitude and angular position of the stator
since dψ rd/dθ e≠ 0, dψ rq/dθ e≠ 0. flux-linkage vector is obtained as
2) For nonsalient-pole brushless machines
with a nonsinusoidal stator flux linkage,
since Ld0 = Lq0 = Ls , theelectromagnetic (19)
torque, for both BLAC and BLDC operation,
can be simplified as
(20)
The rotor flux linkages can be deduced from
((11) the stator flux linkages. For example, for a
In the rotating d–q -axes reference frame, surface-mounted permanent-magnet rotor,
or as they are given by
(12)
In the stationary α –β reference frame, (21)
where ψ rα and ψ rβ
are the α - and β -axes rotor flux linkages,
respectively, viz. (22)
while the torque can be calculated
((13) from (12). To simplify the calculation,
however, the differential terms in (12)
1(14) can be pre-determined from the back-
However, for a nonsalient BLAC motor with EMF waveform assuming that the EMF
a sinusoidal flux linkage, ψ rd = ψ m and ψ rq is proportional to the rotor speed.
= 0, and the torque equation can be further Six nonzero-voltage space vectors are
simplified as defined for a BLDC drive as shown in Fig.
1(a), the sectors of the circular voltage
vector which enable the voltage vector to be
((15) selected in terms of the stator flux-linkage
Or, in the stationary reference frame as vector being shown in Fig. 1(b). For
comparison, the six nonzero-voltage space
vectors and the sectors of the circular
((16)
voltage vector for a BLAC drive are shown
Which is the same as (6).
in Fig. 2(a) and (b), respectively. Figs. 1(c)
Equation (16) is a particular case of (12) when the
and 2(c) show the idealized phase current
back-EMF waveform is sinusoidal, or represents
waveforms for BLDC and BLAC operation,
the fundamental component of electromagnetic
and their relationship with the voltage space-
torque when the back-EMF waveform is
vector sectors and switching states.From
nonsinusoidal. In general, (12) should be used to
the foregoing, the main differences
calculate the torque when the back-EMF
between the representation of the
waveform is nonsinusoidal.
voltage space vector in BLAC and
As with the application of DTC to BLDC drives are as follows.
BLAC drives [13], its implementation to
1) In a BLAC drive, all three phases are
BLDC drives is based on flux-linkage
conducting at any
observers. The stator flux-linkage vector
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instant and the voltage space vectors can be Thus, the voltage space vectors are
represented by three digits [Fig. 2(a)] which fully represented as switching signals (100
represent all the states of the inverter switches, since 001), (001 001), (011 000), (010 010),
only one digit is required for each switching leg, as the (000 110), (100 100), respectively,
upper and lower switches operate in tandem mode. In where, from left to right, the logical values
a BLDC drive, however, only two phases are express the states of the upper and lower
conducting in the 120° conduction mode, except during switching signals for phases A, B, and C,
commutation periods when all three phases conduct, respectively. The zero-voltage space
the unexcited phase vector is defined as (000 000).
.
Fig. 3. Schematic of DTC BLDC drive. In addition, when the actual flux linkage is
smaller than the commanded value, the non zero-
Fig. 3 shows a schematic of a DTC BLDC voltage space vector is used to increase the flux
drive, which is essentially the same as that linkage, while when the actual flux linkage is
for a DTC BLAC drive, except for the greater than the commanded value; the non zero-
switching table and torque estimation. voltage space vector is used to decrease the stator
Sampling the stator phase currents and flux linkage.
voltages and employing a stationary III. SIMULATED AND EXPERIMENTAL
reference transformation can obtain the RESULTS
stator flux linkage in the stationary The utility of the foregoing application
reference frame. The rotor flux linkage in of DTC to a BLDC drive has been validated by
the stationary reference frame can be simulations and measurements on two surface-
calculated from (21) and (22), while the mounted magnet brushless motors, whose
magnitude of the stator flux linkage and parameters are given in Table II, the motors
the electromagnetic torque can be having significantly different back-EMF
obtained from (19) and (12), respectively. waveforms (Fig. 4). Motor 1 has three stator
The speed feedback derived from rotor slots, a concentrated winding, and a two-pole
position sensors is compared to the speed diametrically magnetized rotor, a motor
command to form the torque command topology, which is often employed for BLDC
from the proportional– integral (PI) speed drives due to its simplicity [3]. Thus,
regulator. The stator flux-linkage and
torque commands are obtained from
hysteresis controllers by comparing the
estimated electromagnetic torque and
stator flux linkage with their demanded
values. As can be seen from Table I, the
switching pattern of the inverter can be
determined according to the stator flux-
linkage and torque status from the outputs
of two regulators shown in Fig. 3, and the
sector in which the stator flux linkage is
located at that instant of time. In each
sector, if the actual stator flux linkage is
the same as the commanded stator flux
linkage, only one non zero-voltage space .
vector and a zero-voltage vector are used
to control the increase or decrease of the
torque, since during any 60° electrical
period only two phases are excited and
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 183
Fig. 4. Back-EMF waveforms. (a) Motor 1. (b)
Motor 2.
its air-gap field distribution and back-EMF
waveform are inherently sinusoidal. It was
selected for investigation since its torque can be
estimated from (16), which has the same form as
that for a BLAC motor, while conventional PWM
current control (constant current demand over
120° electrical) results in a significant low-
frequency torque ripple, as shown in the simulated
results (Fig. 5) which were obtained by employing
a hysteresis controller. Motor 2 also has a
concentrated winding and fractional slot and pole
number combination, viz. ten poles, 12 slots (its
design parameters being given in [18]). However,
since its back-EMF waveform is essentially
trapezoidal, the torque should be estimated from
(12).
Fig. 5. Current and torque waveforms with
A Matlab/Simulink based simulation conventional PWM current control. (a)
model has also been used to predict the Motor 1 (1500 r/min). (b) Motor 2 (400
performance of both motors. By way of r/min).
example, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 shows the
simulated phase to ground voltage, and the Further, it will be seen that the
phase voltage and current, the locus of the phase current waveform inherently
stator flux linkage, and the estimated follows the inverse of the back-EMF
electromagnetic torque for both motors. waveform within each 60° electrical
These simulated are compared with the sector of the 120° electrical conduction
measured values, which are not shown. periods so as to maintain the
electromagnetic torque constant. In
addition, it should be noted that whilst
in a BLAC motor the ideal locus of the
stator flux linkage is circular, in a BLDC
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motor it is noncircular due to the
incremental rotation of the stator flux
during communication events, which occur
every 60° elec. in a 120° electrical
conduction BLDC drive. Thus, the flux-
linkage locus tends to be hexagonal in
shape, as for a six-step drive, the sides
being curved due to the influence of the
back EMF of the unexcited phase while
discrete changes in amplitude occur every
60° electrical due to the action of the
freewheeling diodes. Further, it will be
noted that, while a high-frequency torque
ripple exists in both the simulated and
experimental results as a consequence of
the low winding inductances and PWM
events, the low-frequency torque ripple
which would have resulted with
conventional vector control have been
eliminated by optimizing the phase current
waveform in accordance with the back-EMF
waveform.
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 185
IV. CONCLUSION
DTC has been applied to a BLDC drive, and its
utility has been validated by simulations and measurements
on two BLDC motors which have very different back-EMF
waveforms. The main difference between the implementation
of DTC to BLAC and BLDC drives is in the estimation of
torque and the representation of the inverter voltage vectors.
It has been shown that DTC is capable of instantaneous
torque control and, thereby, of reducing torque
pulsations.
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9. A New Approach to Reducing Output Ripple In
Switched-Capacitor-Based Step-Down DC–DC
Converters
APPARAO.VANKARA.
M.Tech. (Power Electronics)
SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL SCIENCES
VELLORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
VELLORE. 632014.
Abstract:
Rapidly dropping power supply voltages and tight
voltage regulation requirements for integrated circuits
challenges power supply designers. A novel
interleaved discharging (ID) approach is presented to
reduce the output ripple in step-down Switched -
capacitor (SC) dc–dc converters. Simulation and
experimental results of a four-stage SC dc–dc
converter show that the ID approach can reduce the
output ripple by a factor of three. The proposed
approach also improves the converter efficiency by
7%. The ID method provides flexibility in the design
optimization of Step - down SC dc–dc converters.
Efficiency:
Conventional Step-Down SC DC–DC Converter
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 188
Estimated output Waveforms:
Efficiency:
REFERENCES
Conclusion:
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