( Word to PDF Converter - Unregistered )

http://www.Word-to-PDF-Converter.net

History of photography
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The word photography derives from the Greek words phōs (genitive: phōtós) light, and gráphein, to write. The
word was coined by Sir John Herschel in 1839.

A camera obscura box used for drawing imagesPhotography is the result of combining several different technical

discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Chinese philosopher Mo Ti and Greek

mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.[1][2] In the 6th
century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments[3] Ibn
al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera,[2][4] Albertus
Magnus (1193/1206-1280) discovered silver nitrate, and Georges Fabricius (1516–1571) discovered silver
chloride. Daniel Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568. Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some
chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694. The novel Giphantie (by the French Tiphaigne de la Roche, 1729–1774)
described what can be interpreted as photography.

Early History: Development of chemical photography

Monochrome process
Nicéphore Niépce's earliest surviving photograph of a scene from nature, circa 1826, "View from the Window at Le

Gras," Saint-Loup-de-Varennes (France).Boulevard du Temple", taken byLouis Daguerre in late 1838 or early 1839, was the first-ever

photograph of a person. It is an image of a busy street, but because exposure time was over ten minutes, the city traffic was

moving too much to appear. The exception is a man in the bottom left corner, who stood still getting his boots polished long

enough to show up in the picture.

Robert Cornelius, self-portrait, Oct. or Nov. 1839, approximate quarter plate daguerreotype. The back reads, "The first light
picture ever taken." This self-portrait is the first photographic portrait image of a human ever produced.

The first permanent photograph (later accidentally destroyed) was an image produced in 1826 [5] by
the French inventor Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. His photographs were produced on a polished pewter plate covered
with apetroleum derivative called bitumen of Judea. Bitumen hardens with exposure to light. The unhardened
material may then be washed away and the metal plate polished, rendering a negative image which then may be
coated with ink and impressed upon paper, producing a print. Niépce then began experimenting
with iron compounds based on a Johann Heinrich Schultz discovery in 1724 that an iron and chalk mixture darkens
when exposed to light.

In partnership, Niépce (in Chalon-sur-Saône) and Louis Daguerre (in Paris) refined the existing silver process.[6] In 1833
Niépce died of a stroke, leaving his notes to Daguerre. While he had no scientific background, Daguerre made two
pivotal contributions to the process. He discovered that exposing the silver first to iodine vapour before exposure
to light, and then to mercuryfumes after the photograph was taken, could form a latent image. Bathing the plate
in a salt bath then fixes the image. On January 7, 1839 Daguerre announced that he had invented a process using
 ( Word to PDF Converter - Unregistered )
http://www.Word-to-PDF-Converter.net
silver on a copper plate called the daguerreotype.[7] The French government bought the patent and immediately
made it public domain.

In 1832, French-Brazilian painter and inventor Hercules Florence had already created a very similar process, naming
itPhotographie.After reading about Daguerre's invention, Fox Talbot worked on perfecting his own process; in 1839
he acquired a key improvement, an effective fixer, from John Herschel, the astronomer, who had previously
showed that hyposulfite of soda (also known as hypo, or now sodium thiosulfate) would dissolve silver salts. Later
that year, Herschel made the first glass negative.

A calotype print showing the American photographer Frederick Langenheim (circa 1849). Note, the caption on the photo calls
the process Talbotype

By 1840, Talbot had invented the calotype process. He coated paper sheets with silver chloride to create an
intermediatenegative image. Unlike a daguerreotype, a calotype negative could be used to reproduce positive

prints, like most chemical films do today. Talbot patented[8] this process, which greatly limited its adoption. He
spent the rest of his life in lawsuits defending the patent until he gave up on photography. Later George
Eastman refined Talbot's process, which is the basic technology used by chemical film cameras today. Hippolyte
Bayard had also developed a method of photography but delayed announcing it, and so was not recognized as its
inventor.

In 1839, John Herschel made the first glass negative, but his process was difficult to reproduce. Slovene Janez
Puharinvented a process for making photographs on glass in 1841; it was recognized on June 17, 1852 in Paris by the

Académie Nationale Agricole, Manufacturière et Commerciale.[9] In 1847, Niépce St. Victor published his invention of
a process for making glass plates with an albumen emulsion; the Langenheim brothers of Philadelphia and John

Whipple of Boston also invented workable negative-on-glass processes in the mid 1840s.[10]

In 1851 Frederick Scott Archer invented the collodion process.[citation needed] Photographer and children's
author Lewis Carroll used this process.[citation needed]

Roger Fenton's assistant seated on Fenton's photographic van, Crimea, 1855.

Herbert Bowyer Berkeley experimented with his own version of collodian emulsions after Samman introduced the

idea of adding dithionite to thepyrogallol developer.[citation needed] Berkeley discovered that with his own
addition of sulfite, to absorb the sulfur dioxide given off by the chemical dithionite in the developer, that
dithionite was not required in the developing process. In 1881 he published his discovery. Berkeley's formula
contained pyrogallol, sulfite and citric acid. Ammonia was added just before use to make the formula alkaline. The

new formula was sold by the Platinotype Company in London as Sulpho-Pyrogallol Developer.[11]

Nineteenth-century experimentation with photographic processes frequently became proprietary. The

German-born, New Orleans photographer Theodore Lilienthal successfully sought legal redress in an 1881
infringement case involving his "Lambert Process" in the Eastern District of Louisiana.

Popularization
 ( Word to PDF Converter - Unregistered )
http://www.Word-to-PDF-Converter.net
Mid 19th century "Brady stand" photo model's armrest table, meant to keep portrait models more still during long exposure

times (studio equipment nicknamed after the famed US photographer, Mathew Brady).A photographer appears to be

photographing himself in a 19th-century photographic studio. (c. 1893)General view of The Crystal Palace at Sydenham

The daguerreotype proved popular in responding to the demand for portraitureemerging from the middle classes

during the Industrial Revolution.[citation needed] This demand, that could not be met in volume and in cost by oil
painting, added to the push for the development of photography.

In 1847, Count Sergei Lvovich Levitsky designed a bellows camera which significantly improved the process of
focusing. This adaptation influenced the design of cameras for decades and is still found in use today in some
professional cameras. While in Paris, Levitsky would become the first to introduce interchangeable decorative
backgrounds in his photos, as well as the retouching of negatives to reduce or eliminate technical

deficiencies.[citation needed] Levitsky was also the first photographer to portray a photo of a person in different
poses and even in different clothes (for example, the subject plays the piano and listens to himself).[citation
needed] Roger Fenton and Philip Henry Delamotte helped popularize the new way of recording events, the first by
his Crimean war pictures, the second by his record of the disassembly and reconstruction of The Crystal
Palace in London. Other mid-nineteenth-century photographers established the medium as a more precise means
than engraving or lithography of making a record of landscapes and architecture: for example, Robert
Macpherson's broad range of photographs of Rome, the interior of the Vatican, and the surrounding countryside
became a sophisticated tourist's visual record of his own travels.

By 1849, images captured by Levitsky on a mission to the Caucasus, were exhibited by the famous Parisian optician
Chevalier at the Paris Exposition of the Second Republic as an advertisement of their lenses. These photos would
receive the Exposition's gold medal; the first time a prize of its kind had ever been awarded to a

photograph.[citation needed]

That same year in 1849 in his St. Petersburg, Russia studio Levitsky would first propose the idea to artificially light
subjects in a studio setting using electric lighting along with daylight. He would say of its use, "as far as I know this
application of electric light has never been tried; it is something new, which will be accepted by photographers

because of its simplicity and practicality".[citation needed]

In 1851, at an exhibition in Paris, Levitsky would win the first ever gold medal awarded for a portrait

photograph.[citation needed]

In America, by 1851 a broadside by daguerreotypist Augustus Washington were advertising prices ranging from 50

cents to $10.[12] However, daguerreotypes were fragile and difficult to copy. Photographers encouraged chemists
to refine the process of making many copies cheaply, which eventually led them back to Talbot's process.

Ultimately, the modern photographic process came about from a series of refinements and improvements in the
first 20 years. In 1884 George Eastman, ofRochester, New York, developed dry gel on paper, or film, to replace the
 ( Word to PDF Converter - Unregistered )
http://www.Word-to-PDF-Converter.net
photographic plate so that a photographer no longer needed to carry boxes of plates and toxic chemicals around.
In July 1888 Eastman's Kodak camera went on the market with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest".
Now anyone could take a photograph and leave the complex parts of the process to others, and photography
became available for the mass-market in 1901 with the introduction of theKodak Brownie.

In the twentieth century, photography developed rapidly as a commercial service. End-user supplies of
photographic equipment accounted for only about 20 percent of industry revenue. For the modern enthusiast
photographer processing black and white film, little has changed since the introduction of the 35mm

film Leicacamera in 1925.[citation needed]

The first digitally scanned photograph was produced in 1957. The digital scanning process was invented by Russell A.
Kirsch, a computer pioneer at the National Institute of Standards and Technology. He developed the system capable
of feeding a camera's images into a computer. His first fed image was that of his son, Walden Kirsch. The photo was

set at 176x176 pixels.

Color process
First color image, photograph byJames Clerk Maxwell, 1861.

Although color photography was explored throughout the 19th century, initial experiments in color resulted in
projected temporary images, rather than permanent color images. Moreover until the 1870s the emulsions available
were not sensitive to red or green light.

The first color photo, an additive projected image of a tartan ribbon, was taken in 1861 by

the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell.[14] Several patentable methods for producing images (by either additive
or subtractive methods, see below) were devised from 1862 on by two French inventors (working

independently), Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros.[15]Practical methods to sensitize silver halide film to green
and then orange light were discovered in 1873 and 1884 byHermann W. Vogel, but full sensitivity to red light was
not achieved until the early years of the 20th century.

The first fully practical color plate, Autochrome, did not reach the market until 1907. It was based on a screen-plate
method, the screen (of filters) being made using dyed dots of potato starch. The screen lets filtered red, green or
blue light through each grain to a photographic emulsion in contact with it. The plate is then developed to a
negative, and reversed to a positive, which when viewed through the screen restores colors approximating the
original.

Other systems of color photography included that used by Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii, which involved
three separate monochrome exposures ('separation negatives') of a still scene through red, green, and blue filters.
These required a special machine to display, but the results are impressive even by modern standards. His collection
of glass plates was purchased from his heirs by the Library of Congress in 1948, and is now available in digital
images.