1.

Introduction

Bees of all kinds belong to the order of insects known as Hymenoptera, literally
"membrane wings". This order, comprising some 100,000 species, also includes wasps, ants,
ichneumons and sawflies. Of the 25,000 or more described species of bees (more are
recognized every year) the majority are solitary bees most of which lay their eggs in tunnels,
which they excavate themselves (Bibba.com). In some species small numbers of females may
share a single tunnel system, and in other cases there may be a semi/social organization
involving a hierarchical order among the females, these bees provide a supply of food (honey
and pollen) for the larvae, but there is no progressive feeding of the larvae by the adult bees.
Honeybees belong to the family of social bees which includes bumble bees and the
tropical stingless bees of the genus Meliponinae. The social bees nest in colonies headed by a
single fertile female, the queen, which is generally the only egg layer in the colony. Foraging
for nectar and other tasks such as feeding the queen and the larvae, cleaning brood cells and
removing debris, are carried out by a caste of females, the Workers. Honey and pollen is
stored, and larvae are reared in cells made from wax secreted by the worker bees.
The sub-family Apinae or honeybees, comprises a single genus, Apis, which is
characterized by the building of vertical combs of hexagonal cells constructed bilaterally from
a midrib, using only the wax secreted by the worker bees. The cells are multifunctional, being
used repeatedly for rearing the larvae and for the storage of honey and pollen. Progressive
feeding of the larvae is carried out by young bees with food produced by glands in the head of
the bee from honey and pollen.
Two attributes of honeybees which have been essential to their evolution and biology
are their clustering behaviour and, particularly in the case of the cavity-nesting species, their
ability to cool the nest by evaporation of water collected outside. These attributes enable the
colonies to achieve a marked degree of temperature regulation within the nest irrespective of
the external temperature. The genus Apis was thus enabled to colonise a wide variety of
environments, ranging from tropical to cool temperate. The Meliponinae which lack this
capability are confined to tropical regions (Ashleigh Milner; BIBBA.com 1996).
Another behavioural character of honeybees is the communication of information
about food sources and the recruitment of foragers by "dance language". The accurate
dissemination of information concerning direction and distance of forage areas leads to
efficient exploitation of food sources.

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 Two species are important for bee keeping – the western honey bee Apis mellifera,
and the eastern honey bee A. cerana. The Africanised bee, which is found in South and
Central America and some states of the United States of America, is a cross between two
subspecies of the western honey bee, the European bees and the South African bee. Apis
cerana is important in South and South-East Asia. The colonies are small and docile, but the
honey yields are low. In a suitable climate, the western honey bee, A. mellifera, is sometimes
preferred for its greater honey production.
It is thought that all bees are susceptible to the known diseases of bees, but different
races may have varying susceptibility. For example, A. cerana is less susceptible to varroosis.
When sampling a colony of bees for diagnosis of diseases, live bees must first be killed with
diethyl ether or in a deep freezer (–20°C) overnight. Bees may also be killed by submersion in
70% ethyl alcohol, e.g., when collected for diagnosis of acariosis (Acarapis). Larval and pupal
smears must be made when testing for brood diseases or a piece of comb containing brood
showing visible signs of disease may be sent to the laboratory.

2. Bees species

Honeybees probably originated in Tropical Africa and spread from South Africa to
Northern Europe and East into India and China. They were brought to the Americas with the
first colonists and are now distributed world-wide. The first bees appear in the fossil record in
deposits dating about 40 million years ago in the Eocene. At about 30 million years before
present they appear to have developed social behavior and structurally are virtually identical
with modern bees (Ross E. Koning 1994).
Honeybees have been classified as follows:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Apiidae
Genus: Apis
Species: Apis florea, the Little Honeybee; Apis dorsata, the Giant
Honeybee; Apis cerana, the Eastern Honeybee; and Apis mellifera, the Western
Honeybee

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 The Western honeybee (Apis mellifera) is a species of honeybee comprised of several
subspecies or races. Apis mellifera was first classified by Carolus Linnaeus in 1758-the dark
bee of northern Europe also called the German Honeybee - domesticated in modern times,
and taken to North America in colonial times. These small, dark-colored bees, sometimes
called the German black bee, have the reputation of stinging people (and other creatures) for
no good reason at all; this, however, applies to the hybrid A. m. mellifera x A. m. ligustica
populations found in North America and Western Europe, not to the near-extinct "pure" A. m.
mellifera.
Apis cerana, or the Asiatic Honeybee or the Eastern Honeybee, are small honeybees of
southern and southeastern Asia, such as China, India, Japan, Malaysia, Nepal, Bangladesh and
Papua New Guinea. In the wild, they prefer to nest in small spaces, such as hollowed out tree
trunks. Like the honeybee (Apis mellifera), they are partly domesticated and used in
apiculture, mostly in wooden boxes with fixed frames. Their size is similar or somewhat
smaller than the Apis mellifera. They also have a more prominent abdominal stripes. Their
honey yield is smaller, because they form smaller colonies. Their beeswax is used to treat and
heal wounds.
Apis dorsata is much larger than the local honey bee and has distinct smoke coloured
wings while the abdomen is covered with buff coloured hairs. The nest is usually one large
single comb and the bees 'shiver' when disturbed and may become aggressive.

Fig. 1 Apis mellifera Fig. 2 Apis cerana Fig. 3 Apis dorsata

3. Examining the colony

The best time to examine a colony is when most of the foragers of the colony are out
of the hive: the older field bees being most apt to sting, the beekeeper has less chance of being

5
stung when they are away. Working with colonies on cloudy or rainy days is to be avoided,
because at such times most of the older workers are within the hive.
On entering the apiary, the person that perform examination should he fully prepared
by wearing his veil, his trouser-legs should be well attached around his ankles, and he should
he carrying his hive tool in one hand and a well-lit smoker in the other. He should always
work at the side of the hive, not in front of it.
All his movements when working with or near a colony must he slow and deliberate.
In handling the hive, he directs a small puff of smoke into the hive entrance, waits for 30 to
60 seconds, lifts the hive cover slightly, puffs a little smoke within, and only then he gently
removes the cover, placing it on the ground in front of the hive. Again he puffs a little smoke,
while using his hive tool to prize free the inner lid, which he places upside down in front of
the hive. With his hive tool he prizes all the frames apart; he may find it necessary at this
stage, and throughout the further manipulations, to administer a little smoke occasionally, to
calm the bees. The first frame to he removed is the second one on the beekeeper's side; after
inspecting both sides of it carefully, he gently leans it against the front corner of the hive. The
remaining frames he removes one at a time, inspects, and replaces. When all the frames have
been inspected, he replaces the frame that was set aside and restores the inner lid and cover to
their original position.
In inspecting the Frames, the examine man pays particular attention to the presence
and number of brood cells, honey-storage cells, pollen cells, and egg cells; the pattern of the
brood comb; the presence or absence of queen cups and cells; the appearance of the adult
workers; and especially signs of disease and other abnormalities.

4. Parasitic diseases

4.1. Varoosis
4.1.1. Etiology
It is an infestation caused by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor (previously
jacobsoni). The Varroa mites are parasites of adult bees and their brood. Four species have
been recorded: Varroa jacobsoni, V. destructor, V. underwoodi and V. rinderi. Until recently
Varroa mites that affect Apis mellifera world-wide were assumed to be V. jacobsoni.
However it has been shown that these mites are V. destructor (Figure 4). They are responsible
for the condition of varroosis or varroatosis (1, 2).

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 The mite Varroa jacobsoni can be found on adult bees, on the brood, and in hive
debris. The most severe parasitism occurs on the older larvae and pupae, with drone brood
being preferred to worker brood (Ritter and Ruttner 1980). In heavy infestations, pupae may
not develop into adult bees.
The adult female mite is oval and flat, about 1.1 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, and pale
to reddish brown; it can easily be seen with the unaided eye. The mites attach to the adult bee
between the abdominal segments or between body regions (head, thorax, and abdomen) and
are therefore difficult to detect. However, they can be easily recognized against the white
surface of pupae. Male mites are considerably smaller and are pale to light tan (Delfinado-
Baker 1984). It is the only common parasite of honey bees that can be seen with the naked eye
(10).

Fig. 4 Varroa on pupa and adult bee. Left: pupa with four Varroa female mites.
Right: worker bee with two female mites.

4.1.2. Life cycle

The mite inserts itself between the abdominal sclera in adult bees (8) where it
penetrates the intersegmental membranes in order to ingest haemolymph. Sometimes it can
also be found between the head and thorax. For reproduction, the female enters the cells with
the bee brood shortly before the cells are sealed. They prefer drone brood to worker brood.
After the brood cell is sealed, the mite lays up to seven eggs in intervals of about 1–2 days.
These hatch into nymphs, but only two to three reach the adult stage.
The number of mites usually increases slowly at the beginning of the season. Clinical
signs may be seen at any time during the active season, although usually maximum numbers
are reached late in the season, when the first clinical signs of infestation can be recognized.
The course of this parasitism is usually lethal, except in some areas, such as tropical Latin
America (6, 9). The life span of mites on larval or adult bees depends on temperature and
humidity. Under practical conditions, the life span may vary from some days to a few months.

7
 While it is of course possible for beekeepers to make random inspection of brood cells
for mite infestation and to assess its level, a more practical approach is to study the pattern of
brood combs, which can give an early warning. A scattered pattern of sealed and unsealed
brood cells normally taken as a sign of poor egg-laying queens is often an indication of mite
infestation. When this is the case, the housecleaning bees have eliminated the parasitized
brood, leaving an irregular pattern of capped and uncapped cells.
4.1.3. Clinical signs
In heavily infested bee colonies, clinical signs of varroosis can often first be seen in
the latter part of the season when the brood is reduced (9). Heavy infestations are usually
reached 3–4 years after the primary invasion, but can occur within weeks if infested by bees
from nearby colonies that are collapsing.
Essentially, the brood is damaged by the parasitic mites. Bees and their offspring that
have been infected during the brood phase by only one parasitic mite show various ill effects,
such as a shortened life span, changes in behaviors and increased disease susceptibility (7).
The parasitism is critical if more than one mite enters the brood cell for reproduction. Only in
the lethal stage immediately before the collapse of the colonies do clinical signs, such as
shrunken wings and shortened abdomen, appear (Figure 5).

Fig. 5 Effect of Varroa on bee morphology. Left: normal bee appearance. Right: bee heavily attacked by mites.
This newly emerged bee has a deformed wing and reduced abdominal volume.

This is due to an increased susceptibility to deformed wing and acute paralysis virus,
as well as to the infection of wounds and loss of haemolymph (3, 4). If the brood dies shortly
before or after sealing, clinical signs of European foulbrood appear without the presence of
the specific agent Melissococcus pluton. If the brood survives, the emerging bees show
various behavioural changes and their life span is considerably shortened.

8
4.1.4. Diagnosis
For a sample of adult honey bees, 500 to 1000 bees should be collected. This can be
done by brushing honey bees off the comb through a large-mouthed funnel (of paper or
cardboard, etc.) into a container or by using a modified portable car vacuum cleaner.
Individual honey bees can be examined with or without the aid of a hand lens or a dissecting
microscope. When the mites are moving about on a bee, they are fairly easy to detect; but
once they attach themselves between segments, they are difficult to find. Mites can be
detected and collected by three methods, as follows:
a) Debris examination - An easy method of diagnosis of varroosis is by the
examination of the debris generated by bees themselves. An insert covered with a screen
mesh is placed on the floor of the hive. Unless this insert is covered with such gauze, or
smeared with grease, the bees will dispose of the mites outside the hive.
The debris produced within a few days in the late season usually contains little other
than visible mites. The debris collected in winter, however, must be examined in the
laboratory. An insert is placed in the hive as before, but an effective medication is used to
cause the mites to fall off the bees, so that after a given time, a number of mites may be
observed on the floor insert. Some countries demand the diagnostic application of certain
medications for proving the absence of mites.
Large amounts of debris can be examined in the laboratory using a flotation procedure
(5). For that the debris must be dry for 24 hours then it must flood the debris with industrial
alcohol. Next have to stirring continuously for around 1 minute or, if debris contains wax or
propolis particles, the stirring is made for 10–20 minutes so we can identify and observe the
mites that float to the surface.
b) Brood examination - For the second method, drone brood is examined, if
available, otherwise worker brood is examined. When a large number of samples are
examined, a rough determination of the degree of infection can be obtained.
The cappings of the brood cells is removed with a knife Wash then the brood cells are
placed directly into a sieve system with warm water from a hand-held shower.
The mites are collected in the lower fine sieve (mesh width 1 mm) while the brood is gathered
in the upper coarse sieve (mesh width 2–3 mm). The contents of the sieve are placed on a
bright plate, where the mites can be easily identified and counted.
When a smaller number of samples are being studied, the individual cells are
examined using an appropriate source of light. After removing the cappings and the bee
brood, infected cells can be identified by the presence of small white spots – the faeces of the

9
mite – found on the cell wall. The mites themselves should be sought for confirmation, by
examining the bottom of the cell and the bee brood for attached mites.
c) Bee examination - In a third method, approximately 200–250 bees are removed
from unsealed brood combs. Samples should be taken from both sides of at lest three
uncapped brood combs. To determine an apiary’s percentage of infestation, it is necessary to
collect and analyze individual samples from at least 10% of the beehives, and to determine
later the average infestation rate based on these individual results.
The bees are killed in a special container by submersion in alcohol then the container
is stirred for 10 minutes. The bees are separated from the mites by means of a sieve with a
mesh size of approximately 2–3 mm.

Fig. 6 Diagram of Varroa destructor (formerly Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans) (female).

a) Dorsal aspect; b) Anterior aspect; c) Ventral aspect. (Note the flat shell-like back and four pairs of legs.)

4.1.5. Treatment
There is no one best way to control bee mites. Many beekeepers resort to
chemotherapeutic measures, although this approach requires that the risk of contaminating the
honey and other hive products be restricted to a minimum.
Hive fumigation can control V. jacobsoni and other mites. The simplest fumigation
method involves placing fumigating strips into the hives, setting them alight, and letting them
smoulder. Commercially available strips include Folbex and Folbex VA, whose active
ingredients are the acaricides chlorobenzilate and bromopropylate respectively; the strips are
impregnated with other compounds that make them smoulder when lit. Beekeepers can make
similar strips themselves, by soaking 2.5 x 9 cm strips of filtre paper in a saturated solution of
sodium or potassium nitrate also containing an acaricide relatively non-toxic to bees (e.g.

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chlorobenzilate, bromopropylate, dicofol, tedion, amitraz, etc,) and allowing them to dry.
Bromopropylate and amitraz are especially popular for this use.
Fumigation is best administered when all the bees are inside the hive, usually in late
afternoon, and when the temperature is not below 10° C. All cracks and openings of the hive
must be sealed with masking tape, rags or wet cloths. The strip is attached securely to an
empty frame or placed on a sheet of flat metal that can be introduced into the hive through the
entrance. The strip is lighting, and when it is smouldering well is introduces into the hive,
where the bees will be fumigated with acaricidal smoke for about 30 minutes.
Since the fumigant cannot penetrate the cappings of the brood cells, it can reach only
the mites on the bees present in the hive. It should therefore be applied for a total of three or
four times, at intervals of four days, in order to reach the mites which at the time of the first
fumigation were still sealed within the capped cells.
As commercial substance and products we can use:
• Amitraz (Varachetal) - is use by making two treatments at seven days one from
another in the spring and two treatment in the autumn (September- October),
(I.Şuteu,V. Cosma)
• Coumaphos 3,2% (Perizin) 1/50 with water spraying 50 ml for a hive.
• We can be use also Apistan (Fluvalinat), Sinecar (powder) and Bayvarol

4.2. Acariosis
4.2.1. Etiology
Acariosis is a disease of the adult honey bee Apis mellifera L. and other Apis species,
caused by the microscopic Tarsonemid mite Acarapis woodi (Rennie). The mite is
approximately 150 µm in size, and it is an internal parasite of the respiratory system (Figure
7). These tracheal mites enter, live, and reproduce mainly in the large prothoracic tracheae of
all bees, feeding on the haemolymph of their host (Figure 8). Sometimes they are also found
in the head, thoracic and abdominal air sacs (11). Reproduction occurs within the tracheae of
adult bees, where female mites may lay 8–20 eggs. There are 2–4 times as many females as
males; development takes 11–12 days for males and 14–15 days for females.
Due to its small size (143-167 mm) and the destructive sampling methods required to
examine mites inside the honey bee tracheae, the life history of this mite is poorly known.
There are four species of Acarapis described (A. externus, A. vegans, A. dorsalis and

11
A..Woodi) but they are very similar and thus are best differentiated based on where they occur
on the host bee.
4.2.2. Life cycle
Tracheal mites live in the breathing or tracheal tubes of adult honey bees and only
move outside the host to infest other bees. Honey bee tracheal mites preferentially disperse to
adult worker honey bees younger than three days of age (Gary et al. 1989) with female mites
primarily dispersing at night (Pettis et al. 1992). In short-lived summer bees only one
generation per host is possible but in the winter multiple generations may be reared in each
bee (Pettis & Wilson 1996).

Life cycle of the tracheal mite of the honey bee

The pathogenic effects on individual bees depend on the numbers of parasites within
the tracheae, and are attributable both to mechanical injuries and to physiological disorders
consequent to the obstruction of the air ducts, lesions in the tracheal walls, and to the
depletion of haemolymph. As the parasite population increases, the tracheal walls, which are
normally whitish and translucent, become opaque and discoloured with blotchy black areas,
probably due to melanin crusts (11).

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4.2.3. Clinical signs
The mortality rate may range from moderate to high. Early signs of infection normally
go unnoticed, except for a slow dwindling in the colony size. Only when infection is heavy
does it become apparent. This is generally in the early spring after the winter clustering period
when the mites have bred and multiplied undisturbed into the longer-living winter bees. This
applies mainly to the Northern Hemisphere where there are seasonal variations in the
reproduction of bees.
In some cases it has been recorded that bees may cluster in front of the hive, appearing
confused and disorientated, unable to return to the hive. Some of the bees may also display
what is known as ‘K-wing’, where the rows of hooks holding the pairs of the bee’s wings
together have become detached. However, these abnormalities are not always seen and may
or may not be found in association with an infestation.
4.2.4. Diagnosis
Identification of the agent - Acariosis can be detected only in the laboratory using
microscopic examination or an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). There is no
reliable method for detection of very low levels of infection. The number of bees sampled
determines the detection threshold of the method. It has been shown that a 2% rate of
infection can be detected by sampling 50 bees; while a 1% rate of infection is detected using
100 bees (confidence limit is 80% for a colony of average size in spring). Because of the high
level of manual work involved, it is suitable to examine 50 bees.
The best time to take bee samples is in the early spring or late autumn (Northern
hemisphere), when Acarapis populations are high. Visualisation of mites is easier in older
bees, which have more mites. Samples of queens, drones or workers can be used, but
Acarapis prefer drones.
a) Microscopic examination: A sample of 50 bees is collected at random from the
suspected colony. These are mainly bees crawling and unable to fly, found within about 3
metres of the front of the hive. This is preferable to random collection from within the colony.
The bees may be living, dying, or dead. Live bees must first be killed with ethyl alcohol or in
a deep freezer (–20°C).
The bees are lay and secured on their backs or hold with thumb and first finger. The
heads and forelegs will be removed using a small forceps. Then the collar surrounding the
neck will be opened, exposing in this way the tracheae. Heavy infestations are easily visible
as shadows or dark objects in clear to dark brown tracheae. Old and heavy infestations will
make the tracheae brown to black. The thorax will be cut in front of the middle pair of legs

13
and the base of the forewings with a sharp razorblade. These thin disks can be further treated
to clear muscle tissue. The first pair of tracheae, which are covered by muscle tissue is
examine under a dissecting microscope at a magnification of x18–20 or transferred to another
slide, added glycerin or water and observed at higher magnification. Mites are easily seen
through the transparent wall as small, oval bodies (figure 8).
This is a demanding technique, especially when a large number of acariosis diagnoses
have to be made. If it is necessary only to distinguish between heavily infected and lightly or
non-infected colonies, we can observed the color of the tracheae.
b) Grinding: A sample of about 200 bees is collected at random from the suspect
colony. The wings and legs of each bee are removed from the thorax, and the bodies are
pooled in a 100 ml container that has been one-quarter filled with water. This suspension is
homogenised three times, each time for several seconds, in a homogeniser at 10,000 rpm with
the addition of more water. The resulting suspension is strained through a sieve (mesh 0.8
mm) and the sieve is rinsed with water to a final volume of approximately 50 ml. The filtrate
is centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 5 minutes and the supernatant fluid is discarded. A few drops
of undiluted lactic acid solution are added to the debris of the deposit, which will contain the
mites. This is left for 10 minutes to allow the muscle fibres to dissolve, and is then mounted
under a cover-slip for microscopic examination. This technique is quicker than dissection, but
may be less accurate. External mites A. externus, A. vagans and A. dorsalis, all of which are
morphologically similar to A. woodi, are often found on the thorax of healthy bees and can
very easily be mistaken for A. woodi. It seems, however, that they do not cause any serious
threat to bees or beekeeping. This method should therefore only be chosen if all that is
required is a rough estimation of the degree of infection in a region. It is not suitable for
determining a first outbreak.
c) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay: An ELISA for trachea mites has been
developed (12, 13). This test may produce false-positive results, and is therefore only
recommended for survey examinations. Another method is the visualisation of guanine, a
nitrogenous waste product of mites (13).
4.2.5. Treatment
As with most cases it is important to practice good husbandry and to maintain vigorous,
healthy stocks, which are better able to withstand infestations. Some strains of bee are also
more prone to infestations than others. It is therefore important to carefully select which strain
of bee you maintain and not to breed from those stocks that appear predisposed to acarine.

14
 Acaricides that have been tested in Europe and Mexico are Acarol, Menthol, and Folbex
Forte. Currently, no decision has been made to use these controls in the United States. Formic
acid has recently been approved under the name Apicure.
Menthol is available in bulk quantities or in 50 grams packets from most major bee
suppliers. Treatment will be made only over-wintered colonies having no surplus honey
intended for human consumption. Treatment must end one month before the first nectar flow
to avoid contaminating marketable honey. Duration of treatment is 14 to 28 days with an
entrance-reducer on the hive. The menthol can be replaced as needed during the treatment
period.

4.3. Tropilaelaps infestation

4.3.1. Etiology
Tropilaelaps mites are serious parasitic mites affecting both developing brood and
adult honey bees. There are currently two species of Tropilaelaps mites documented,
Tropilaelaps clareae and Tropilaelaps koenigerum.
Parasitisation by these mites can cause abnormal brood development, death of both
brood and bees, leading to colony decline and collapse, and can cause the bees to abscond
from the hive.
The natural host of the mite is the giant Asian honey bee, Apis dorsata, but
Tropilaelaps can readily infest colonies of Apis mellifera, the Western honey bee. It is also
associated with other Asian honey bees, including Apis laboriosa, Apis cerana and Apis
florea. The furthest west it has been found is in Iran close to the Pakistan and Afghanistan
borders and the furthest east is Papua New Guinea.
The females of T. clareae are light-reddish brown and about 1.0 mm long x 0.6 mm
wide. The males are almost as large as the females but less sclerotised. T. koenigerum is
slightly smaller than T. clareae, the adult female is 0.7 mm long x 0.5 mm wide, oval and
light brown. Adult males are considerably smaller.
The mites move freely and rapidly on combs, and rely on brood for feeding; the
mouthparts are not capable of piercing the membranes of adult bees.
4.3.2. Life cycle
The colonising Tropilaelaps female (or females; as many as a dozen may occur within
individual a single cells) places from one to four eggs on mature bee larvae shortly before the
brood cell is capped. The drone brood is preferred by Tropilaelaps and may be almost 100%

15
parasitised (15). The mite progeny, usually one male and several females feed on and
seriously damage the bee brood. Development of the mite requires about 1 week. The adults,
including the foundress female, emerge with the adult bee and search for new hosts.
The short life-cycle, as well as a very brief stay on adult bees, explains why
populations of T. clareae increase faster than those of Varroa mites.
Phoretic survival on bees is quite short (only 1–2 days) because Tropilaelaps cannot
pierce the integument of adult bees. The phoretic time for Tropilaelaps spp. is important in
understanding the life cycle, and recent research suggests the period can be as long as 5–10
days (17). Gravid female mites will die within 2 days unless they deposit their eggs.
4.3.3. Clinical signs
Infestation by Tropilaelaps causes the death of many bee larvae (up to 50%), resulting
in an irregular brood pattern and of which the cadavers that may partially protrude from the
cells. Many malformed bees occur, with distorted abdomens, stubby wings and deformed or
missing legs. Some of the affected bees crawl at the hive’s entrance (16). In addition,
perforated cappings are seen, the result of sanitation activities by the worker bees, which evict
the infested bee pupae or young adults. Some infested colonies abscond, carrying the mites to
a new location.
Tropilaelaps mites are mobile and can readily move between bees and within the hive.
However, to move between colonies they depend upon adult bees for transport through the
natural processes of drifting, robbing, and swarming. Mites can spread slowly over long
distances in this way.
4.3.4. Diagnosis
The first sign of an infestation by T. clareae is often the occurrence of large (almost 1
mm in length), red-brown, elongated mites on the combs or on adult bees (Fig. 1).
Tropilaelaps koenigerum is slightly smaller, only about 0.7 mm in length (18). Both species
of Tropilaelaps can easily be recognised and separated from the Varroa mite using an x10
magnifying glass. The body of the Varroa mite is wider than it is long and it moves slowly,
whereas the body of Tropilaelaps is elongated, with a heavily sclerotised holoventral or
similar shield, and it is a fast-running mite.
Colony and brood examination

When monitoring honey bee colonies for the presence of Tropilaelaps (or Varroa), an
examination of both drone and worker brood may provide an early indication of infestation.
Mites can be observed inside capped bee brood by using a honey scratcher (with fork-like

16
tines) to pull up capped pupae. The mites are clearly visible. The younger mite stages are
whitish and may be almost motionless while feeding on their hosts’ bodies, as their
mouthparts and front legs are fixed to the cuticle of the bee host. The extent of parasitisation
can be estimated by opening a predetermined number of brood cells; infestation rates are then
calculated as per cent of capped brood containing live mites.
4.3.5. Treatment
In countries with infestations of T. clareae, fluvalinate in slow-release formulations
controls T. clareae, as do monthly dustings with sulphur (16) and treatments with formic acid
(19). The inability of this mite to feed on adult bees, or to survive outside sealed brood for
more than a few days, such as caging the queen for a few weeks, is being used as a non-
chemical control method (19, 20).
Many of the same acaricides used for Varroa will kill Tropilaelaps. Strips of plastic-
impregnated fluvalinate (Apistan™) or cimiazol (Apitol) trickled on to bees will kill mites.
Alternatively, tobacco smoke in the smoker will cause mites to drop off bees. Strips of filter
paper, available in some countries as Folbex strips, are prepared by soaking in an aqueous
solution of 15% potassium nitrate to which two drops of amitraz (usually 12.5%) are added.
After the paper dries, the strip is ignited and inserted into the hive. The smoke causes many
mites to drop off. Another method is to use plates or pads soaked with 20 ml of 65% formic
acid (very caustic and will burn hands and face). The pads are placed in the colonies, near the
top (20). These last methods are not recommended, as they can harm both bees and humans.

4.4. Braulosis

The beelouse, Braula coeca Nitzsch 1818, is a tiny commensalate wingless fly found
in colonies of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, where it lives on the bodies of the bees and
literally steals its food out of the mouth of its host. The beelouse is in the family Braulidae,
comprising two genera, Braula and Megabraula, contains eight species (Papp 1984; Huttinger
1980; Grimaldi and Underwood 1986).
The beelouse was first mentioned in European literature in 1740 by Reaumur, who
discussed its relation to the honey bee. Skaife (1921) and Argo (1927) described fairly
completely the life cycle of the insect, while Arnhart (1923) found the mines and dried out
larval skins under honey cappings. The beelouse is found on worker, drone, and queen honey
bees (Smith 1978).

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 Some writers have stated that the beelouse causes little or no harm to bee colonies, but
most investigators think that Braula is harmful. The larvae are problematic because they
damage the appearance of comb honey by burrowing under the cappings. Most beekeepers
practice mechanical control unknowingly by extracting honey because the Braula larvae are
eliminated while removing cappings before extraction. Chemical control measures have been
developed in Europe and Asia, where the beelouse is much more common than in North
America.
4.4.1. Etiology
Braula coeca, or the bee louse, as it is called, is actually a wingless fly. The adults are
small 1-3,5 mm (slightly smaller than the head of a straight pin), and reddish brown in color.
The head is triangular; the thorax is short, discoid. The abdomen is oval compose by five
segments (Cosma, Şuteu). While several adult flies may live on a queen, usually only one will
be found on a worker. These apparently do little harm. . The tarsi are 5-segmented; each
terminal joint contains a comb-like structure, divided in the middle, with a variable number of
teeth.
Eggs are white, oval-shaped, with two lateral flanges which are flat and extend parallel
to each other and to the long axis of the egg. Imms (1942) reported that the average length,
without flanges, ranged from 0.78 to 0.81 mm and the width from 0.28 to 0.33 mm. Including
the flanges, a typical egg measured 0.84 mm by 0.42 mm. Eggs may be deposited in various
places in a hive in empty cells, on brood cell cappings, or on wax dirt on the floor of a colony,
but only eggs that are laid on honey cappings hatch. Incubation period for eggs varies from
two days during summer to 7.4 days during winter.
Larvae emerge from the attached end of their egg where they begin constructing a
tunnel under cappings and sometimes on the walls and bottoms of cells. These tunnels give
cappings of infested comb the appearance of being intersected with fine fractures, similar to
the mines of a leaf miner. Larvae feed upon honey and pollen grains within the wax of their
tunnels. Beelouse larvae pass through three instars, requiring from 7.1 to 10.8 days to
complete larval development, depending upon the season of the year.
Braula move rapidly over the body surface, settling on the dorsal surface at the
junction of the bee's thorax and abdomen. They remain there until a hunger response causes
them to crawl up to the bee's head near its mouth parts. This movement seems to cause the
bee to regurgitate a drop of nectar. The bee louse then inserts its mouth parts into those of its
benefactor and takes its food.

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 Braula adults are often found a queens but their damage to a colony of honey bees is
limited. The amount of food taken by the larvae and adults is negligible. However, the
appearance of comb honey can be damaged by the tunneling larvae. Honey production by
strong colonies infested with bee lice appears to be little affected.
4.4.2. Clinical signs
When the infestation is smaller the behavior of the bees and colony seems unmodified.
When the infestation is massive, the productive and reproductive capacity is affected. The
bees are weaker, inactive and the mortality percent grows to the bees, also to brood.
The diagnostic is usually made by macroscopic examination of worker and especially
of the queens or by using a magnifying glass (Cosma and Şuteu)
4.4.3. Treatment
We can use many insecticide substances like: Diagvar, Camfor, disposed on carton
near the top in the evening. In the morning they are removed along with beelouse. The
treatment is repeated after 15 days.
SINECAR is used with success by spreading 50-120 g one or two times at 10 days.
Alternatively, tobacco smoke in the smoker will cause mites to drop off bees. The
treatment with Perizin against Varroa is efficient against B. coeca also. It will be used 50 ml
suspension (1 ml Perizin/ 49 ml water) repeated at 7 days (Cosma and Şuteu).

5. Conclusion

Like all living organisms, honey bees are can be infested with diseases and pests.
Some of these are more deleterious to bee colonies than others, but it is important for the
beekeeper to be able to recognize conditions which might be disease or pests related and
respond accordingly.
The honey bee is a colonial insect. As such it is often necessary to look at the colony
as a whole to determine damage by disease or pests. However, the beekeeper must be careful
not to assume all conditions leading to population decline or reduced honey production are the
result of disease. Colonies can be slightly damaged by pesticides, for example, and/or
nutritional deficiencies. It is important, therefore, for the beekeeper to be as informed and
obtain as much assistance as possible in diagnosing bee disease or pest problems.

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