2.

LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
y
•Definition of Limit of a Function

•Theorems on Limit of a Function

•One-Sided Limits

•Infinite Limits x

•Limits at Infinity

•Continuity of a Function

•Trigonometric Limits
1
To understand the concept of a limit, let us consider the function:
3x 2 − 4x − 4
f (x ) =
x−2
Let us observe what happens to f(x) when x is made to approach 2 from the right
(that is values of x greater than 2) and when x is made to approach 2 from the left
(that is values of x less than 2).

Table 1 shows the values of f when x approaches 2 from the right. As x

approaches 2 from the right, what do you observe with the values of f?
Table 2 shows the values of f when x approaches 2 from the left. As x approaches
2 from the left, what do you observe with the values of f?
x 3x2 − 4x − 4 x 3x2 − 4x − 4
f(x) = f(x) =
x −2 x −2
1 5 3 11
1.5 6.5 2.5 9.5
1.9 7.7 2.1 8.3
1.99 7.97 2.01 8.03
1.999 7.997 2.001 8.003

Table 1 Table 2 2
2.1 Limit of a Function, its Definition
Definition of Limit of a Function

Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval containing a, except
possibly at the number a itself. The limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L, written as
Lim f (x) = L
x →a
if the following statement is true:
Given any ε > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0 such that
if 0< x - a < δ then f(x) - L < ε .

y This means that f(x) approaches L

y = f(x)
as x approaches a if the absolute
value of the difference between
L+ε1 f(x) and L can be made as small
L we please by taking x sufficiently
L - ε1 near a but not equal to a.

a - δ1 a a+δ1 x
3
Example:
lim 2 x + 1 = 9
Show by definition that x → 4

Solution:
Let ε > 0. We want to find δ such that
if 0< x - 4 < δ then 2x +1 - 9 =  2x - 8 < ε.

If 0< x - 4 < δ then 2x +1 - 9 < ε.

↔ if 0< x - 4 < δ then  2x - 8 < ε.
↔ if 0< x - 4 < δ then 2 x - 4 < ε.
↔ if 0< x - 4 < δ then  x - 4 < ε/2.

So, we take δ = ε/2.

4
 2.2 Theorems on Limits of Functions
,
Theorem 1 (Limit of Identity Function)
If f(x) = x, then Lim x = a
x→a
Example:
Lim x = − 4
x → −4
Theorem 2 (Limit of a Constant Function)
If c is a constant, then for any number a, Lim c = c
x→a
Lim 8 = 8
Example: x → 2
Theorem 3 (Limit of a Linear Function)
If m and b are any constants, Lim (mx + b ) = ma + b
x→a

Example: xLim (4 x − 1) = 4 ( − 2 ) − 1 = − 9
→ −2
Theorem 4 (Limit of the Sum of two functions)
If Lim f (x) = L and Lim g(x) = M , then Lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L + M
x→a x→a x→a

Example: Lim [(7x ) + 3] = 21+ 3 = 24

x →3 5
Theorem 5 (Limit of the Product of two functions)
If Lim f (x) = L and Lim g(x) = M , then xLim [f (x) •g(x)] = L•M
→a
x→a x→a
Lim (x − 1)(x + 5 ) = (2 )(8 ) = 16
Example: x → 3
Theorem 6 (Limit of the Quotient of two functions)
If Lim f (x) = L and Lim g(x) = M such that M≠ 0, then
x→a x→a
f (x) L x+4 6
Lim = Example: Lim = = −1
x→a g(x) M x →2 x − 8 − 6

Theorem 7 (Limit of the nth Power of a function)

If Lim f (x) = L and n is any positive integer, then
x →a
Lim [f (x)]n = Ln
2 2
Example: Lim (x − 1) = (− 4) = 16 x→a
x →−3
Theorem 8 (Limit of the nth root of a function)
n
If n is a positive integer and Lim f (x) = L then Lim f (x ) = n L
x→a x →a
Lim 3 3 + x = 3 − 8 = −2
Example: x→−11
Note that if n is even, L should be greater than 0. 6
Evaluate the following limits
x2 − 16
x→3
( 2
1. Lim3x + 7x −12 ) 6. Lim 3
x→−2
x+2
(x − 2) 2
11. Lim
x→4 2 − x

1 1
−
x +1
2. Lim  x3 − 3x2 + 5 7. Lim 12. Lim 2 + t 2
x→−2  x→−1 x2 − x − 2 t →0 t
2
3. Lim
x +1
8. Lim
(z + 2) 13. Lim
3− x
x→1 x2 + x + 1 z→−2 z4 − 16 x→9 9 − x
1 1
−
3 t2 − 9 x 3
4. Lim (w + 2) 9. Lim 14. Lim
w→0 t →3 t − 3 x→3 x − 3

3z + 2 x2 − 4 t + 4 −2
5. Lim 10. Lim 15. Lim
z→4 z − 2 x→2 3x2 − 2x − 8 t →0 t
For nos. 7 – 15, you need to simplify the function (by factoring or by conjugate) before you can
find the limit. You do this when by initial substitution, the result is 0/0.
Answer:
1. 36 4. 2 2 7. -1/3 10. 2/5 13. 1/6
2. -15 5. 7 8. 0 11. -32 14. -1/9
3. 2/3 6. 0 9. 6 12. -1/4 15. 1/4 7
Solution to selected numbers:

Lim
(z + 2 )2 = Lim
(z + 2 )2 x 2 − 16 x 2 − 16 2 + x
8. 11. Lim = Lim .
z → − 2 z 4 − 16 z → − 2 (z − 2)(z + 2)(z 2 + 4) x→4 2 − x x→4 2 − x 2 + x
= Lim
(z + 2 ) ( x − 4 )( x + 4 )( 2 + x)
= Lim
z → − 2 (z − 2)(z 2 + 4) x→4 4 − x
−2+2 = Lim − ( x + 4 )( 2 + x)
= =0
(−2 − 2)(4 + 4) x→4
= − ( 4 + 4 )( 2 + 4 ) = − 32

x2 − 4 (x − 2)( x + 2) 1 1 2 − (2 + t )
10. Lim = Lim 12. −
2 (2 + t )
x → 2 3x 2 − 2 x − 8 x → 2 (x − 2)(3 x + 4) Lim 2 + t 2 = Lim
t→ 0 t t→ 0 t
x +2
= = Lim 2 − (2 + t )
x → 2 3x + 4 = Lim
t → 0 2 t (2 + t )
2+2 4 2
= = = − 1
3(2) + 4 10 5 = Lim
t → 0 2 (2 + t )
− 1
=
4
2.3 One Sided-Limits
Definition
Definitionof Right-Hand Side Limit
2.1
Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open interval (a,c), then the
limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the right is L written as .
Lim f (x )= L
x→ a+
This is the right-hand limit.

Definition 2.2
Definition of Left-Hand Side Limit

Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open interval (a,c), then the
limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the left is M written as .
Lim f (x )= M
−
x→ a

This is the left-hand limit.

Theorem:
Lim f (x )
The two sided limit exists and is equal to L if and only if x→ a+
and Lim f (xboth) exist and are both equal to L.
x→ a− 9
Example: Use the graph of y = f(x) to find the limit of the following:
1. Lim f (x ) 3. Lim f (x ) 5. Lim+ f (x ) 7. Lim− f (x ) 9. Lim f (x )
x → −1 x →1 x→4 x→4
x → − 1−
2. 4. Lim f (x ) 6. Lim f (x ) 8. Lim f (x )
Lim f (x )
x → 1− x →1 x→4+
x → − 1+

10
 Example: (p.57 – 58)
Find the indicated limit:
x +1 if x < −1 a) lim f (x ) d ) lim f (x )
 2 x → −1 − x → 1−
#18. f ( x ) =  x if − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
2 − x b) lim f (x) f ) lim f ( x )
 if x > 1 + x→1
x → −1
c ) lim f ( x ) e ) lim f (x)
+
x → −1 x→1

Answer: a) 0 c) does not exist e) 1

b) 1 d) 1 f) 1
 2x − a if x < −3

#32. Given f ( x ) = ax + 2 b if − 3 ≤ x ≤ 3 .
 b − 5x if x > 3

Find the values of a and b such that lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x )
x → −3 x→ 3
both exist. Solving for a, b in
Lim f (x ) = Lim f (x ) Lim f (x ) = Lim f (x ) a – b – 3 = 0 and 3a + b + 15= 0
x → −3 − x → −3 + x→3 − x→3 +
Answer: and
2 ( − 3 ) − a = a( − 3 ) + 2 b a( 3 ) + 2 b = b − 5 ( 3 ) We get a = -3 and b = -6
2 a − 2b − 6 = 0 3 a + b + 15 = 0 11
a − b − 3 = 0
 2.4 Infinite Limits

2
Consider the function defined by f(x) = . Observe what happens to f(x) when we let x assume
2
(x−1)
values approaching 1 from the right and from the left. The tables that follow show the values generated
for f(x) upon substituting certain values to the variable x in the given function.

Table 1 Table 2
2 2
x f(x) = x f(x) =
2
(x−1) (x−1)2
0 2 2 2
0.5 8 1.5 8
0.9 200 1.1 200
0.99 20000 1.01 20000
0.999 2000000 1.001 2000000
0.9999 200000000 1.0001 200000000
What do you observe in the function values reflected in the two tables? 12
Definition of Infinite Limit, Increasing without Bound

Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some interval I containing a, except
possibly at the number a itself. As x approaches a, f(x) increases without bound and is
written as
Lim f (x )= +∞
x→ a

Definition of Infinite Limit, Decreasing without Bound

Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some interval I containing a, except
possibly at the number a itself. As x approaches a, f(x) decreases without bound and is
written as
Lim f (x )= −∞
x→ a

Theorem 2.4.1

If r is any positive integer, then

1
1. Lim r
= +∞ ;
x →0 + x
1 − ∞ if r is odd
2. Lim = 
r + ∞ if r is even
x → 0− x 13
Theorem 2.4.2

If a is any real number, and if Limf(x) = 0and Limg(x) = c, where c is a constant not equal
x→a x→a
to 0, then
g(x)
1. if c>0 and if f(x) →0 through positive values of f(x), Lim = +∞
x→a f(x)
g(x)
2. if c>0 and if f(x) →0 through negative values of f(x), Lim = −∞
x→a f(x)
g(x)
3. if c<0 and if f(x) →0 through positive values of f(x), Lim = −∞
x→a f(x)
g(x)
4. if c<0 and if f(x) →0 through negative values of f(x), Lim = +∞
x→a f(x )
The theorem is valid if “x →a” is replaced by “x →a ” or “x →a-”
+

14
Theorem 2.4.3

1. If Limf(x) = +∞ and Limg(x) = c, where c is any constant, then Lim[f(x) ± g(x)] = +∞

x→a x→a x→a
2. If Limf(x) = −∞ and Limg(x) = c, where c is any constant, then Lim[f(x) ± g(x)] = −∞
x→a x→a x→a
+ -
The theorem is valid if “x →a” is replaced by “x →a ” or “x →a ”

Theorem 2.4.4

If Limf(x) = +∞ and Limg(x) = c, where c is any constant except 0, then

x→a x→a
1. if c>0, Lim[f(x) • g(x)] = +∞;
x→a
→a
2. if c<0, Lim[f(x) • g(x)] = −∞
x→a
The theorem is valid if “x →a” is replaced by “x →a+” or “x →a-”

Theorem 2.4.5

If Limf(x) = −∞ and Limg(x) = c, where c is any constant except 0, then

x→a x→a
1. if c>0, Lim[f(x) • g(x)] = −∞;
x→a
2. if c<0, Lim[f(x) • g(x)] = +∞
x→a
15
+ -
The theorem is valid if “x →a” is replaced by “x →a ” or “x →a ”
Definition of a Vertical Asymptote

The line x = a is considered to be a VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE if at least one of the following is true:
1) Lim f(x) = +∞, 2) Lim f(x) = −∞, 3) Lim f(x) = +∞and 4) Lim f(x) = −∞
x→a+ x→a+ x→a− x→a−

Example: Find the indicated limits:

3 −t+2
1. Lim 4. Lim
t →4− x−4 t → 2− (t − 2)2
t+2 2 − 4x 3
2. Lim 2 5. Lim 2
t →2 t − 4 t →0 5x + 3x 3
+ −

3 + z2 4
3. Lim 6. Lim
z →0+
z2 r → −5 − (r + 5)5
 2.5 Limits at Infinity
x2
Consider the function defined by f(x) = . Observe what happens to f(x) when we let x increase
2
x +2
without bound (x →+ ∞) and decrease without bound (x →- ∞). The tables that follow show the values
generated for f(x) upon substituting certain values to the variable x in the given function.

Table 1 Table 2

x2 x2
x f (x ) = x f (x ) =
x2 + 2 x2 + 2
0 0 0 0
5 0.92592593 -5 0.92592593
9 0.97590361 -9 0.97590361
10 0.98039216 -10 0.98039216
100 0.99980004 -100 0.99980004
1000 0.99999998 -1000 0.99999998

What do you observe in the function values reflected in the two tables?
17
The graph of is shown in Figure 1.
Notice that the curve is approaching
the line y=1 as the value of x increases
and decreases without bound. The line
y = 1 is the HORIZONTAL
ASYMPTOTE of f(x).
Definition of Limit at Infinity, x Increasing without Bound

Let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (a,+∞), the limit of f(x) as x
increases without bound is L, written as

Lim f (x )= L
x → +∞

Definition of Limit at Infinity, x Decreasing without Bound

Let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (a,+∞), the limit of f(x) as x
decreases without bound is L, written as

Lim f (x )= L
x → −∞
y

y=L

x
 Theorem 2.4.6

If r is any positive integer, then

1
1. Lim =0
x →+∞ x r

1
2. Lim =0
x→−∞ x r

The evaluation of limits at infinity is illustrated in the following

examples:

2x 2 + 2x − 1
1. Find Lim
x → −∞ x3 − 5

To evaluate the indicated limit, divide the numerator and

denominator by x3. Note that the divisor to be used is always the
highest power of x.
2x 2 2x 1
+ −
2x2 + 2x − 1 x3 x3 x3
Lim = Lim
3
x → −∞ x −5 x → −∞ x3 5
−
x3 x3
 2 2 1 1 1 1
+ − Lim 2 • Lim + Lim 2 • Lim − Lim
x x2 x3 x→−∞ x x→−∞ x→−∞ x 2 x→−∞ x3
= Lim = x→−∞
x → −∞ 5 Lim 1− Lim 5 • Lim
1
1−
x3 x→−∞ x→−∞ x→−∞ x3

2•0+ 2•0−0
= =0
1− 5 • 0

4x 2 + 2x − 3 To evaluate the indicated limit, divide

2. Find Lim the numerator and denominator by x2, the
x → +∞ 8x 2 + x + 2
highest power of x in the given function.
4x 2 2x 3
+ −
4x2 + 2x − 3 x2 x2 x2
Lim = Lim
x → +∞ 8x2 + x + 2 x → +∞ 8x 2 x 2
+ −
x2 x2 x2
2 3
4+ −
= Lim x2 x2
x → +∞ 1 2
8+ −
x x2
4+2•0−3•0
=
8+0−2•0
1
=
2 21
 2y 3 − 4 Dividing each term by y3 , we get
3. Lim 5 y + 3
y → +∞

2 y3 4
−
y3 y3 2−0
= Lim =
y → +∞ 5 y + 3 0+0
y3 y3

which is positive infinity.

Definition
The line y = b is considered to be HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE if at least one of the
following is true: 1) Lim f (x ) = b and 2) Lim f (x ) = b
x → +∞ x → −∞

Example: From the previous examples,

The horizontal asymptote of
2x 2 + 2x − 1 2y3 − 4
a) f (x) = is y = 0 c) h(y) = does not exist
x3 − 5 5y + 3
b) 4x 2 + 2x − 3 is y = 1/2
g(x) =
8x 2 + x + 2