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Abstract
Since the number of satellites in Earth orbit is steadily increasing, space debris will eventually pose a serious problem to near-
Earth space activities if left unchecked, and so effective measures to mitigate it are becoming urgent. Equipping new satellites
with an end-of-life de-orbit or orbital lifetime reduction capability could be an effective means of reducing the amount of debris
by reducing the probability of the collisions between objects. On the other hand, the active removal of space debris and the
retrieval of failed satellites by spacecraft are other possible measures.
The Institute of Aerospace Technology, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), is studying a micro-satellite system for
active space debris removal, and is examining the applicability of electro-dynamic tether (EDT) technology as its high efficiency
orbital transfer system. A small EDT package provides a possible means for lowering the orbits of objects without the need for
propellant.
Capture is indispensable for the retrieval of large space debris objects, and we propose a flexible robot arm for this purpose.
This paper discusses a space debris removal satellite system and describes the development status of prototypes of the EDT
package and a new robot arm for capturing non-cooperative targets.
© 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
objects to tumble, since angular momentum may have considered as for reducing the amount of space debris.
remained in their attitude control systems when failure
occurred. On-orbit satellite capture experiments have (a) Designing space systems so that they do not become
been carried out successfully by the ETS-VII satel- space debris; that is, positive end-of-life processing
lite in 1999 [2,3]. In these experiments, the target was of satellites and the establishment of proper disposal
equipped with visual markers and handles to facilitate procedures for rocket upper stages.
grasping by a robot arm. While future satellites could (b) Processing existing debris that has no self-removal
be equipped with such features to assist active removal, capability; that is, the removal of large-size satel-
in general space debris objects do not possess such con- lite remnants from economically and scientifically
venient features—they are non-cooperative targets. In useful orbits to disposal orbits.
this case, since the conditions are not favorable, track-
ing errors will lead to loading of the robot arm when the Consideration results of countermeasures for various
object is captured. Active compliance of each joint and space debris sources are listed in Table 1. For the dis-
a flexible boom are therefore proposed to relieve load posal of rocket upper stages, a promising approach is for
at the time of capture. This paper first describes the de- the stage to decelerate by re-starting its engine using fuel
tails of a proposed active space debris capture/removal remaining after the payload has separated. Research and
micro-satellite system, and presents the results of fea- development of systems to remove large-sized satellite
sibility studies. Then, the development status of proto- remnants from useful orbits is also in progress.
types of the bare tether, reel mechanism, deployment
mechanism and FEAC are described. Finally, we intro- 2.1. Method for removal of satellite remnants
duce a prototype folder arm for capturing a tumbling
non-cooperative target. Earth-orbiting satellites typically occupy either low-
Earth orbits (LEO) or geostationary orbits. Satellite
remnants and rocket upper stages in LEO may be re-
2. Active removal system moved by lowering their altitude to 650 km or less,
from where they will eventually re-enter the atmo-
The removal from orbit of rocket upper stages and sphere and burn up. Geostationary orbit altitude is too
satellites that have reached the end of their lives has great to allow this, so in this case, the effective disposal
been carried out only in a very small number of cases, method is further to raise the orbital altitude of satellite
and most remain on-orbit. Explosions of residual pro- remnants by 300 km or more, to disposal orbits that are
pellants and collisions between satellite remnants or of no practical use.
rocket upper stages can generate large quantities of
smaller debris, which greatly increases the probability 2.2. Target for retrieval/removal
of collisions by a cascade effect. Due to such cascade
collisions, it is estimated that the amount of space de- In LEO, the influence of the Earth’s geomagnetic
bris will increase an ever-greater rate from now on, field is strong, and so use of an EDT is practical.
and will eventually jeopardize near-Earth space activi- Considering the probability of debris collision proba-
ties. The following countermeasures are therefore being bility, LEO effective for Earth observation (especially
Table 1
Measures for space debris mitigation.
Medium/large satellite Which altitude is 650 km or more, will not re-enter • Into low orbit as much as possible
within 25 years
• Preparing fuel for braking
Micro/small satellite Most of small satellites are without RCS Carrying an EDT unit
Upper stage of launch vehicle which altitude is 650 km or higher, will not re-enter • Preparing fuel for braking
within 25 years
• Re-starting after payload separation
Space debris Debris increase by collision with small debris De-orbiting by debris remover vehicle
S.-I. Nishida et al. / Acta Astronautica 65 (2009) 95 – 102 97
Sun-synchronous orbits) have the greatest risk, and so into Sun-synchronous orbits useful for Earth obser-
measures to reduce the number satellite remnants or vation.
rocket upper stages in such orbits are a priority. In con-
sideration of this, JAXA is studying a system with the A large number of satellite remnants remain near such
emphasis on the retrieval and removal of satellite rem- orbits from past launches, and it is considered possible
nants from Sun-synchronous LEO. for a debris removal satellite to be able to retrieve and
remove debris objects by transferring them to lower
2.3. Strategy orbits. The removal micro-vehicle will remove an object
by capturing it using a robot arm then de-orbiting, taking
The following concepts for a retrieval/removal sys- the debris with it. Trade-off study result of actuator for
tem were studied, concentrating on methods that can be debris removal from LEO is listed in Table 2.
realized in the near term.
2.4. Debris removal system concept and missions
(a) Use of a conductive disposable type tether. (Princi- scenario
ple: Fig. 1.)
(b) The satellite itself as the tip mass of the tether. The mission profile of the LEO debris removal sys-
(c) A capture mechanism as the other side of the tether. tem named space debris micro-remover (SDMR) is de-
(d) Piggyback launch of debris removal micro- scribed below (see Fig. 2).
vehicles with new Earth observation satellites
(a) Rendezvous with the debris object (target) and mea-
sure its motion.
Debris Pseudo circuit (b) Fly around the target, and make a final approach to
capture it.
e (c) Capture the target using an extensible folder arm.
Collector (d) Extend an EDT fixed at the root of the folder arm.
e
(e) Autonomous control of tether inclination.
Flight direction Drag force
Orbit
Geomagnetic field
Current
Tether
e
Emitter
e
Earth
Table 2
Trade-off study of actuator for debris removal.
Chemical thruster Utilization of BUS component Low ISP attitude control is needed
Ion thruster High ISP • Power consumption is high
• Attitude control is needed
Solid motor Compactness • Low durability under aging
• Spin-up is needed
EDT It works in spite of S/C function loss Possibility of cut-off by collision with small debris X
Air bag Simple constitution Huge size and low durability
98 S.-I. Nishida et al. / Acta Astronautica 65 (2009) 95 – 102
Table 3
Characteristics of the SDMR.
Size 700×700×600 mm
Weight 140 kg Fuel: 25 kg
Power 100 W Average
Attitude control Three axes control Three wheels
Thrusters 1 N×8
Rendezvous sensors GPS receiver star
Fig. 3. Concept of debris removal. tracker stereo vision
Table 4
Performance goals of the EDT.
Length 2 km
Max. current 1A
Life 1 year Residual probability > 0.95
3.1.3. Reel mechanism acteristics at the ends of the tether govern the current
Although the fixed-reel type extension mechanism, on which EDT operation is based, the development of
which extends the tether using the inertia of the initial efficient plasma contactors is indispensable for an EDT
velocity given to the tip mass, has a simple composi- system. The leading candidate technologies for the elec-
tion, residual inertia will impart a sudden force when tron emitter and electron collector are listed below.
the tether reaches the end of its extension. Traditional
tether equipment often actively controls tension by • Electron emitter: hollow cathode and electric field
friction control methods based on wire tension sensor release type cathode.
information, but this increases complexity and ten- • Electron collector: hollow cathode and bare wire.
sion sensors and friction control mechanisms need a
large release rate to constantly maintain the friction It is thought that a combination of a bare wire as
of extension below a certain level. Furthermore, these the electron collector and an electric field release type
mechanisms impart a stress on the tether wire. cathode as the electronic emitter is the most suitable
A system for applying a constant braking force was for a disposable EDT system. These do not require an
investigated. The required level of braking force is small operating gas, and since a tank, valves etc. can therefore
and control of extension rate by changing the friction be dispensed with, a simple and a reliable system can be
of the tether wire is very difficult, with the result that built. Research into electric field release type cathodes
a shock force may still occur at the end of extension. for use in a disposable EDT system is being carried
An experimental system using passive rotation braking out. Although there are several types of electric field
equipment in a two-part reel was therefore developed release type cathode, such as the Spindt type and the
which applies a braking force only at the end phase of triple junction type, a cathode using CNT is adopted in
wire extension. By using a passive non-contact braking this research. Compared with other types, the CNT is
element, stable braking performance was achieved. The durable in high-vacuum environments. So it is suitable
non-contact braking reel is realized by using an eddy for operation in LEO.
current brake wheel. With this mechanism, the brak-
ing torque is proportional to the rotation rate. Since the 3.2. Motion measurement and optical navigation
tether is slowed down sufficiently when it reaches the
end of its extension, hardly any jerking force is pro- An algorithm has been developed for estimating the
duced. motion (relative attitude and relative position) of large
pieces of space debris, such as failed satellites. This
3.1.4. EDT plasma contactor algorithm is designed to be used by a debris removal
In order to pass current through a conductive tether system which would perform various operations such as
to obtain thrust, a current loop must be formed be- observation, investigation, capture, repair, refuel and de-
tween the tether and the surrounding plasma. For this orbit. The algorithm uses a combination of stereo vision
reason, a plasma contactor which exchanges electrons and 3D model matching, applying the iterative closed
with the surrounding plasma is needed at both ends of a point (ICP) algorithm, and uses time series of images
tether; one that emits electrons and another which col- to increase the reliability of the relative attitude and
lects them. Since the electron emission/collection char- position estimates. The motions of a miniature satellite
S.-I. Nishida et al. / Acta Astronautica 65 (2009) 95 – 102 101
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