Marine Pollution Bulletin 46 (2003) 1082–1089

www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

Organochlorine contaminants in sea turtles from the Eastern Pacific

a,*
Susan C. Gardner , M. Dawn Pier b, Raymond Wesselman c, J. Arturo Ju

arez a

a
Centro de Investigaciones Biol

ogicas del Noroeste, S.C., Mar Bermejo #195, Col. Playa Palo de Santa Rita, La Paz,
Baja California Sur CP 23090, Mexico
b
Amigos para la Conservaci

on de Cabo Pulmo, Calle 20 de Nov S/N, Box 66, Los Barriles, Baja California Sur CP 23501, Mexico
c
US Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecological Exposure Research Division,
Environmental Contaminant Characterization Branch, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA

Abstract

We measured organochlorine residues in three species of sea turtles from the Baja California peninsula, Mexico. Seventeen of 21
organochlorine pesticides analyzed were detected, with heptachlor epoxide and c-hexachlorocyclohexane the most prevalent (14
(40%) and 11 (31%) of the 35 tissue samples, respectively). PCBs were detected in all but one of the 9 turtles studied, with congener
18 the most commonly detected (8 (23%) of the samples). The dioxin-like congeners 118 and 180 were detected in 4 (11%) and 3 (9%)
of the samples, respectively. Percent contribution of congeners was negatively correlated to their octanol–water partition coeffi-
cients, with kidney and muscle containing more lower-chlorinated congeners than liver or adipose samples. Levels of organochlo-
rines detected in the present study were low, potentially attributable to the feeding habits of the predominant species collected in this
study (herbivorous) and/or the samples obtained in an unindustrialized region.
Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Sea turtle; Chelonia mydas; Halogenated hydrocarbons; Pesticides; Developing countries; Mexico

1. Introduction related disease (e.g. fibropapillomatosis) increasingly

The Baja California peninsula contains highly diverse
marine ecosystems and is considered MexicoÕs most
productive in terms of annual fisheries landings. Coastal
lagoons of Baja California serve an important role as
feeding and developmental grounds for sea turtles
(Clifton et al., 1982). Five of the worldÕs seven sea turtle
species occur there: the Eastern Pacific green turtle, lo-
cally known as the black turtle (Chelonia mydas agas-
sizii), Pacific loggerhead (Caretta caretta), olive ridley
(Lepidochelys olivacea), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbri-
cata) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea). Numbers
of these once abundant species are decreasing at
alarming rates worldwide. Globally, all marine turtle
species and most populations are considered endangered
or threatened with extinction (IUCN, 1995). Human
activities have been cited as threatening their survival
(Waldichuk, 1987; Hutchinson and Simmonds, 1992;
Gardner and Nichols, 2001). Pollution and pollution-
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +52-612-125-3633; fax: +52-612-125-
3625.
E-mail address: sgardner@cibnor.mx (S.C. Gardner).
0025-326X/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(03)00254-6
threaten turtle populations; however, very little infor-
mation useful to management is available for baseline
levels of contaminants and effects on sea turtle popula-
tions (Herbst and Klein, 1995; Ehrart, 1991; Herbst,
1994).
Prior to 1983, no research was done on polychlo-
rinated biphenyls and organochlorine residues in post-
yearling sea turtles. Most published information
concerning contaminants concerns residues in eggs or
tissues from stranded animals where the cause of death
is unknown (Clark and Krynitsky, 1985; Cobb and
Wood, 1997; Gordon et al., 1998; Alam and Brim,
2000). Little is known about coastal regions of Mexico
(Fritts and McGehee, 1987; Vazquez et al., 1997; Ju
arez
et al., 2000) and no research has been conducted to
document contaminant levels in post-yearling turtles
from the Eastern Pacific.
Human population and development of Baja Cali-
fornia have increased exponentially during the past 30
years. Effects of economic development on the ecologi-
cal productivity of this region are unknown. Our ob-
jective was to assess levels of organochlorine residues in
sea turtles from the Baja California peninsula.
 S.C. Gardner et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 46 (2003) 1082–1089
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample collection
Liver, kidney, adipose and pectoral muscle tissues
were collected from seven green, one loggerhead, and
one olive ridley sea turtles that died as a result of inci-
dental fisheries capture near Magdalena Bay and La Paz
Bay, of the Baja California peninsula (Fig. 1). Samples
were obtained only from individuals for which the ap-
proximate time of death could be estimated as less than
24 h. Green sea turtles captured for this study weighed
between 14 and 45 kg (mean mass ¼ 29 kg). Masses were
not obtained for the loggerhead and olive ridley turtles.
Tissue samples were wrapped in aluminum foil and
placed on ice for transport to the laboratory where they
were stored at )80 °C until they were analyzed.
2.2. Organochlorine analyses
Tissue analyses were conducted at the US Environ-
mental Protection AgencyÕs (USEPA) Cincinnati, Ohio
Laboratory. Samples of turtle kidney, liver, adipose and
muscle tissue were processed using standard operating
procedures (SOPs) modified from methods originally
developed for analysis of fish tissue (Lazorchak and
Klemm, 1994; Yeardley et al., 1998). Samples were ho-
mogenized using a Waring commercial heavy duty
blender, Model Number 38BL19, with a 120 ml (4 oz)
sized sample cup (SOP #NWQAPB 0012). Approxi-
mately 0.1–0.5 g of the homogenate was used to deter-
mine moisture content following Karl Fischer extraction
(Mettler DL 18). A 1.0 g sample of homogenate was
Fig. 1. Locations where sea turtles were collected along the Baja California peninsula, Mexico.
1083
extracted with 30 ml of a 50:50 methylene chlo-
ride:hexane solution using an accelerated solvent ex-
traction method (ECCB 0016; ASE 200, Dionex Corp.,
Sunnyvale, CA 94089). The extract was evaporated and
taken up in hexane (5 ml), passed through a sodium
sulfate column, rinsed with hexane (10 ml), and con-
centrated to 6 ml. Lipid content was determined by a
gravimetric process from a 2 ll aliquot of the extract.
The drying temperature of the sample was 50 °C
(NWQAPB 0020). A 2 ll aliquot of the extract was used
for gas chromatography analysis for selected organics
(SOP # ECCB 0019). Two ll of the extract were re-
tained in case reanalysis was required. Tracking and
processing of data, including analytical results and
quality assurance data, were performed as described in
ECCB 0011.
Gas chromatography: A 2 ll injection was used on a
Hewlett Packard HP 5890 gas chromatograph equipped
with a micro electron capture detector. Two instruments
were used to resolve coelution problems, with conditions
following EPA method 508. The analyte of interest was
verified qualitatively by retention times on both col-
umns. Quantification required agreement on both col-
umns, otherwise the lowest concentration was reported
to minimize reports of false high values due to coeluting
compounds.
Quality control: Each batch of analyses contained a
blank, a matrix spike and a duplicate of a real sample.
Calibration curves must have R2 values of >0.99. Blanks
had to produce peaks of less than three times the MDL
to be considered acceptable. For spike recovery on the
matrix, 80% of the samples had to have values between
50% and 150% of the assigned value. For duplicate
1084 S.C. Gardner et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 46 (2003) 1082–1089

analyses, the relative percent deviation was also 50% for
80% of the analytes.
2.3. Computational methods and statistical analyses
Data are expressed as nanograms per gram lipid
(ng g
1 lipid) basis, but for comparison purposes non-
lipid-corrected data expressed on a wet weight basis
(ng g
1 ww) are also included in the discussion and data
tables. Contaminants that were not detected in any of
the samples were removed from statistical treatments.
Contaminants reported as less than the detection limit (3
ng g
1 ww) in individual samples were replaced with a
random number between the detection limit and one-
half the detection limit (Helsel, 1990;
PTravis and Land,
1990). Total PCB concentrations ( PCBs) were cal-
culated based on the sum of the detectedP congeners, and
total organochlorine concentrations ( OCs) were cal-
culated based on the sum of these same congeners and
the detected organochlorine pesticides.
Data were natural log (ln) transformed prior to
conducting parametric statistics. Statistical analyses
employed the Systat Statistical Software Package (Ver-
sion 8.0, SPSS Inc., 1998). Reported statistics are geo-
metric means and 95% confidence intervals. The null
hypothesis was rejected if p 6 0:05. Pairwise compari-
sons following analysis of variance (ANOVA) employed
the Tukey test (SPSS Inc., 1998). Percent contributions
of each PCB congener to the signatures of individual
samples were averaged for the dataset and plotted
against congener-specific octanol–water partition coef-
ficients (Kow ) as reported by Hawker and Connell
(1988).
The influence of concentration differences among
samples was removed for principal components analysis
(PCA)
P by converting them to percent contribution to
OC. In a separate PCA employing only congener
data, sample congener signatures were compared to the
signatures of five commercial Aroclor mixtures (1016,
1242, 1248, 1254 and 1260) reported by the USEPA
(2002).
3. Results
One or more OCs were detected P in each of the nine
turtles collected for this study. PCBs were detected in
all but one of the turtles (89% of individuals) and in 18
of 35 (51%) individual tissue samples. Seventeen of the
21 organochlorine pesticides for which analyses were
conducted were detected in at least one sample (2,40 -
DDE, Endosulfan I, Dieldrin, and Mirex were not de-
tected
P in any of the samples) (Table 1).
OCs in sea turtle
P tissues ranged
1from 29 P to 5100
ng g
1 lipid (mean OCs ¼ 300 ng g lipid). PCBs
ranged over three
P orders of magnitude, 0.040–40 ng g
1

1
lipid (mean PCBs ¼ 1:5 ng g lipid). Heptachlor
epoxide, a toxic metabolite of the pesticide Chlordane,
was the most prevalent of 41 organochlorine com-
pounds examined in this study and was detected in 14
(40%) of the 35 tissue samples. Among tissue types it
was most commonly detected in adipose, 7 out of the 9

Table 1
Organochlorine residues detected in tissue samples from three sea turtle species collected along the Baja California peninsula, Mexico
Species Tissue (n) Contaminant class
P P P
PCBa DDTb Chlorc HCB Aldrin/diel- Endosulfan Endrin Lindane
drind I & IIe
C. mydas Muscle (7) ND-17.4 ND-14.0 ND-13.5 ND ND-4.8 ND-7.6 ND-4.0 ND-9.7
agassizii Liver (7) ND-44.7 ND-7.8 ND-10.4 ND-18.6 ND ND ND ND-11.5
Adipose (7) ND-49.5 ND-12.2 ND-65.1 ND ND ND-7.8 ND-3.5 ND-11.9
Kidney (7) ND-15.9 ND-10.2 ND-22.9 ND ND-4.8 ND-7.7 ND-3.9 ND-9.7

L. olivacea Muscle (1) 16.9 8.6 9.0 4.5 ND 14.3 ND 14.3

Liver (1) 58.1 10.4 45.3 3.5 7.3 32 ND 22.4
Adipose (1) 18.4 5.1 8.1 ND ND ND ND 9.7
Kidney (1) 63.4 18.3 17.2 ND 7.3 ND ND 17.4
C. caretta Muscle (1) 49.2 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Liver (1) 41.0 ND ND ND ND 3.9 ND ND
Adipose (1) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
HCB ¼ Hexachlorobenzene; Mirex was below detection limits in all tissues analyzed.
Data are expressed as ranges on a wet weight basis (ng g
1 ). Detection limits were 3.0 ng g
1 ww; ND signifies not detected and sample sizes are given
in parentheses.
aP
PCB ¼ Sum of congeners 8, 18, 28, 44, 52, 66, 77, 101, 105, 118, 126, 128, 138, 153, 170, 180, 187, 195, 206, 209.
bP
DDT ¼ 2,40 -DDD, 4,40 -DDD, 2,40 -DDE, 4,40 -DDE, 2,40 -DDT, 4,40 -DDT.
c P
Chlor ¼ cis-chlordane, trans-chlordane, cis-nonachlor, trans-nonachlor, oxychlordane, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide.
d
Values represent aldrin concentrations only since all dieldrin values were below detection limits.
e
Values represent endosulfan II concentrations only since all endosulfan I values were below detection limits.
 S.C. Gardner et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 46 (2003) 1082–1089 1085

60
Adipose
Kidney

Percent Contribution to Signature

50
Liver
Muscle
40

30

20

10

0
8 18 28 52 44 66 118 153 187 128 180 209
IUPAC Congener No.

Fig. 2. PCB congener compositions (percent contribution to totals) of representative sea turtle adipose, liver, kidney and muscle samples.

samples. c-BHC, detected in 11 (31%) of samples, was 1.0

C18
the second most commonly detected contaminant. In the

Mean Ln Percent Congener

C44
C52
largest green turtles collected (45 kg), the only OC de- 0.9 C118
tected was heptachlor epoxide, detected in the adipose C28 C153
Contribution C128
tissue. C8
C66
0.8 C180

3.1. PCB congener signatures

0.7
Of the 20 PCB congener peaks for which analyses C187

were conducted in this study, 12 were detected in one or 0.6

Ln %Contribution = -0.13 log [K ] C209
more samples (congeners 8, 18, 28, 52, 44, 66, 118, 153, + 0.61 (n=12, r =0.55, p=0.006)
187, 128, 180, 209). Congener 18, detected in eight (23%) 0.5
samples, was the PCB congener most commonly de- 5 6 7 8 9
tected and most dominant in congener signatures (Fig. Log K ow
2). Congeners 128 (detected in 17% of the samples) and
Fig. 3. Regression of mean percent congener composition versus the
153 (14%) were the next most prevalent congeners in the congenersÕ octanol–water partition coefficients (Kow ).
turtle tissues. The dioxin-like congeners, mono-ortho
congener 118 and di-ortho substituted 180 were detected
in four (11%) and three (9%) of the samples, respec-
tively. Congeners 101, 105, 138, 126, 170, 195, 206 and
77 were not detected. Mean percent contribution of 80.00
congeners was negatively correlated to their octanol–
Average Σ OC (ng/g ww)

water partition coefficients (Kow ) as described by

ln½congener ¼
0:13 log 10ðKow Þ þ 0:61 (n ¼ 12, r2 ¼ 60.00

0:55, p ¼ 0:006) (Fig. 3).

40.00
3.2. Differences among tissues
P 20.00
OCs among tissue types were not significantly
different (ANOVA, n ¼ 27, P df ¼ 3, p ¼ 0:74) (Fig. 4),
nor were they correlated to PCBs (Pearson P pairwise 0.00
correlation, r2 ¼ 0:335). Mean lipid-corrected PCBs adipose kidney liver muscle

among tissue types were significantly different (ANO- Tissue

VA, p ¼ 0:001, n ¼ 18, df ¼ 3) and lowest in adipose Fig. 4. Sum of organochlorines among four different sea turtle tissues.
(0.24 ng g
1 lipid) and greatest in muscle (14 ng g
1 Values represent averages on a wet weight basis for all turtles collected
lipid) (Fig. 5). (n ¼ 9 for all tissues except kidney in which n ¼ 8).
1086 S.C. Gardner et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 46 (2003) 1082–1089

2
Tissue
Adipose
CmK26 CmA26
LoK25 CmK29 Kidney
1 CmA29 CmM21 CmL4
CmL26 Liver
LoA25 CmK21
LoL25 LoM25 A1242 Muscle
Aroclor
0 CmA21 A1248

PC2
CmL27 A1016
CmA34
CcM12
-1 A1254
CcM12 CcL12

A1260
-2
CmA27

-3
(a) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
PC1

1.0

C8
C18
C28
0.5 C209 C66
C118

PC2
Fig. 5. Comparison of total PCB concentrations among sea turtle C180 C128
tissues ðn ¼ 18Þ. Values are geometric means and 95% confidence in- C153
0.0 C187
tervals. Differences were determined by Tukey pairwise comparisons C44
ðp < 0:05Þ. C52

-0.5
Contaminant loads of the samples were further com- -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
(b) PC1
pared using principal components analysis. PCA that
included data for all OCs generated three principal 1.0
PC1 score = -0.46 log K + 2.9
components that explained only 36.4% of the total (n=12, r = 0.57, p = 0.004)
variance in the data (18%, 9.4% and 9.0%, respectively). C52
C44
0.5
PCA that included only PCB congener data generated C18
C28
C66
PC1Score

three principal components that explained 63% of the C8

total variance in the data (31%, 17% and 15%, respec- 0.0
tively). Plotted relative to the first two principal com- C118 C209
ponents, the commercial Aroclor mixtures separated in a -0.5
manner that suggested both PC1 and PC2 reflect the C128 C187

degree of contribution of lower- and higher-chlorinated C153 C180

congeners to the signatures of the individual samples
(Fig. 6a). Aroclor 1260, which contains more of the
higher-chlorinated congeners than the other commercial
mixtures, scored lower on both PCs, whereas the Aroc-
lors containing more lower-chlorinated congeners (1016
and 1242) scored higher. Examination of the loadings
plot for each of the congeners confirms that samples
scoring higher on both PC1 and PC2 have signatures
dominated by the lower-chlorinated congeners (Fig. 6b).
Furthermore, the loading scores of individual congeners
on PC1 were significantly correlated to the congenersÕ
Kow values (Fig. 6c). Overall, the tissue samples were
randomly distributed when plotted relative to PC1 and
PC2, with the exception of the kidney samples, which
formed a loose grouping at the top of the plot (Fig. 6a),
reflecting that they had a greater proportion of lower-
chlorinated congeners than the other tissue types.
4. Discussion
The present study represents the first data for any
post-yearling sea turtle species from the Eastern Pacific.
-1.0
5 6 7 8 9
(c) Log Kow
Fig. 6. Principal components scores (a) and loadings plot (b) of the
congener compositions of sea turtle tissue samples. (c) Regression of
congenersÕ loading scores on principal component 1 (PC1) against
the congenersÕ octanol–water partition coefficients (Kow ).
Data for hexachlorobenzene has not previously been
reported in sea turtles despite its status as the most toxic
and persistent of the chlorobenzene compounds (Pugh
and Becker, 2001). With the exception of a single value
published by Mckenzie et al. (1999), lindane (the c iso-
mer hexachlorocyclohexane and a known neurotoxic)
has never been detected in tissues or eggs of sea turtles.
Aguirre and coworkers (1994) conducted analyses on
selective environmental pollutants in Hawaii which in-
cluded this pesticide, but all values were below detection
limits. The present work also represents one of the few
contributions globally where analyses were conducted
on freshly collected sea turtle tissues in which the cause
of the animalsÕ deaths was known (incidental fisheries
capture).
 S.C. Gardner et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 46 (2003) 1082–1089
The sea turtle tissues analyzed in the current investi-
gation contained low levels of organochlorine contami-
nants compared to concentrations reported in sea turtles
collected in other locations around the world (McKim
and Johnson, 1983; Lake et al., 1994; Mckenzie et al.,
1999; Corsolini et al., 2000). This may be because the
samples were obtained in an unindustrialized region of
the globe (southern Baja California), where ambient
contaminant concentrations are expected to be lower
than those present in more developed regions. In addi-
tion, the current dataset is comprised predominantly of
green turtles, primarily herbivores (Lopez Mendilaharsu,
2002). Qualitative examination of the OC concentrations
detected in the tissues of the olive ridley, a carnivorous
sea turtle, indicated consistently that they were higher
relative to other species (green and loggerhead) (Table 1);
because this species was represented by only a single
sample, further study is necessary to determine if ob-
served differences among species were significant.
The pattern of accumulation of the various contam-
inants did not reflect the patterns reported elsewhere for
these organisms. Dieldrin was not detected among any
of the samples collected for the current study, whereas
Mckenzie et al. (1999) found it second only to 4,40 -DDE
among the organochlorines they analyzed. Also P in the
current study, 4,40 -DDD contributed most to DDT,
unlike reports for sea turtles collected elsewhere,
wherein 4,40 -DDE was the dominant of the DDT iso-
mers (Lake et al., 1994; Rybitski et al., 1995; Mckenzie
et al., 1999).
DDT has been used in Mexico since the late 1940s for
agriculture and malaria control. Once the most com-
monly used pesticide in Mexico, its production has di-
minished from 80,000 tons per year in the late 1960s to
25 tons per year in the 1990s (INE, 2001). Although use
of DDT has been restricted in Mexico since 1987, it
continues to be used for mosquito control in areas with
high risk of malaria (i.e. Gulf of Mexico) (Ben
ıtez and
B
arcenas, 1996). The National Institute of Ecology
projects a commitment to a 80% reduction in use over
the next 5 years, with elimination in the next 10 years
(INE, 2001). Further research is warranted in order to
determine if the DDT isomers detected in sea turtle
tissues represent a contemporary source of this pesticide
on the Pacific coast of Mexico.
While PCBs have not been produced in Mexico, it has
been estimated that thousands of tons of pure PCBÕs
have been legally imported, with unknown quantities
brought in illegally from the United States (INE, 2001).
The National Institute of Ecology is currently con-
ducting a national PCB inventory to determine the
magnitude of PCB wastes that currently exist within the
country. In accordance with Mexican federal regulations
(Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-133-ECOL-2000,
2001), PCB use is currently being phased out with a goal
of complete elimination by 2008.
1087
P
We found that PCBs in the sea turtle tissues did
not approach those reported to affect reproductive suc-
cess in freshwater turtles (57–72 lg g
1 ww) (Pugh and
Becker, 2001). The mono-ortho substituted congener 118
and di-ortho substituted 180 were the only congeners
with dioxin-like toxicity that were detected in the current
study (detected in 11% and 9% of the samples, respec-
tively). Elsewhere, the coplanar congeners 77, 126 and
169 and mono-ortho substituted congener 105 P have been
detected, but at very low percentages of PCB (Cor-
solini et al., 2000). However, because dioxin-like com-
pounds at any concentration are considered to have the
potential for endocrine disruption, no safe level has been
established for these contaminants. Therefore, their
presence, even in at low concentrations as observed here
(0.0017–50 ng g
1 lipid) should be monitored.
As to tissues, the distribution of individual PCB
congeners was related to their lipophilicity. The higher-
chlorinated, more lipophilic congeners were detected in
adipose tissue, while lower-chlorinated congeners
(congeners 8 and 18) were detected at higher concen-
trations in the leaner kidney and muscle tissues (Fig. 2).
Corsolini et al. (2000) found that muscle tissue from
loggerhead sea turtles collected in the Mediterranean
contained a higher proportion of lower-chlorinated
congeners than either adipose or liver tissue. Overall,
however, they found that hexa- and hepta-chlorinated
congeners dominated the congener compositions of the
sea turtle tissues and congeners 153, 138, 180 and 118
were the most abundant P congeners. Congener 18 ac-
counted for only 4% of PCB in muscle tissue and was
undetected in the other tissues. Lake and coworkers
(1994) reported that the predominant PCB congeners
detected in liver and adipose tissues of olive ridley turtles
were 153, 180, 118 and 187.
Previous studies of PCB congener distributions in
marine and terrestrial animals have demonstrated that
congener 153 is typically most prevalent (Safe, 1994;
Norstrom and Muir, 1994). However, in the present
study, lipophilic congeners contributed less to the overall
congener signature of each turtle as demonstrated by the
negative correlation between percent contribution of
congeners and their Kow . The tri-chlorinated congener 18
was the most prevalent among the 20 congeners for
which analyses were conducted and congener 153 was the
dominant congener in only one tissue sample (adipose).
Such tendencies suggest that PCB exposure by sea turtles
may be direct, via the water column. Higher-chlorinated
congeners would be expected to dominate the turtlesÕ
PCB signatures if exposure was by incidental consump-
tion of sediment. However, the influence of the congener
compositions of their primary food sources (sea grasses
and marine algae in the case of green turtles), and other
environmental media like water and sediment, on turtle
congener signatures need to be to be further examined. A
study including the collection and analysis of stomach
1088 S.C. Gardner et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 46 (2003) 1082–1089
contents and marine macrophytes making up the bulk of
green turtle diet is currently underway by our research
group.
Alternatively, the congener pattern observed in sea
turtles in this study may indicate that exposure occurred
early in the life cycle (during a life stage when the green
turtlesÕ food consumption is of higher food chain or-
ganisms) and/or via maternal transport to eggs.
Mckenzie et al. (1999) compared organochlorine con-
centrations in tissues of leatherbacks, loggerheads and
green turtles and suggested a preferential maternal
transfer of lower chlorinated, less lipophilic organo-
chlorines from mother to hatchling. In green turtles,
greatest contaminant burdens were found in juveniles
(Mckenzie et al., 1999). The authors theorized that as
the turtles grew, the initial concentrations were diluted
and the intake of OCs was reduced by a change in diet
with age from carnivorous to herbivorous. The fact that
residues from only one OC (heptachlor epoxide in adi-
pose tissue) was detected in the largest turtle collected in
the present study supports this theory. Metabolism of
higher-chlorinated congeners to lower-chlorinated forms
also may be occurring. Research will be needed to un-
derstand better the roles of metabolism versus route of
exposure in determining the outcome of organochlorine
profiles within sea turtle tissues.
5. Conclusions
PCB congener signatures in sea turtles appeared
highly dependent on tissue type and differences in their
uptake were related to their lipophilicity. Among tissue
samples, kidney and muscle samples contained more
lower-chlorinated congeners than liver or adipose sam-
ples. Differences between congeners dominating PCB
loads in sea turtles from the eastern Pacific and those
detected in sea turtles elsewhere on the globe may relate
to differences in the congener compositions of environ-
mental media among regions, dietary differences or
differences in the abilities of the various species and
populations to metabolize PCBs. Additional study of
the congener compositions in sea turtle diets and the
waters of the Pacific ocean may provide data necessary
to determine the source of these differences. While there
were an insufficient number of samples to assess differ-
ences among species, qualitative evaluation indicates the
potential effects of dietary differences among the her-
bivorous green turtles and the carnivorous olive ridley.
This is an area that requires further investigation.
Analysis of stomach contents and dietary components
on an individual basis would permit comparison of
turtle tissue signatures to those in their diet to determine
the degree to which differential uptake and metabolism
plays a role in determining the signatures observed in
turtle tissues.
Acknowledgements
Funding for this project was provided by the Consejo
Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog
ıa (Conacyt) and the
Centro de Investigaciones Biol
ogicas del Noroeste, S.C.
(CIBNOR). The authors wish to express their appreci-
ation to Drs. Wallace J. Nichols, Judith Graham and
Donald Gardner for their assistance in the establishment
of this project and to Rodrigo Rangel and Samuel
Ch
avez Rosales for their support of the field work.
We thank Drs. Jeff Morgan, Frank McCromick, and
anonymous reviewers whose comments resulted in a
much improved manuscript. This research was con-
ducted in accordance with Mexican laws and regula-
tions, under permits provided by the Secretaria de
Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (SGPA/DGVS/
002-2895). CITES permits were obtained for the inter-
national import (permit number: 01US046123/9) and
export (MX 16332) of sea turtle tissues.
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