Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Introduction
6 Actions So Far
6.1 Reports and Petitions
6.2 Tourist Trail
6.3 Friends of Shimoni Forest Scholarship Fund
6.4 Tree Nurseries and Reforestation
6.5 Alternative Charcoal
7 Recommendations and Requirements
7.1 Gazetting / Protection of Shimoni Forests
7.2 Community Management
7.3 Assistance in Continued Conservation and Community Initiatives
8 Contacts
9 Bibliography
10 Appendices
1. Introduction
The lowland coastal forests of the Shimoni peninsula and Wasini Island form a thin strip
of ‘coral rag forest’, officially labelled Northern Zanzibar-Inhambane (Z-I) Lowland
Coastal Forest, also known as the Coastal Forest Mosaic due to the high number of
small fragmented forest patches it contains. It is a small yet vital part of the East African
Coastal Forests Ecoregion.
The Eastern Africa Coastal Forests Ecoregion (EACFE) extends from Somalia in the
north to Mozambique in the south. This ecoregion is one of the smallest of the 25 Global
Biodiversity Hotspots recognised by Conservation International, and ranks first among
the 25 hotspots in the density of endemic plant and vertebrate animal species. By
definition, a hotspot has already lost at least 70% of its original natural vegetation. The
Coastal Forest Mosaic is considered as the hotspot most likely to suffer the most plant
and vertebrate extinction for a given loss of habitat and as one of 11 “hyperhot” priorities
for conservation investment (Brooks et al., 2000). Due to its limited area, the density of
endemic species in the EACFE is among the highest in the world.
The specialised flora that is found in these habitats supports and sustains rare and
endemic species which are of particular interest to biological conservation. Additionally,
the indigenous forest provides a vital natural resource to surrounding communities and
has the potential to support alternative sustainable livelihoods through responsible
tourism. This forest zone is formed on ancient coral reef exposed by falling sea levels,
leaving limestone rock covered by relatively shallow soils and in turn favours shallow
roots systems of trees reducing stability. This renders these forest habitats highly
susceptible to erosion processes exacerbating the risk posed by deforestation in the
wider Shimoni area. Increased sedimentation from soil erosion, in conjunction with
diminishing mangrove forests poses a significant risk to adjacent marine ecosystems
such as coral reefs and marine species that utilise these habitats.
2. Ecological Importance of Shimoni Forests (east and west)
Shimoni Forests are listed as #129 in a list of 160 Key Biodiversity Areas for the EACFE
hotspot, and are known to host one bird species listed as “critically endangered” by the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red
List: the Spotted ground thrush (Zoothera guttata fischeri) and at least 2 species listed
as “Vulnerable”: a mammal, Hildegarde’s Tomb Bat (Taphozous hildegardeae) and a
plant, Coffea pseudozanguebariae. Furthermore there are 6 species listed as near-
threatened or threatened that are present in Shimoni’s forests: the Southern banded
snake-eagle (Ciraetus fasciolatus), Fischer’s turaco (Tauraco f. fischeri), Plain-backed
sunbird (Anthreptes reichenowi), Uluguru violet-backed sunbird (Anthreptes neglectus),
Zanj elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon petersi) and the African golden cat (Felis aurata).
Within Shimoni’s forests there is also an array of unlisted yet threatened species which
are of great conservation and scientific interest, and could serve as flagship species.
Primarily an East African subspecies of the Angolan black and white colobus (Collobus
angolensis palliatus)
Due to the fragmentation of forest patches within the Coastal Forest Mosaic, the
distribution of endemic species within this area merits special consideration. Firstly,
there are many disjunct distributions, particularly among the birds and the plants.
Secondly, there is a huge turnover of species between patches, especially in the less
mobile species. Forests that are only 100km apart can differ in 70% of their millipedes
(Hoffman, 2000) and in 80% of their plants (Clarke et al. 2000).
2.2.1 Plants
Figure 2-1 Recording Sites and Vegetation Zones – Shimoni (Luke, 1999)
The species outcomes are based on the 2002 IUCN Red List (Table 2-1.), and 2009
IUCN Red List or Coastal Forest Survey (CFS; Robetson & Luke, 1993) (Table 2-2.)
Although sufficient for several taxonomic groups it is in need of revision for plants
(CEPF, 2001). It includes some widespread plant species in this hotspot, others that are
in far greater danger of extinction because their restricted ranges have not yet been
assessed (Q. Luke pers. comm.).
Among the 273 species recorded in Shimoni area by Luke (1999) (see Appendix I), 24
species have some form of rarity status (Table 2-1). Four were considered rare in the
world, namely Barleria whytei, Indigofera tanganyikensis var paucijuga, Manilkara sp aff
discolor and Queenslandiella sp aff hyalina. Fourteen other species were rare in Kenya
but occur elsewhere, while six others are rare on the Kenyan coast but occur elsewhere
in Kenya or outside the country. From the 83 confirmed species (GVI) (see Appendix 1)
and updated status reports on some of the species recorded in 1999 (Metcalfe, 2009), 2
species are considered endemic to Zanzibar-Inhambane forests and one other region,
whilst 7 species are considered fully Zanzibar-Inhambane endemic. Baleria whytei is
endemic to the Kenyan Coast whilst maintaning it’s globally rare status, and Coffea
pseudozanguebariae is considered globally vulnerable. Milicia excelsa and Uvaria
lucida, are considered lower risk, near threatened and least concerned respectively.
Taking into account the sample area used by GVI, some of the species that were not
recorded in the more recent surveys should not be dismissed as absent, but should
remain included in the total species listed as rare or endemic to the area.
Table 2-1 Rare and Endemic Tree Species found in the study area of Shimoni (Luke,
1999)
1X restricted to Kenya Coastal Districts within the area of the Somali – Maasai Regional Centre of
Endemism (S-M), ie a true Kenya coastal (dry) endemic.
2 restricted to Z-I in general, ie moist K7,T3, T6, T8, Z, P and Mozambique; a true Z-I endemic
2X restricted to S-M, ie drier K7, K1, K4 (part), Somalia (excl Z-I), Ethiopia (part); a true S-M
endemic.
3 restricted to Z-I plus one other in Africa ie Z-I and Afromontane (A-M), or S-M plus one other,
ie S-M plus Sudanian; a near endemic.
? used if plant not fully identified or there is insufficient or doubtful distribution data
NB: K7, K4, T3, T6,T8, etc refer to the phytogeographic regions used in the Flora of
Tropical East Africa.
Rarity
Ext? EXTINCT?
R RARE in a world sense, less than 5 localities worldwide. Distribution outside CFS area known or
if uncertain then R?.
RK RARE KENYA, less than 5 localities in Kenya, but occurs elsewhere. May actually be ‘R’ but
data outside Kenya uncertain or unavailable.
RKC RARE KENYA COAST, less than 5 localities within CFS area but occurs elsewhere in Kenya
and outside. May be ‘RK’ but data outside this area are uncertain or unavailable. Note: Many
taxa achieve this rating because they just enter CFS area at Kora or are under-collected.
Table 2-2 Rare and Endemic Tree Species found in the study area of Shimoni (Metcalfe
2009)
1
. PA, Pan African; PT, Pan Tropical; ZI-E, Zanzibar-Inhambane Endemic; ZI+1,
Zanzibar-Inhambane + one other region; KCE, Kenya Coast Endemic; U, Unassigned
2
. VU, Vulnerable; NT, Near Th reatened; LR/NT, Lower Risk Near Threatened; LC, Least
Concern (not a Red List status but rather ndicates that the species has RK, Rare Kenya;
RKC, Rare Kenya Coast; AI, Alien Invasive; EXS, Exotic Species (Robetson & Luke, 1993).
been assessed and is not under any threat of extinction); DD, Data Defi cient (IUCN,
2001). R, Rare;
2.2.2 Mammals
C. a. palliatus is an arboreal folivore that exhibits a preference for mature leaves and
unripe fruits. They have an enlarged fore-stomach to tackle the low levels of protein and
high levels of fibre associated with this diet (Fimbel et al 2001). Their unique dietary
specialisations enable the species to live at exceptionally high densities for primates,
enabling viable populations to be maintained in fragmented indigenous forest patches.
However their dependence on continuous tree cover and poor ability to disperse
between forest patches render them particularly susceptible to habitat loss and localised
extinctions. In parts of their range they are also hunted for bush meat and their pelts.
The species is currently listed as ‘Data Deficient’ on the IUCN Red List, however a lack
of knowledge on population status and distribution of C. a. palliatus, together with the
unique coastal forest system, has led the Species Survival Commission (SSC) African
Primate Conservation action plan to recommend a stringent management plan to
conserve the remaining forest areas in the region.
2007
Value SE 95% confidence interval
2
D (Ha ) 0.835 0.192 0.501 1.392
N 184 42.4 110 306
mean cluster
size 4.28 0.31
Table 2-3 showing the results of primate community surveys conducted in Shimoni east forest in
2007. D = density per squared hectare, N = estimated population size of colobus
2008
95% confidence
Value SE interval
D (Ha2) 0.65 0.514 0.088 0.334
N 143 44.83 73 282
mean cluster size 3.85 0.364
Table 2-4 showing the results of primate community surveys conducted in Shimoni east forest in
2008. D = density per squared hectare, N = estimated population size of colobus
2009
95% confidence
Value SE interval
D (Ha2) 0.911 0.158 0.165 0.328
N 200 34.7 139 288
mean cluster size 3.53 0.2
Table 2-5 showing the results of primate community surveys conducted in Shimoni east forest in
2009. D = density per squared hectare, N = estimated population size of colobus
Figure 2-2 showing the density estimates of C.a.palliatus from 2007 to 2009
Figure 2-3 showing population estimates of C.a.palliatus from 2007 to 2009
The density estimates for 2008 have particularly large errors involved. This is due to a
lack of data, because GVI shut down and discontinued research from January until July
due to the post-election violence.
It can be seen that the population estimate for C.a.palliatus is between 143 and 200
individuals. In 2007 GVI and Go See Kenya (GSK) surveyed Shimoni forest (west) and
recorded 192 individuals. When these figures are combined, it is clear that the Shimoni
forests hold an incredibly important population of this rare and threatened primate
species.
Furthermore, with populations in Diani falling in recent years this places Shimoni
amongst the top two highest populations of C. a. palliatus within Kenya, and potentially
the most important population for conservation of the species outside of the protected
Shimba Hills National Reserve.
2.2.2.2 African Golden Cat
The African golden cat (Felis aurata) is a threatened species of which very little is
known. Their distribution is thought to be across central Africa with small, vulnerable
populations in west and east Africa. Little is known about their habits, home ranges,
social structure or behavior. There have been possible sightings in Arabuko Sokoke
forest north of Mombasa and Shimba Hills National Park. In April 2010, there was a
possible sighting of this predator in Shimoni forest (east) during a night walk conducted
by GVI.
GVI are currently designing survey techniques for this animal in Shimoni forest (east) so
that confirmation of its presence can be obtained. If this animal is found in Shimoni
forests, it could have huge impacts on the conservation status of the area, potential for
groundbreaking research of international importance, and a significant tourism potential
for the area.
With 24 species of mammal identified (see Appendix IV), including larger mammals such
as the bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus) and bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus),
Shimoni’s forests continue to maintain important levels of mammalian biodiversity and
future research on small mammals such as rodents, shrews and bats may well reveal
important populations of these diverse and less well known taxonomic groups.
2.2.3 Insects
2.2.4 Birds
Part of the Coastal Forest Mosaic is an “Endemic Bird Area”, as defined by BirdLife
International (WWF East Africa Conservation Action Plan 2005-2010). When the
sightings from GVI’s bird surveys and visits from Go See Kenya and ornithologists from
BirdLife International, 145 species of bird have been positively identified in Shimoni
forests (see Appendix III), 4 of which are recognised as threatened species, and one
which is critically endangered i.e. very close to extinction.
The coastal forests found within the Shimoni area are of huge importance to the local
communities. They provide a number of critical resources for the people that reside in
these areas, as well as support key environmental processes that provide a much wider
area with necessities such as rainfall.
3.3 Fuel
The communities within the Shimoni / Wasini area rely almost entirely on open fires for
cooking. The use of firewood gathered from the forests is predominant, although
charcoal is fast becoming the primary fuel source; and one that is also sourced from the
forest areas. If fuel for fires becomes distant or costly, it will increase the cost of living
for the entire population.
3.4 Medicinal Uses
The use of traditional medicines and remedies is still prominent within these
communities, with many species of tree and plant being collected and used for these
purposes.
The people using the Kayas belong to the Digo tribe, a large tribe present from Shimoni
to the North coast of Kenya. This tribe use the Kayas regularly, even today, and have
been for generations. The Kayas have been passed down to them from their
grandfathers and hold a great amount of cultural significance. Each Kaya has a different
meaning and used in a different way. The elders of the Digo tribe that use the Kayas do
so out of respect for their cultural and religious beliefs, and their ancestors. The Kayas in
Shimoni and Anzwani forest are described below in Appendix VI.
During colonial period and time of war, the forest acted as areas of shelter where
communities could hide from their enemies, and the local people say the spirits used to
make the forest dark so the enemy could not locate them.
4. Threats to Shimoni Forests
The principal threats to the survival of Shimoni forest and biodiversity conservation
include charcoal burning, commercial timber cutting, poaching of wildlife, poorly
regulated allocation of land to private landowners, private and commercial development
and slash-and-burn clearance for agriculture.
Figure 4-1 showing the number of charcoal pits recorded on GVI’s Shimoni east transects from 2006
to 2009
Following on from the above graph, during the final months of 2009 and the beginning of
2010 a further 22 charcoal pits have been observed. If these observations are expanded
out across the entire survey area, the number of charcoal pits would be alarming.
Charcoal burning is a highly inefficient form of resource use and fuel production. During
the production process, approximately 80% of the energy in the wood is lost. This
process (primarily the earth-mound kiln), is also highly destructive, as only mature
hardwood trees are selected and felled, creating large clearings. These specific trees
are known to be the preferred feeding, resting and socialising trees for many primate
and bird species.
Figure 4-2 showing the number of pitsaws found on GVI’s Shimoni east transects from 2006 to 2009
During the same disturbance surveys conducted in Shimoni east forest, cut poles and
timber were recorded. A pole is a young tree with a diameter of between 5-15cm, and
timber is a tree with a diameter greater than 15cm that has not been cut into planks (i.e.
is not a pitsaw). Table 4-1 below summarises the data collected from 2006 to 2009
along GVI’s Shimoni east transects.
It is clear from these results that a massive number of trees are being cut down for
various purposes, and the rate at which it is being done is unsustainable for a forest of
such a small size.
Both Shimoni east and west forests are under considerable threat from the expansion of
Shimoni village. A large amount of survey area has been lost between 2006 and 2010
due to land clearance primarily for agriculture. Slash and burn tactics are the most
widely used. In 2010 alone, GVI has recorded approximately 40,000m2 of their survey
area on the western edge of Shimoni east forest as being totally cleared for agricultural
development. The soil in Shimoni’s forests is shallow and loose due to the presence of
the fossilised marine substrate, and is of poor agricultural quality. Large crop yields will
not be reached, and the lifespan of these areas for agricultural purposes will be short,
leaving the areas highly susceptible to desertification and soil erosion.
Figure 4-4 showing the coastal plots that are suffering clearance and development
Due to the issues highlighted in section 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, the areas of total land
clearance in the Shimoni forests are increasing dramatically. As forest areas shrink and
fragmentation increases, species will come under greater pressure from reduction of
home ranges, increased competition for food resources and lack of suitable habitats.
Larger areas will succumb to soil erosion, there will be less vegetation to store water and
retain moisture, the adjacent marine life will come under greater threat and rainfall will
decrease. Table 4-2 summarises the data collected by GVI from 2006 to April 2010
regarding areas of total land clearance (total land clearance is defined as an area with
more than 80% of vegetation removed).
N/S Spine
2
T1 to T2 150 x 100 = 15,000m
Transect: 1 2
250 x 150 = 37,500 m
Section: 2 to 6
Transect: 2 2
100 x 100 = 10,000 m
Section: 0 to 2
Transect: 2 2
50 x 150 = 7,500 m
Section: 25
Transect: 2 2
200 x 200 = 40,000m
Section: -2 to -6
Transect: 3 2
250 x 50 = 12,500 m
Section: 0 to 4
Transect: 3 2
30 x 80 = 2,400 m
Section: (-)13
Transect: 4 2
100 x 70 = 7,000 m
Section: (-)8 to (-)10
Transect: 5 2
40 x 25 = 1000 m
Section: 9
Transect: 5 2
60 x 55 = 3,300 m
Section: 17 and 18
Transect: 6 2
60 x 50 = 3000 m
Section: 11
Transect: 6 2
10 x 10 = 100 m
Section: 14
Transect: 6 2
10 x 50 = 500 m
Section: 19
Number of areas of
total land clearance in 13
sample area
2
TOTAL AREA 139,800m
% of total survey area
that has suffered 2.9
absolute clearance
It is worth noting that between 2006 and September 2009 only 1.8% of the survey area
was lost to total land clearance, followed by a further loss of 1.1% between September
2009 and April 2010. That is a dramatic increase in the rate at which areas are being
cleared, highlighting the threats that face this forest. Appendix VII shows four images,
highlighting the recorded clearing in Shimoni east forest in 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009.
The forests of the Shimoni area are a crucial resource for the local communities, and
one which they have an intrinsic right to use. However the rate at which the forest areas
are being depleted (through charcoal production, areas cleared for farmland, timber and
pole extraction etc.) is unsustainable. If one takes the area of land clearance from 2006
to April 2010 as an estimate of forest clearance, it can be estimated that in
approximately 33 years the whole of Shimoni east forest will have disappeared, leading
to disastrous consequences for future generations.
4.7 Poaching
Since 2006, GVI have recorded 16 snares found during disturbance surveys. This figure
does not include the many found during casual observations. Snaring wild animals is
illegal and traps and kills animals in an inhumane way.
Other than the global impacts of deforestation on habitat loss, biodiversity shrinkages
and the problems of global climate change, deforestation in this area will bring many
direct, negative impacts to local communities that maintain a heavy socio-economic
dependence on natural resources.
6. Actions So Far
In 2007 members of the Shimoni community who were concerned with the destruction of
the forest formed the community group Friends of Shimoni Forest (FSF). The aims of
the group are
• Continued research and monitoring
• Indigenous reforestation
• Conservation of biodiversity
8. Contacts
GVI
• Graham Corti
Regional Director
graham@gviworld.com
• Andrew Hayes
Base Manager
Mkwiro@gviworld.com
• Zeno Wijtten
Terrestrial Science officer
Shimoni@gviworld.com
9. Bibliography
Anderson, J., Rowcliffe, J.M. & Cowlishaw, G. (2007). The Angola Black and White
Colobus (Colobus angolensis palliatus) in Kenya: Historical Range Contraction and
Current Conservation Status. American Journal of Primatology 69, 664-680.
Anderson, J. (2001) Status, Distribution and Conservation of the Angola Black and White
Colobus (Colobus Angolensis Palliatus) in Coastal Kenya. A report for Wakulazu,
Friends of the Colobus Trust, Diani Beach, Kenya
Bennun, L. & Njoroge, P., 1999. Important Bird Areas in Kenya. Published by Nature
Kenya. 318p.
Clarke, G.P, Vollesen, K. & Mwasumbi, L.B., 2000. Vascular Plants. In The Coastal
Forests of Eastern Africa. Burgess N.D. & Clarke G.P eds. IUCN: Cambridge and Gland.
Pp 129-147.
Criticial Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) Ecosystem Profile: Eastern Arc Mountains
and Coastal Forests of Tanzania & Kenya. Final version, July 2, 2003 (Updated March
2005). 118p.
Fimbel, C., Vedder, A., Dierenfeld, E., Mulindahabi, F. 2001. An ecological basis for
large group size in Colobus angolensis in the Nyungwe Forest, Rwanda. African Journal
of Ecology. 39, 83-92.
Gordon, I. & Ayiemba, W., 2003. Harnessing butterfly biodiversity for improving the
livelihoods and forest conservation: the Kipepeo Project. The Journal of Environment
and Development 12:82-98.
Hoffman, R.L. 2000. Millipedes. In The Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa. Burgess, N.D
& Clarke, G.P., eds. IUCN: Cambridge and Gland. Pp 211-218.
Karczmarski, L., Cockcroft, V.G and McLachlan, A. (2000). Habitat use and preferences
of Indo-pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis) in Algoa Bay, South Africa. Marine
Mammal Science 16:65-79.
Luke, Q., 1999. Vegetation and Floristic Baseline Study for Proposed Ship Loading
Facility in Shimoni, and Dongo Kundu. For Tiomin Resources Inc.
CFCU Report. 15p.
Metcalfe, 2009. Sacred sites as hotspots bor biodiversity; the Three Sisters Cave
complex in coastal Kenya. Fauna and Flora International, Oryx 44 (1), 118-123
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., da Fonseca, G.A.B., Kent, J. 2000.
Biodiversity hotpots for conservation priorities. Nature. 403, 853 – 858.
10. Appendices
00 POLYPODIACEAE
Phymatosorus scolopendria (Burm.f.)Pichi Serm.
008 ANNONACEAE
Annona senegalensis Pers. ssp senegalensis
Asteranthe asterias (S.Moore)Engl. & Diels ssp asteria
Monanthotaxis fornicata (Baill.)Verdc.
Monodora grandidieri Baill.
Ophrypetalum odoratum Diels
Sphaerocoryne gracilis (Engl. & Diels)Verdc.
Uvaria acuminata Oliv. forma?
Uvaria welwitschii (Hiern)Engl. & Diels
Uvariodendron kirkii Verdc.
Xylopia parviflora (A.Rich.)Benth.
023 MENISPERMACEAE
Cissampelos pareira L. var hirsuta (DC.)Forman
Tiliacora funifera (Miers)Oliv.
Tinospora oblongifolia (Engl.)Troupin
Triclisia sacleuxii (Pierre)Diels
036 CAPPARACEAE
Capparis viminea Oliv.?
Cladostemon kirkii (Oliv.)Pax & Gilg
Ritchiea capparoides (Andr.)Britten
Thilachium africanum Lour.
037 MORINGACEAE
Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn.
040 VIOLACEAE
Rinorea arborea (Thou.)Baill.
042 POLYGALACEAE
Carpolobia goetzei Guerke
Polygala kilimandjarica Chod.
056 PORTULACACEAE
Portulaca quadrifida L.?
063 AMARANTHACEAE
Aerva lanata (L.)Schultes
Psilotrichum sericeum (Roxb.)Dalz.
071 BALSAMINACEAE
Impatiens walleriana Hook.f.
072 LYTHRACEAE
Pemphis acidula J.R. & G.Forst.
074 SONNERATIACEAE
Sonneratia alba Sm.
081 THYMELAEACEAE
Synaptolepis kirkii Oliv.
093 FLACOURTIACEAE
Bivinia jalbertii Tul.
Grandidiera boivinii Jaub.
Ludia mauritiana Gmel.
101 PASSIFLORACEAE
Schlechterina mitostemmatoides Harms
103 CUCURBITACEAE
Eureiandra sp A of FTEA
Momordica henriquesii Cogn.
114 OCHNACEAE
Ochna macrocalyx Oliv.?
Ochna thomasiana Engl. & Gilg
118 MYRTACEAE
Eugenia capensis (Eckl. & Zeyh.)Sond. ssp multiflora
Verdc.
121 COMBRETACEAE
Combretum illairii Engl.
Combretum paniculatum Vent. ssp paniculatum
Terminalia boivinii Tul.
Terminalia sambesiaca Engl. & Diels
122 RHIZOPHORACEAE
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.)Lam.
Ceriops tagal (Perr.)C.B.Robinson
Rhizophora mucronata Lam.
126 GUTTIFERAE (CLUSIACEAE)
Garcinia volkensii Engl.
Vismia orientalis Engl.
128 TILIACEAE
Carpodiptera africana Mast.
Corchorus olitorius L.
Grewia forbesii Mast.
Grewia plagiophylla K.Schum.
Grewia villosa Willd.
130 STERCULIACEAE
Melhania velutina Forssk.
Sterculia rhynchocarpa K.Schum.
Waltheria indica L.
131 BOMBACACEAE
Adansonia digitata L.
132 MALVACEAE
Abutilon zanzibaricum Mast.
Hibiscus physaloides Guill. & Perr.
Hibiscus vitifolius L. ssp vitifolius?
Sida acuta Burm.f.
133 MALPIGHIACEAE
Acridocarpus zanzibaricus (Loud.)A.Juss.
Triaspis mozambica A.Juss.
135 ERYTHROXYLACEAE
Erythroxylum emarginatum Thonn.
Nectaropetalum kaessneri Engl. var kaessneri
136 EUPHORBIACEAE
Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. var fruticosa
Acalypha neptunica Muell.Arg. var neptunica
Alchornea laxiflora (Benth.)Pax & K.Hoffm.
Bridelia cathartica Bertol.f.
Dalechampia scandens L. var cordofana (Webb)Muell.Arg.
Erythrococca kirkii (Muell.Arg.)Prain
Euphorbia tirucalli L.
Excoecaria madagascariensis (Baill.)Muell.Arg.
Flueggea virosa (Willd.)Voigt ssp virosa
Mallotus oppositifolius (Geisel.)Muell.Arg. var
oppositifolius forma ?
Mildbraedia carpinifolia (Pax)Hutch. var carpinifolia
Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn.
Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir.
Pycnocoma littoralis Pax
Ricinus communis L.
Suregada zanzibariensis Baill.
Synadenium pereskiifolium (Baill.)Guill.
Tragia furialis Bojer
144 DICHAPETALACEAE
Dichapetalum madagascariense Poir. var madagascariensis
Tapura fischeri Engl.
146 CAESALPINIACEAE
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.)Roxb.
Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.)Greene
Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.)Milne-Redh.
Senna occidentalis (L.)Link
Senna siamea (Lam.)Irwin & Barnaby
Tamarindus indica L.
147 MIMOSACEAE
Albizia versicolor Oliv.
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.)Wight & Arn.
Leucaena latisiliqua (L.)Gillis
148 PAPILIONACEAE (FABACEAE)
Canavalia sp
Crotalaria laburnoides Klotzsch var laburnoides
Dalbergia vacciniifolia Vatke
Desmodium tortuosum (Sw.)DC.
Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC.
Erythrina sacleuxii Hua
Indigofera tanganyikensis Bak.f. var paucijuga Gillett
Indigofera trita L.f.
Millettia usaramensis Taub. ssp usaramensis var
Ormocarpum sennoides (Willd.)DC. ssp zanzibaricum
Brenan & Gillett
Sophora tomentosa L. ssp tomentosa
154 BUXACEAE
Buxus obtusifolia (Mildbr.)Hutch.
167 MORACEAE
Antiaris toxicaria Leschen. ssp welwitschii
(Engl.)C.C.Berg var usambarensis (Engl.)C.C.Berg
Ficus bubu Warb.
Ficus exasperata Vahl
Ficus lutea Vahl
Ficus natalensis Hochst.
Ficus polita Vahl ssp polita
Ficus scassellatii Pamp. ssp scassellatii
Ficus sur Forssk.
Ficus sycomorus L.
Ficus tremula Warb. ssp tremula
Milicia excelsa (Welw.)C.C.Berg
169 URTICACEAE
Urera sansibarica Engl.
173 CELASTRACEAE
Elaeodendron schweinfurthianum (Loes.)Loes.
Maytenus undata (Thunb.)Blakelock
173 HIPPOCRATEACEAE (CELASTRACEAE)
Indet
Salacia elegans Oliv.
Salacia erecta (G.Don)Walp.
Salacia stuhlmanniana Loes.
180 SALVADORACEAE
Azima tetracantha Lam.
185 LORANTHACEAE
Agelanthus sansibarensis (Engl.)Polh. & Wiens ssp
sansibarensis
Oncella curviramea (Engl.)Danser
190 RHAMNACEAE
Lasiodiscus pervillei Baill. ssp pervillei
Ziziphus mucronata Willd. ssp mucronata
193 VITACEAE
Cissus integrifolia (Bak.)Planch.
Cissus phymatocarpa Masinde & L.E.Newton
Cissus quinquangularis Chiov.
Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.)Vahl var rotundifolia
Cissus sciaphila Gilg
Cissus sp aff integrifolia (Bak.)Planch.
Cissus sylvicola Masinde & L.E.Newton
Cyphostemma adenocaule (A.Rich.)Wild & Drummond ssp
Cyphostemma buchananii (Planch.)Wild & Drummond
Cyphostemma duparquetii (Planch.)Descoings
194 RUTACEAE
Toddalia asiatica (L.)Lam.
Vepris simplicifolia (Verdoorn)W.Mziray
Zanthoxylum holtzianum (Engl.)Waterm. ssp holtzianum
195 SIMAROUBACEAE
Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv.
196 BURSERACEAE
Commiphora africana (A.Rich.)Engl.
Commiphora edulis (Kl.)Engl. ssp boiviniana
Commiphora lindensis Engl.
197 MELIACEAE
Azadirachta indica A.Juss.
Trichilia emetica Vahl
Turraea floribunda Hochst.
Turraea nilotica Kotschy & Peyr.
Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.)Roem.
198 SAPINDACEAE
Allophylus rubifolius (A.Rich.)Engl. var stachyanthu
Blighia unijugata Bak.
Chytranthus prieurianus Baill. ssp longiflorus
Haplocoelum inoploeum Radlk.
Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius Bak. ssp vaughanii
Lepisanthes senegalensis (Poir.)Leenh.
Macphersonia gracilis O.Hoffm. var hildebrandtii
Majidea zanguebarica Oliv.
205 ANACARDIACEAE
Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.)Engl. var stuhlmannii
Lannea welwitschii (Hiern)Engl. var ciliolata Engl.
Mangifera indica L.
Ozoroa insignis Del. ssp reticulata (Bak.f.)Gillett
Rhus natalensis Krauss
Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.)Hochst. ssp caffra
221 EBENACEAE
Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern)F.White ssp abyssinica
Diospyros squarrosa Klotzsch A185
222 SAPOTACEAE
Inhambanella henriquezii (Engl. & Warb.)Dubard
Manilkara sp aff discolor (Sond.)J.H.Hemsl.
Manilkara sulcata (Engl.)Dubard
Sideroxylon inerme L. ssp diospyroides (Bak.)J.H.Hemsl.
229 OLEACEAE
Jasminum meyeri-johannis Engl.
Olea woodiana Knobl.
230 APOCYNACEAE
Ancylobotrys petersiana (Kl.)Pierre
Baissea myrtifolia (Benth.)Pichon
Dictyophleba lucida (K.Schum.)Pierre
Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.)Gardn.
Pleiocarpa pycnantha (K.Schum.)Stapf
Saba comorensis (Bojer)Pichon
Tabernaemontana elegans Stapf
231 ASCLEPIADACEAE
Cryptolepis hypoglauca K.Schum.
Cynanchum gerrardii (Harvey)Liede
Omphalogonus calophyllus Baill.
Pleurostelma cernum (Decn.)Bullock
Schizostephanus alatus K.Schum.
Secamone parvifolia (Oliv.)Bullock
Secamone punctulata Decne
232 RUBIACEAE
Chazaliella abrupta (Hiern)Petit & Verdc. var abrupta
Coffea pseudozanguebariae Bridson
Guettarda speciosa L.
Keetia zanzibarica (Klotzsch)Bridson ssp zanzibarica
Meyna tetraphylla (Hiern)Robyns ssp comorensis
Oxyanthus zanguebaricus (Hiern)Bridson
Pavetta crebrifolia Hiern var crebrifolia
Pentodon pentandrus (Schum. & Thonn.)Vatke
Polysphaeria multiflora Hiern ssp multiflora
Polysphaeria parvifolia Hiern
Psychotria capensis (Ecklon)Vatke ssp riparia
Psychotria punctata Vatke var punctata
Tarenna nigrescens (Hook.f.)Hiern
Triainolepis africana Hook.f. ssp hildebrandtii
Tricalysia ovalifolia Hiern var ovalifolia
Tricalysia pallens Hiern
Vangueria randii S.Moore ssp acuminata Verdc.
238 COMPOSITAE (ASTERACEAE)
Pluchea sordida (Vatke)Oliv. & Hiern
Psiadia punctulata (DC.)Vatke
Solanecio cydoniifolius (O.Hoffm.)C.Jeffrey
Tridax procumbens L.
Vernonia hildebrandtii Vatke
249 BORAGINACEAE
Bourreria nemoralis (Guerke)Thulin
Cordia goetzei Guerke
Cordia subcordata Lam.
250 SOLANACEAE
Solanum incanum L. s.l.
Solanum zanzibarense Vatke
251 CONVOLVULACEAE
Evolvulus alsinoides (L.)L.
Hewittia malabarica (L.)Suresh
Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br.
Ipomoea shupangensis Bak.
257 BIGNONIACEAE
Fernandoa magnifica Seem.
Markhamia zanzibarica (DC.)Engl.
259 ACANTHACEAE
Asystasia gangetica (L.)T.Anders. s.l.
Barleria setigera Rendle
Barleria whytei S.Moore
Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.)Roth
Ecbolium amplexicaule S.Moore
Justicia inaequiifolia Brummitt
Pseuderanthemum hildebrandtii Lindau
263 VERBENACEAE
Avicennia marina (Forssk.)Vierh.
Clerodendrum cephalanthum Oliv. ssp cephalanthum
Clerodendrum glabrum E.Mey. var glabrum
Clerodendrum sansibarense Guerke ssp sansibarense
Lantana camara L.
Premna chrysoclada (Boj.)Guerke
Premna hildebrandtii Guerke
Premna resinosa (Hochst.)Schauer ssp holstii
(Guerke)Verdc.
Vitex ferruginea Schum. & Thonn. ssp amboniensis
(Guerke)Verdc. var amboniensis
264 LABIATAE (LAMIACEAE)
Hyptis suaveolens Poit.
Ocimum gratissimum L. var macrophyllum Briq.
Plectranthus flaccidus (Vatke)Guerke
Plectranthus tenuiflorus (Vatke)Agnew
293 AMARYLLIDACEAE
Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn)Raf. ssp multiflorus
293 ASPASPARAGACEAE
Asparagus africana Lam.?
Asparagus falcatus L. var falcatus
Asparagus setaceus (Kunth)Jessop
293 COLCHICACEAE
Gloriosa superba L.
293 HYACINTHACEAE
Dipcadi longifolium (Lindl.)Bak.
Ledebouria kirkii (Bak.)Stedje & Thulin
302 ARACEAE
Amorphophallus maximus (Engl.)N.E.Br.
Gonatopus boivinii (Decne)Engl.
Gonatopus marattioides (Peter)Bogner
Stylochaeton salaamicus N.E.Br.
Zamioculcas zamiifolia (Lodd.)Engl.
311 DIOSCOREACEAE
Dioscorea asteriscus Burkill
Dioscorea quartiniana A.Rich. var quartiniana
Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax
313 DRACAENACEAE
Sansevieria kirkii Bak.
314 PALMAE (ARECACEAE)
Borassus aethiopum Mart.
Hyphaene compressa H.Wendl.
Hyphaene coriacea Gaertn.
321 TACCACEAE
Tacca leontopetaloides (L.)O.Ktze.
326 ORCHIDACEAE
Aerangis kirkii (Reichb.f.)Schltr.
Angraecum dives Rolfe
Eulophia petersii Reichb.f.
Microcoelia physophora (Reichb.f.)Summerh.?
Nervilia petraea (Pers.)Summerh.
331 CYPERACEAE
Bulbostylis sp
Cyperus rotundus L. ssp?
Fimbristylis cymosa R.Br.
Mariscus dubius (Rottb.)Hutch. var macrocephalus
Queenslandiella sp aff hyalina (Vahl)Bullock
332 GRAMINAE (POACEAE)
Cyrtococcum trigonum (Retz.)A.Camus
Enteropogon sechellensis (Baker)Th.Dur. & Schinz
TOTAL RECORDS : 273
GVI 2006-2009
Species list of flora from Shimoni area, by Class, Order, Family,
Phytogeographical region, and IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2009) or
Coastal Forest Survey (CFS, Robetson & Luke, 1993) status.
2
. VU, Vulnerable; NT, Near Th reatened; LR/NT, Lower Risk Near Threatened; LC,
Least Concern (not a Red List status but rather ndicates that the species has RK,
Rare Kenya; RKC, Rare Kenya Coast; AI, Alien Invasive; EXS, Exotic Species
(Robetson & Luke, 1993). been assessed and is not under any threat of extinction);
DD, Data Defi cient (IUCN, 2001). R, Rare;
Family Species
Charaxinae Charaxes brutus
Charaxinae Charaxes varanes vologeses
Charaxinae Charaxes candiope candiope
Charaxinae Charaxes cithaeron nairobicus
Charaxinae Charaxes hansali baringana
Charaxinae Charaxes jahlusa kenyensis
Charaxinae Charaxes protoclea azota
Charaxinae Charaxes violetta maritimus
Charaxinae Charaxes Achaemenes
Charaxinae Charaxes ethalion kikuyuensis
Charaxinae Euxanthe wakefieldi
Charaxinae Cymothoe coranus
Satyrinae Bicyclus safitza safitza
Satyrinae Melanitis leda
Nymphalinae Eurytela dryope angulata
Nymphalinae Hypolimnas misippus
Nymphalinae Neptis saclava marpessa
Nymphalinae Junonia oenone oenone
Nymphalinae Euphraedra neophron littoralis
Nymphalinae Byblia ilithyia
Nymphalinae Byblia anvatara acheloia
Nymphalinae Phalanta phalanta aethiopica
Nymphalinae Phalanta eurytis eurytis
Nymphalinae Junonia natalica natalica
Lipteninae Baliochila hildegarda
Lipteninae Pentila tropicalis
Lipteninae Teriomima subpunctata
Lipteninae Pentila pauli clarensis
Papilionidae Papilio constantinus constantinus
Papilionidae Papilio dardanus tibullus
Papilionidae Papilio dardanus polytrophus
Papilionidae Papilio ophidicephalus ophidicephalus
Papilionidae Papilio demodocus demodocus
Acraeinae Acraea eponina eponina
Acraeinae Acraea anemosa
Acraeinae Acraea zonata
Acraeinae Acraea acrita
Acraeinae Acraea insignis insignis
Acraeinae Acraea sykesi
Coliadinae Graphium antheus
Coliadinae Graphium colonna
Coliadinae Graphium philonoe philonoe
Coliadinae Graphium porthaon mackiei
Coliadinae Catopsilia florella
Pierinae Coloits euippe omphale
Pierinae Nepheronia buqueti buqueti
Pierinae Belenois thysa thysa
Pierinae Eurema floricola orientis
Pierinae Eurema senegalensis
Danainae Amauris niavius niavius
1. Panga za Ngamba
This Kaya is located on the coastline of the Shimoni and Anzwani forests. The name means
‘flippers of the turtle’ as it is known that turtles come and nest on the beach- protection of the
Kaya will also be conservation value. Many caves located on this coastline are sacred Kaya’s.
This is a peaceful place and used for prayers. Gifts for the ancestors are left at the Kaya when it
is visited by the Digo elders.
2. Pua za Ngamba
This Kaya is located 100m west of the previous Kaya and is also a coastal cave. Its name means
‘nose of the turtle’ due to the presence of turtles and the shape of the cave. The cave is a
peaceful place and used for prayers. It has been a known Kaya for as long as the elders can
remember.
3. Pangani Shrine
This shrine is located within the mangrove forest near to where the forest ends, close to Anzwani
village. The ‘owner’ of the shrine is a black snake. This snake is a god in animal form and takes
on many different forms depending on why you have visited the shrine. He can be very scary at
times. Offers are left for the ‘owner’ of the shrine in the form of money, bottles containing rose or
honey water. The age of the shrine is shown by how old the glass bottles, some are not made
anymore. Animals including goats were made as sacrifices at this shrine.
The shrine is used when someone has betrayed you or your family. People would ask for people
to be killed as they were bad people and were causing bad things to happen to their family or
village. This person would then become ill. To prevent themselves from dying, they would have to
go to the Kaya and ask the gods for forgiveness by gifts or sacrifices. This person would then
realise the badness he has caused and become good.
This shrine is located within coral rag of the mangrove forests. It is located where mangrove poles
are harvested. Many mangrove poles are taken from this area and it is claimed that this is
regulated by the forestry department. The local people don’t believe it is regulated effectively or
enforced.
The Kaya is for praying only and no sacrifices are made here. It is a very peaceful, but powerful
place. Although mangroves are harvested here, the mangrove trees located within the Kaya are
not. If anybody tries to cut mangroves from within the shrine the gods become angry. The person
who cuts the mangrove begins to get sick and dies. A few years ago, it was told that a man from
another village cut a tree down from within the shrine to repair his boat. A few days later he
became sick from a mysterious illness and died within a week. No one has cut a tree down from
this area since.
5. Gizani Shrine
This shrine is located between Anzwani and Shimoni forests and is very difficult to locate. It is a
coral rag cave that offered the local community shelter in times of colonial war. When war hit, the
community would run down into the cave, where the cave would hide them and keep them safe.
The shrine is used for prayers. Because it offered safety to the ancestors, people pray at this
Kaya to ask for help in times of drought or bad harvest. Sacrifices in the form of goats were also
made here.
6. Kwadege Shrine
This Kaya is located deep within the northern side of the forest and is the central power of all the
Kayas within the area. The Kaya has three flags, one red, one white and one blue to show the
location of this Kaya. It is the most powerful of all Kayas and one of the most important.
To the west of the Kaya is a large tree called Mukundi. This showed the entry point to the Kaya
and the point where you are to remove your shoes in terms of respect for the ancestors and
because it is a holy place.
This Kaya should never be entered alone, an elder must always accompany the young. The
Kayas have strong powers and there are ways to enter a Kaya and pray. This Kaya is more than
100 years old and the elders hold great respect for the area.
7. Mjimwiru Shrine
The shrine’s name means ‘black village’ as many year’s ago a village resided here. The Kaya
contains a very deep well which was the village’s water supply. Legend has it that if you enter the
well you come to large beach, where lives the owner of the shrine. The owner of this Kaya is a
large female snake with long plaits. To get help from the Kaya you must enter the well and meet
face to face with the snake, this can be very overwhelming and the person must prepare
themselves before entering. You can ask her for strength and motivation to invent or start a
business.
This shrine is used by the Mijikenda tribes, and the village that used to reside here was called
Milongeni village.
Shoes were removed before entering the shrine and a ritual cleansing process had to be followed
before entering the shrine. This consisted of splashing water from the well onto your feet with
leaves and chanting a prayer by the mzee;
“These are our visitors, they are just visiting, when they go back give them fair well, good health,
don’t make them suffer, these are good people and our friends”.
You then chew on a small amount of mud from the well and spit it out as part of the cleansing
process.
There was also an entry point to the Kaya called Mvungunya. It is not allowed for women to enter
if she is menstruating and bleeding as she is declared unclean.
This Kaya is located at the mangrove forest edge. The name means ‘the path of the monkey’, as
the sykes monkeys and the yellow baboons are seen crossing through the trees. The Kaya is
used for prayers.
9. Jiwe la chambi
This Kaya is located within a cave in the coral rag in the mangrove forest. It is a peaceful place
and used for prayers and gifts.
Many years ago, a village called ‘Waga’ resided within the forest. The village consisted of the
Digo tribe ancestors and they still come here to pay their respects to their ancestors.
Many burial grounds are located throughout the forest. They are now sacred places where the
spirits of the ancestors are worshipped and respected.
13. Ziwani
A Kaya located on the southern coastal edge of the forest. The Kaya is used for prayers.
14. Kizwiani
A cave Kaya located on the southern coastline.
16. Shunzulanzi
This Kaya is an island located off the southern coastline. The Kaya is made up of two parts; the
island itself, and a cave opposite. The island is known as Jabali cage, as it is the devils
judgement area. This is used for prayers to ask for forgiveness and protection from the devil.
19. Mwauomba
The three shrines above are also located within the Shimoni forest, however were not visited on
this occasion as there was not enough time. In addition to the Kaya’s the elders were asked
about their forest and the importance of it to them.
Appendix VII - Recorded Clearings in Shimoni East Forest
2006
2007
2008
2009