Dr.

Adel Gastli

Electromechanical
Systems & Actuators

DC MACHINES
These slides are the contributions of: Dr. A. Gastli, Dr. A. Al-Badi, and Dr. Amer Al-Hinai

DC Machines
LEARNING GOALS Introduction
Application of DC Machine
Advantages & Disadvantages of DC Machine
Construction of DC Machine
Field System
Armature
Commentator
Brush
Principle of Operation
Faraday’s Law
Armature Voltage & Developed Torque
Classification of DC Machine
Permanent Magnet
Self-Excited
Separately-Excited
DC Machine Representation
Magnetization Curve (Saturation)
DC Motor & Generator Equations
Power Flow & Efficiency
Torque-Speed Characteristics
MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators
Dr. Adel Gastli
Starting of DC Machine 2
 Introduction
Most of the electrical machine in service are AC type.
DC machine are of considerable industrial importance.
DC machine mainly used as DC motors and the DC
generators are rarely used.
DC motors provides a fine control of the speed which
can not be attained by AC motors.
DC motors can developed rated torque at all speeds
from standstill to rated speed.
Developed torque at standstill is many times greater
than the torque developed by an AC motor of equal
power and speed rating.
Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 3

Application of DC Machines

The d.c. machine can operate as either a motor or a

generator, at present its use as a generator is limited because
of the widespread use of ac power.

Large d.c. motors are used in machine tools, printing

presses, fans, pumps, cranes, paper mill, traction, textile mills
and so forth.

Small d.c. machines (fractional horsepower rating) are

used primarily as control device-such as tachogenerators for
speed sensing and servomotors for position and tracking.

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 4

 Application of
DC Machines

DC Motor

Paper Mills
Oil Rigs

Steel Mills Robots

Dr. Adel GastliMining MCTE3210: Machine

Electromechanical
ToolsSystems & Actuators Petrochemical 5

Advantages & Disadvantages Of D.C. Motors

Advantages
• High starting torque
• Rapid acceleration and deceleration.
• Speed can be easily controlled over wide speed range.
• Used in tough gobs (traction motors, electric trains,
electric cars,….)
• Built in wide range of sizes.

Disadvantages
• Needs regular maintenance
• Cannot be used in explosive area
• High cost
Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 6
 Introduction

Electric Machine

Mechanical Electrical Electrical Motor Mechanical

Generator
Input Output Input Output

Electromechanical Energy Conversion

i
+ Ideal ω T Mechanical system
Electrical system v Electric Machine
_
Motor
Energy Flow v i=T ω
Generator

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 7

Construction of DC Machine

Parts of a DC Machine
Armature core
Leading pole tip
Armature winding

Field coil

Rotation
Pole axis

Shaft Pole core

Trailing pole tip

Pole face
Field yoke

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 8

 Construction of DC Machine
Shaft
Armature

Commutator

Stator

Field coil

Dr. Adel Gastli 2 Pole DC

MCTE3210: Machine
Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 9

Construction of DC Machine: Field System

The field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which the armature
rotates. This consists of Yoke or frame: Acts as a mechanical support of the
machine

2000HP DC Motor field System

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 10
 Construction of DC Machine: Armature

The rotor or the armature core, which carries the rotor or armature winding, is
made of sheet-steel laminations. The laminations are stacked together to form a
cylindrical structure
Teeth
Slots
Slots for wedges The armature coils that make the
armature winding are located in
the slots

Non-conducting slot liners are

wedged in between the coil and the
slot walls for protection from
abrasion, electrical insulation and
mechanical support

Cooling ducts for

air circulation
Portion of an armature lamination of a dc machine showing slots and teeth
Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 11

Construction of DC Machine: Armature

Armature of a DC Machine

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 12

 Construction of DC Machine: Commutator
Commutator: is a mechanical rectifier, which converts the alternating voltage
generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brush. It is
made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica and mounted on
the shaft of the machine. The armature windings are connected to the
commutator segments.

Commutator
Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 13

Construction of DC Machine: Brush

The purpose of the brush is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating
commutator and stationary external load circuit. It is made of carbon and rest
on the commutator.

Commutator and Brushes

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 14

 Construction of DC Machine: Armature Winding

Top
coil sides

Top Bottom
coil sides coil sides

Commutator 1 2 3 1 2
Brush Brush

Elements of Lap Winding Elements of Wave Winding

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 15

Construction of DC Machine: Armature Winding

End connection

Conductors

Turn Coil Winding

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 16

 Construction of DC Machine: Armature Winding
a b c d e Lap Winding a b c d e

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

N S N S
f g h f g h

19 20 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
+ - + -

+ + Ia -
+ + +
+
- - - a=b= p
Icoil
// paths brushes poles
+ -
Dr. Adel Gastli - Systems
MCTE3210: Electromechanical - & Actuators 17

Construction of DC Machine: Armature Winding

Wave Winding
a b c d e a b c d e

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

N S N S

i j k f g h
h
g
f
i j k
17 18 19 20 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
- + - +

+ Ia +
+ + - +
+

Icoil a=2
- - Nb. of // paths
Dr. Adel Gastli -
MCTE3210: -
Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 18
-
 Principle of Operation
The Faraday Disk and Faraday’s Law

An emf is induced in a circuit placed in a

magnetic field if either: Magnet φ
• the magnetic flux linking the circuit is time
varying +
• or there is a relative motion between the
circuit and the magnetic field such that the N
conductors comprising the circuit cut a cross
the magnetic flux lines. S ω
V
Brush
• 1st form of the law is the basis of Copper disk
transformers. Conducting
• 2nd form is the basic principle of shaft
_
operation of electric generators.

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 19

Principle of Operation
The right-hand rule and generator action
Velocity, u V
Voltmeter

Flux density, B Conductor

rails
Φ = B.A u
Φ = B.l.s
d Φ dB .l.s emf, e Moving
e= = B
dt dt conductor
ds ds
e = B.l. ,u =
dt dt l
e
Faraday’s law or
flux cutting rule e=Blu
Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 20
 Principle of Operation

ω
Without Commutator
φ S
N l1
Field
pole
Slip rings N-turn coil

v
brushes

v External circuit

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 21

Principle of Operation

With Commutator
ω

S
N

v coil

Commutatorb a
segments brushes

t
v

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 22

 Single-Phase Full wave Rectifier

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 23

Multi-Pole Machines

If p is the number of poles, then p/2 cycles of variation of the flux are
encountered every complete mechanical rotation.

360 o md
One pole pitch = 180 ed = o
θ
p
B(θ) N
Pole pitch

p θ θed S
θ ed = θ md
N N S
π S 2π 3π S 4π
2
θmd N
π 2π

θed : electrical degrees or angular measure in cycles

θmd : mechanical degrees or angular measure in space

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 24

 Principle of Operation: Armature Voltage

Flux / Re v. p.Φ p.Φ . N m

Emf conductor = = =
time / Re v. (60 / N m ) 60
Emf conductor
Emf Total =
Number of conductor / path

⎛ p.Φ . N m ⎞ ⎛ Z ⎞ p.Φ .Z . N m
where Emf Total = ⎜ ⎟ /⎜ ⎟ =
p = number of poles
⎝ 60 ⎠ ⎝a⎠ 60 a
Z = total number of armature conductors
a = number of parallel paths, 2 for wave and p for lab.
Φ = flux per pole (Weber)
Nm = speed of the motor in the revolutions per minute (rpm)
time of 1 revolution = 60/Nm (sec)

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 25

Principle of Operation: Armature Voltage

2 .π . N m ω .60
Let ωm = ⇒ Nm = m
60 2 .π
ωm= speed of the motor in radians per second

p.Φ .Z ω m .60 p.Φ .Z .ω m

Emf Total = . =
60 a 2 .π 2 .π .a

Emf Total = K a .Φ .ω m Ka: armature constant Ka =

p .Z
2 .π .a

Generated voltage : generator operation

Back emf : motor operation

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 26

 Developed (or Electromagnetic) Torque
Consider the turn shown in the following Figure.

2πrl
Area per pole A =
p
Φ pΦ
Flux density B= =
A 2π r l
Ia
Current / conductor is Ic =
a
Ia
The force on a conductor is fc = B l
a
Ia Φ p Ia
The torque developed by a conductor is Tc = f c r = B l r =
a 2π a
Zp Φ I a E I
The total torque developed is Te = = K aΦ I a = a a
2π a ωm

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 27

Production of Unidirectional Torque and

Operation of an Elementary

ω ω

F F
N a S N S
+ +b
a b b F a b a
F
I I
1 2 1 2
Position of conductor a under N-pole Position of conductor a under S-pole
B
I

With this configuration the torque is unidirectional and

F
independent of conductor position
Left-hand rule

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 28

 Classification of DC Machine

Separately
Long Short
excited Shunt Shunt Shunt

DC Machine Self-excited
Series
Cumulative Differential

Permanent
magnet Compound

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 29

Classification of DC Machine

Field Armature Field Field

Armature Armature

Separately excited Shunt Series

A1 A1
φf φs φf φs
S1 S2 F2 S1 S2
F1 F2 F1

A2 A2

Long-shunt
Short-shunt Motor operation
Generator operation

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 30

 Classification of DC Machine

A1
A1
φs φf φs
φf
F2 S1 S2
F1 F2 S1 S2 F1

A2
A2

Cumulative compound Differential compound

Motor operation
Generator operation

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 31

DC Machine Representation

q-axis The mmf’s produced by the field circuit and

d-axis the armature circuit are in quadrature.

Field
q-axis

Armature
d-axis
Armature mmf

Field mmf

φa Armature mmf
Φ Saturation

Field mmf Linear

φf Flux-mmf relation in
a dc machine

Fp
Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 32
 Magnetization (or Saturation) Curve
of a DC Machine
Ea
Φ
Saturation Speed ωm

Linear
0.5 ωm

If Nf
Flux-mmf relation in If
a dc machine
Magnetization curve

The magnetizing curve is obtained experimentally by rotating the the dc machine

at a given speed and measuring the open-circuit armature terminal voltage as the
current in the field winding is changed.

Magnetization Represents the saturation level in the magnetic system of the dc

Curve machine for various values of excitation mmf .

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 33

Dc Motors Equations
Separately Excited DC Motor

Vf = Rf I f
It
Ia +
Ra
E a = Vt − I a R a
Rfw

ωm
Vt E a= K aΦωm
Rfc Te = K a Φ I a
If −
+ Vf −

¾ Rfw: resistance of field winding.

¾ Rfc: resistance of control rheostat used in field circuit.
¾ Rf=Rfw+Rfc: total field resistance
¾ Ra: resistance of armature circuit, including the effect of brushes. Sometimes
Ra is shown as the resistance of armature winding alone; the brush-contact
voltage drop is considered separately and is usually assumed to be about 2V.

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 34

 Dc Motors Equations
Shunt or Self-Excited DC Motor If
It
Ia +
Ra
Rfc

Rfw +
V f = R f I f = Vt Vt
ωm
E a = Vt − I a R a −

E a= K aΦω m , Te = K a Φ I a −

Vt = I t R L , Ia = It − I f

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 35

Dc Generator Equations

Separately Excited DC Generator

Ia IL Vf =(Rfw + Rfc)I f = Rf I f
+
ra Ea =Vt + Iara
+
Ea
Vt RL
Ea= KaΦ ωm
ωm
Rfw −
−
Vt = ILRL
Rfc Ia = IL
If + Vf −

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 36

 Dc Generator Equations
Self-Excited DC Generators

1. Shunt generator
If IL Vf = RfI f = Vt
Rfc
Ia +
E a = V t + I a ra
ra
Rfw + Vt RL E a= K aΦ ω m
ωm
−
Ea Vt = I L RL
−
− Ia = IL + I f

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 37

Dc Generator Equations
2. Series Generator

Ia IL

Vt = Ea − Ia (ra + Rs )
+
ra

+
Rs
Vt RL I L = Ia = I f
Ea
− Ea = KaΦsωm
−

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 38

 Dc Generator Equations
3. Compound DC Generator
If
If IL
IL
Ia + Ia +
Ra Ra
Rfc Rfc
Rs Rs
+ +
Vt Vt
Ea Ea
Rfw
− Rfw −
− −
Short Shunt Long Shunt

E a = K a (Φ ± Φ )ω Vt = Ea − I a (Ra + Rs )
Vt = Ea − I a Ra − I L Rs sh s m

IL = Ia − I f IL = Ia − I f
Ea − I a Ra − Vt
If = +
If =
R fw + R fc Cumulative Differential R fw + R fc
E = K (Φ sh ± Φ s )ωm
a a
Ea = K a (Φ sh ± Φ s )ωm
Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 39

Power Flow and Efficiency

If IL

DC Generators Ia Ra
+
Rfc
Rs
+
Ea Vt
Rfw −
−

Pinput= Pmech = Pshaft Ea I a Va I a Va I L Vt I L

Poutput= Pelectrical
Rotational
losses I a2 Ra I 2f R f I L2 Rs

Poutput Poutput
η= =
Pinput Poutput + Losses
Vt I L
η=
Vt I L + ∑ I 2 R + Rotational Losses
Vt I L
η=
Dr. Adel Gastli
I + Rotational
EMCTE3210:
a a
Electromechanical Systems & Actuators
Losses 40
 Power Flow and Efficiency
If IL
DC Motors
+
Ia Ra
Rfc
Rs
+
Ea Vt
Rfw −
−

Pinput = Pelectrical Vt IL Va IL Va Ia Ea Ia Poutput= Pmech= Pshaft

I 2f Rf Ia2 Ra Rotational losses

IL2 Rs
Poutput Pinput − Losses
η = =
Pinput Pinput

η =
Vt I L − ∑ I 2 R − Rotational Losses
Vt I L
E a I a − Rotational Losses
η =
Dr. Adel Gastli Vt I L
MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 41

Torque-Speed Characteristics

Separately excited & Shunt motors

(φ is independent of the load torque ) Ia

V t = E a + I a ra Vt − I a ra
ωm =
E a = K aΦ ω m K aΦ
T = K aΦ I a ωm
Vt
K aΦ
V ra ra
Therefore , ωm = t − T Slope ( K Φ ) 2
K aΦ (K aΦ)2
a

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 42

 Torque-Speed Characteristics

Series motors

E a = Vt − I a ( R a + R s )
E a = K aφ ω m
Neglecting saturation φ = K1I f = K1I a
E a = K a K 1 I aω m = K s I aω m
Vt R + Rs
ωm = − a
KsIa Ks
But T = K aφ I a = K a K 1 I a2 = K s I a2
Vt Ra + Rs
∴ωm = −
Ks T Ks

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 43

Torque-Speed Characteristics

Compound motors

Cumulative Compound

AT t = AT shunt ± AT series

Differential Compound

φ t = φ shunt ± φ series
Shunt motor

Vt ra
ωm = − T
K aφ t ( K aφ t ) 2

Dr. Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 44

 Starting of DC Machine

If a d.c. motor is directly connected to a

d.c. power supply, the starting current will
be dangerously high.

Vt − E a
Ia = at starting ω = 0 → Ea = 0
ra
Vt
∴ Ia Starting
=
ra

Since ra is small, the starting current is very

large.
The starting current can be limited by the
following methods:
1- Use a variable-voltage supply.
2- Insert an external resistance at start, as
shown
Dr. in the Figure.
Adel Gastli MCTE3210: Electromechanical Systems & Actuators 45