COMMUTATORS, COLLARS

AND THE GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS

F, W. GEHRING AND G.J. MARTIN*

Dedicated to Lars Ahlfors on his eighty-fifth birthday

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

This article is concerned with the geometry o f discrete groups of M6bius trans-
formations, more specifically, two generator groups with an elliptic generator. We
use complex iteration to obtain for such groups sharp analogs o f the inequality
o f Shimizu-Leutbecher concerning groups with a parabolic generator. We then
study the collection o f discrete groups with two elliptic generators viewed as a
subspace o f C. In particular, we eliminate a large region o f possible values for the
c o m m u t a t o r parameter o f such a group, using a covering argument based on a new
family o f polynomial trace identities. These results imply sharp lower bounds for
the distance between the axes o f elliptics o f orders n and m in any discrete group
for many different cases. Included are those where n > 3 and where m = 2, 3, 6 or
n.

Our results imply geometric facts about orbifolds and manifolds. Each 3-
dimensional complete hyperbolic orbifold M can be represented as H 3 / G where
is the Poincar6 extension to the upper half space H 3 o f a discrete M6bius group G.
The methods developed in this paper allow us to obtain substantial improvements in
the lower bounds for the volume o f hyperbolic orbifolds in [GM6] and hyperbolic
manifolds M with symmetry in [GM5]. In particular, we outline in [GM7] a proof
that each orbifold for which G contains an elliptic o f order n > 4 has volume at
least .03905... This m i n i m u m is achieved by a group which arises from the
(3,5,3) hyperbolic tetrahedral reflection group. Previously the best known lower
v o l u m e estimate was .0000017 [Me]. Our results here also yield the sharp lower
bound o f . 19707... for the distance between components o f the singular o f degree
at least three set o f any such orbifold.
Let M denote the group o f all MiSbius transformations o f the extended complex

* This research was supported in part by grants from the U.S. National Science Foundation (FWG)
and the Institut Mittag-Leffler(FWG and GJM). A portion of the first author's 1992 Elisha Netanyahu
Memorial Lecture is based on this work.

175
JOURNAL D'ANALYSE MATHI~MATIQUE, Vol. 63 (1994)
176 E W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

plane C = C tO { ~ ) . We associate with each

az+b
(1.1) f - cz + ~ E I~, ad - bc = 1,

the matrix

(1.2) A = [ ac db ] E SL (2, C)

and set tr(f) = tr(A) where tr (a) denotes the trace of A; note tr ( f ) is defined up
to sign. For e a c h f and g in 1~ we let [f, g] denote the multiplicative commutator
f g f - l g - 1 . We call the three complex numbers

(1.3) /3(f)=trZ(f)-4, /3(g)=trZ(g)-4, ,y(f,g)=tr([f,g])-2

the parameters of the two generator group < f , g > and write

(1.4) par (< f , g >) = ('Y(f ,g),13(f),t3(g)).

These parameters are independent of the choice of representatives f o r f and g and

they determine < f , g > up to conjugacy whenever 7 ( f , g) ~ 0 [GM1]. Recall that

(1.5) 3'(f,g) r if and only if fix(f) N fix(g) = 0

where fix(h) denotes the set of fixed points in (~ of h in M [B 1, Theorem 4.3.5].

The usual topology on M is induced by the metric

(1.6) d ( f ,g) = sup{q(f(z),g(z)) : z E (2}

where q denotes the chordal distance in C,

2[Zl - z21
q(Zl,Z2)----- (iZl12 + 1)1/2([Z212 + 1)1/1 9

See [B1] and [GM3]. A subgroup G of 1~ is discrete if there exists a constant

d = d(G) > 0 such that

(1.7) d(f,g) > d

for each distinct pair f , g in G. G is nonelementary if its limit set L(G) contains at
least three points and G is Fuchsian if each element in G preserves some disk or
half plane D = D(G) in C.
 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 177

Suppose that < f , g > is a discrete subgroup of 1V~. Leutbecher [Le] and Shimizu
IS] proved that

(1.8) b'(f,g)l-> 1

i f f or g is parabolic with o'(f,g) r 0. See [Mal, II.C.5]. We prove in Section 3

of this paper that

(1.9) I'y(f,g)l > 2cos(27r/7) - 1 = 0.2469...

i f f or g is elliptic of order n _> 3 with --/(f, g) r 0 and "Y(f, g) r The bound

in (1.9) is sharp; indeed we obtain the sharp lower bound a(n) for I'~(f, g)l for each
value of n _> 3. The proofs for these bounds depend on polynomial trace identities
which we discuss in Section 2.
In Sections 4 and 5 we derive the sharp lower bound b(n) for the hyperbolic
distance 6( f, g) between nonintersecting axes of elliptic.s f and g of order n _> 3
in a discrete group G. This is equivalent to showing that 6(f, g) is at least b(n)/2
wheneverf and g are of orders n and 2. The proof for this last fact depends on the
formula

1 [t 4 7 ( f , g ) 4"y(f, g)
(1.10) 6(f,g) = ~ arccosh L l ~ ) + 1 +[ ]
t3(f)t3(g) '
on the disk Dn = {z : Izl < a(n)} excluded for "y( f , g) in Section 3, and on an
argument which shows that the ellipse

(1.11) En = {z: 4sin2(Tr/n) < [z+4sinZ(or/n)l + Izl < 4sin2Qr/n)cosh(b(n))}

can be covered by preimages of Dn under a family of trace polynomials. This fact

implies that 3'(f,g) cannot lie in En and yields the desired inequality. The above
covering argument is the major technical part of the paper. This is understandable
since, for example, when n = 3, the area of the ellipse to be covered is about 15
times that of the original disk.
In Section 6 we show that i f f and g are elliptics of orders n and m in a discrete
group G with n > max(m, 3), then either/~(f, g) = 0 or

c(n,m)
(1.12) sinh(6(f,g)) >_
sin(rr/n) sin(Tr/m)

where 0.171...< c(n,m) < 0.5. This bound is sharp when n > 7 and m = 2,3,n,
and it is within a fixed factor of being sharp for all n and m.
178 F.W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

Earlier collaring theorems for elements in a discrete M6bius group have been
largely restricted to the Fuchsian case; see, for example, [B1], [K] and [Ha].
Contributions to the general case, for elliptics o f large order, appear in [BM], [Ga]
and [Me]. However, to the best of our knowledge, the results in Section 4 of this
paper are the first sharp elliptic collar estimates for the general case.
In Section 7 we give an arithmetic condition which implies discreteness. This
result is based on a simple description of the elements h in a two generator group
< f , g > for which 7 ( f , h ) can be expressed as a polynomial in the parameters
7( f , g) and/3(f) with integer coefficients.
Finally in Section 8 we exhibit discrete groups < f , g > and < f , h >, where
f , g, h are of orders n, n, 2 and where 6( f , g) and 6 ( f , h) achieve their minimums.
These groups are triangle groups when n > 7 and they are subgroups o f hyperbolic
tetrahedral reflection groups when n = 3 and n = 5. That the groups for n = 4 and
n = 6 are discrete follows from the criterion mentioned above.
Formula (8.17) in Section 8 gives the m i n i m u m axial distances for elliptics f
and g of orders n and m in any discrete Mtibius group for the cases where n > 7
and m = 2, 3, n and where n = 6 and m _> 3. The extremal groups for this second
case belong to an interesting family due to Maskit [Ma2]. Table (8.18) gives these
distances for the cases where 2 < n < 7 and 2 _< m < 7.
We wish to thank Professor H. Riesel for a computer program which helped
us predict the nature o f the polynomial trace identities which we give here, and
Professor R. Riley for showing us initially how to prove that one o f the extremal
groups we had found was discrete.

2. Preliminary results
We collect here facts needed to establish the main results of this paper. We begin
with a list of polynomial trace identities. See T h e o r e m 7.13 for a description of
the abstract words i n f and g from which such identities arise.

2.1. L e m m a I f f and g are in I~ with 7 ( f , g) = 7 and/3(f) =/3, then

(2.2) 7 ( f , g f g -1) = 7("1 -/3),

(2.3) 7 ( f , ( f g f g - 1 ) 3 ) = '7(7 - / 3 ) ( 7 - / 3 - 1)2(7 - / 3 - 3) 2,

(2.4) 7( f , ( fg fg-~ )2) = "t(7 - / 3 ) ( " / - / 3 - 2) 2,

(2.5) 7 ( f , g - ' f g f g -1 ) = 7(7 - / 3 - 1) 2,

 GEOMETRYOF MOBIUS GROUPS 179

(2.6) 7(f, gfg-lfgfg-lfg) = 7(72 -- (2/3 + 3 ) 7 + (32 + 3 3 + 1)) 2,

(2.7) 7(f, gf-lg-lfgfg-lf-lg) = 7(72 - (3 - 1)7 - (/3 - 1)) 2,

(2.8) 7( f , g f g - l f g f g - l f - l g) = P(7)

where

P ( 7 ) = "/(74 - ( 3 3 + 2)73 + (332 + 3/3 - 1)72 - (33 - 4 3 - 2)7 - (33 + 332 + 2 3 - 1)).

P r o o f From the identities

(2.9) tr( fg) + tr( fg -1) = tr( f)tr(g),

(2.10) t r ( [ f , h]) = t r 2 ( f ) + tr2(h) + t r 2 ( f h ) - t r ( f ) t r ( h ) t r ( f h ) - 2

and (1.3) w e obtain

(2.11) tr(fgfg -1) = t r 2 ( f ) - t r ( [ f , g ] ) = 3 - 7 + 2,

(2.12) 3(fgfg-1)=tr2(fgfg-1)-4=(3-7)(3-7+4),

and

7 ( f , g f g -1) = tr([f , gfg-l]) - 2

= 2 t r 2 ( f ) + tr2(fgfg -1) - tr2(f)tr(fgfg -1 ) - 4
= 2(3 +4) + (3- 7+2) 2 - (3+4)(3- 7 +2) - 4 = 7(7- 3).

Hence

(2.13) 7 ( f ,fgfg -I) = 7 ( f , g f g -1) = 7(7 - 3).

Then (2.3) and (2.4) follow from (2.12) and (2.13) and from the identities

7 ( f , h 3) = 7(f,h)(3(h) + 3) 2, 7 ( f , h 2) = 7(f,h)(3(h) + 4)

with h = fg fg-1.
180 F.W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

Suppose t h a t f and g are represented by

A=
Eu0]
0 U- 1 ' B=
[ab]
c d

Then elementary calculations show that

(2.14) "7 = -bc(u - u - l ) 2, /3 = (U -- / / - 1 ) 2

and that

(2.15) B_IABAB_I= [d(u2-77) b(77-/3-1) ]

c(77-/3-1) a(u -2-77)~ "

Hence

77(f, g f g - l f g ) = -b(77 - / 3 - 1)c(77 - / 3 - 1)(u - u - I ) z = "7(77- / 3 - 1) 2

and this is (2.5). Next further calculations and (2.14) imply that

BAB - 1ABAB - lAB =

a(77(7 - / 3 - 2) + u 4 - 77u2) b(772 - (2/3 + 3)77 +/32 + 33 + 1) ]

(2.16)
c(772 - (2/3 + 3)77 +/3 2 + 3/3 + 1) d(77(77- / 3 - 2) + u -4 -- 77U-2) J '

BA-1B-1ABAB-1A-IB =

[ a((77 + l) 2 - 77u -2) 0(77 2 - (/3 - 1)77 - (/3 - 1)) ]

(2.17)
c(77 2 - (/3 - 1)77 - (/3 - 1)) d((77 + 1) 2 - 77u 2) J

BAB- 1ABAB- 1A- 1B =

a(u - 7 ( 7 - / 3 - 1)) b(u -2 - ( 7 - / 3 ) ( 7 - . u 2 ) ) ]

(2.18)
c(u2-(7-/3)(7-u-2)) d( u-2 7 ( 7 - / 3 - 1 ) ) ]'

and (2.6), (2.7) and (2.8) follow as above. A similar argument yields these results
w h e n f is parabolic. []

We will need the following formulation of an important inequality due to

JCrgensen [J1].
 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 181

2.19. L e m m a If < f , g > is a discrete subgroup of M with 7 ( f , g ) # 0 and

7 ( f , g ) # / 3 ( f ) , then

(2.20) tT(f,g)l + l/3(f)l -> 1.

P r o o f Let 7 = 7 ( f , g ) , /3 = / 3 ( f ) and suppose that (2.20) does not hold. Then

< f , g > is elementary by [J1, I_emma 1]. Since 7 # 0, f and g have no common
fixed point by (1.5). Hence < f , g > is neither cyclic nor contains a parabolic.
Next since 0 < 1/3] < 1, < f , g > is either a dihedral group or < f , g > contains a
loxodromic. In either case g must interchange the fixed points o f f and

fix(gfg -1) = g(fix(f)) = fix(f).

Thus
7(7 -/3) = 7 ( f , gfg -1) = 0
by (1.5) and (2.2) contradicting the hypothesis that 7 # 0 and 7 #/3. []

We require the following consequence of discreteness in what follows. See

[GM9] for a more general result of this kind.
2.21. L e m m a Suppose that f and gj are elements of a discrete subgroup G of
M, that~3 =/3(f) # - 4 a n d that To = 0 o r T 0 = / 3 + 1. If T( f , gj) # 7ofor all j,
then

(2.22) inflT(f, gj) - 701 > 0.

3

P r o o f Let 7j = 7 ( f , gj) and suppose first that 70 = 0. If (2.22) does not hold,
then we can choose j so that

[ 1 1]
(2.23) 217jl < min 1/31+ 1' 17Jl + 4 and 7j #/3.

Then

(2.24) 7j = 7([f, gj],f) = 7 ( f , g j f g f 1) = 7j(7j - / 3 ) and 0 < 17jI < 1/2

and

(2.25) l~}=/3([f, gj])=Tj(7j+4) and 0<1/3j1<1/2

by (2.2) and (2.23).

182 ~ F.W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

Now 7~ # 0 by (2.24) while 7~ # 3~ by (2.24), (2.25) and the hypothesis that

/3 # - 4 . Since < f , [f, gj] > is discrete,

17jl+ 13jl >- 1

by L e m m a 2.19 and we have a contradiction. This establishes (2.22) for the case
where 70 = 0.
Suppose next that 70 =/3 + 1 # 0 and set hj = g T l f g j f g f 1 for eachj. Then

7j = 7 ( f , hj) = 7j(Tj - / 3 - 1) 2

by (2.5). Let J and K denote the set of integers j for which 7j # 0 and 7j = 0,
respectively. Then

inf{lTj(7j - / 3 - 1)21 : j E J} = inf{lTjl :j E J) > 0

by what was proved above and hence

inf{lTj - 701 :J ~ J} > 0.

Next since 7j # 70 for all j, Tj = 0 and hence lTj - 70[ = 1701 > 0 f o r j E K. Thus
again we obtain (2.22). []

2.26. L e m m a Suppose that < f , g > is a discrete subgroup of 1V~ with

7 ( f , g ) # 0 a n d / 3 ( f ) =/3(g) and that 7 is a complex number f o r which

(2.27) 7 ( f , g) = 7('7 - / 3 ( f ) ) .

Then there exists an elliptic h o f order 2 such that < f , h > is discrete with

(2.28) 7(f,h)=7 and hfh-l=g v where r/=+l.

P r o o f By [GM1, L e m m a 2.2] there exist fl and hi in 1VIIsuch that 7 ( f l , h l ) =

7,/3(fl) = 3 ( f ) and/3(hi) =- - 4 . Let gl = hi f l h l 1. Then

/3(gl) = / 3 ( f l ) = 3 ( f ) = 3(g)

while

7(fl,gl) -~ 7(fl,hl)(7(fl,hl) - 3 ( f l ) ) = "/(7 - / 3 ( f ) ) = 7 ( f , g )

 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 183

by (2.2) and (2.27). Next by [GM1, Remark 2.6] there exists ~bin M such that

~fl~ -! = f ~ , ~gl~ -1 = g~

where e = 4-1 and ~5= 4-1. Let h = ~hl~b- l . Then (2.28) holds and < f , hfh -1 > =
< f , g > is discrete. Finally < f , hfh -l > has index 2 in < f , h > and we conclude
that < f , h > is itself discrete. []

L e m m a 2.26 implies that if (7(7 - 3), 3,/3) is a parameter triple for a dis-
crete two generator group, then so is (7, 3, - 4 ) . The following result shows that
the parameters (7, 3, - 4 ) and (3 - 7, 3, - 4 ) correspond to discrete groups when-
ever (7, 3, 3') does. This fact can also be derived using JCrgensen's Lie product
[J2, Section 4].
2.29. L e m m a Suppose that < f , h > is a discrete subgroup o f M with
7 ( f , h) ~ 0 and 7 ( f , h) ~ 3( f). Then there exist elliptics hi and h2 of order 2 such
that < f , hl > and < f , h2 > are discrete with

(2.30) 7(f, hl)=7(f,h) and 7(f, h2)=3(f)-7(f,h).

Proof LetTl =7(f,h) and 72 = fl( f ) - 7( f , h) and set g = h f h - 1 Then

< f , g > is discrete with

7 ( f , g ) = 7(f , h ) ( 7 ( f ,h) - 3 ( f ) ) = "Yj(Tj- 3 ( f ) ) # 0

f o r j = 1,2. Hence by L e m m a 2.26 there exists hj of order 2 such that < f , hj > is
discrete with 7 ( f , hj) = 7j. []

The following describes the situation when we cannot apply L e m m a 2.29.

2.31. L e m m a I f < f , g > is a discrete subgroup of M with 7 ( f , g ) = 3 ( f ) ~ 0,

then either f is elliptic of order 2, 3, 4, 6 or g is elliptic of order 2.
P r o o f By h y p o t h e s i s , f has two fixed points, < f , g f g - i > is discrete and

7 ( f , g f g -l) = 7 ( f , g ) ( 7 ( f ,g) - 3 ( f ) ) =0

by (2.2). Hence

g(fix(f)) n fix(f) = fix(gfg -1) N fix(f) • O,

f i x ( f ) N fix(g) = 0 by (1.5), and g maps one point of f i x ( f ) onto the other. The
desired conclusion then follows from [Ma2, Proposition 1].
184 E W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

2.32. L e m m a I f < f , g > is a Fuchsian subgroup o f M and i f f is elliptic, then

7 ( f , g ) -> O.
Proof We may assume, after a preliminary conjugation, that f and g are
represented by the matrices

a=IUVlv
u [abled
in SL(2, IR). Then 7 ( f , g) = ((b + c) 2 + (a - d)2)v 2 > 0. []

3. G r o u p s with an elliptic g e n e r a t o r

We derive here the following sharp universal bound for the commutator
parameter o f a group with an elliptic generator.

3.1. T h e o r e m Suppose that < f ,g > is a discrete subgroup of M, that f is

elliptic o f order n > 3 and that "y(f ,g) ~ 0 and T ( f ,g) ~ ~ ( f ) . Then

(3.2) 17(f,g)l ~ 2cos(27r/7) - 1 = 0.2469 . . . .

This inequality is sharp.

T h e o r e m 3.1 is a consequence o f an estimate which takes into account the order
n of the elliptic generator. For this we let

2cos(27r/7) - 1 = 0 . 2 4 6 9 . . . ifn = 3,
a(n) = 2cos(27r/5) ( v ~ - 1)/2 = 0 . 6 1 8 0 . . . if n = 4, 5,
(3.3)
2cos(2rr/6) = 1 ifn = 6,
2cos(27r/n) 1 > 0.2469... ifn > 7.

We then have the following more precise version o f T h e o r e m 3.1.

3.4. T h e o r e m Suppose that < f ,g > is a discrete subgroup of M, that f is

elliptic of order n > 3 and that - y ( f , g ) ~ 0 and T( f , g) 7~ ~( f). Then

(3.5) [ 7 ( f , g ) [ > a(n)

except for the case where f or f -1 is a primitive elliptic o f order 5 and

(3.6) 7 ( f , g ) = 2cos(27r/5) - 1 = - ( 3 - x/5)/2 = - 0 . 3 1 8 9 . . . .

Inequality (3.5) is sharp for each n > 3.

 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 185

P r o o f o f T h e o r e m 3.4 We may assume that f or f - 1 is primitive. For

o t h e r w i s e f = h m where h or h -1 is primitive and 1 < m < n / 2 . Then < h , g > is
discrete and

17(f, g)[ = 17(h, g)] /3(f) [sin(mTr/n)] 2

= lT(h'g)[ k sin(~r/n) J ---[3`(h,g)l

by, for example, [GM3, L e m m a 2.12].

We now establish (3.5) by considering separately the five cases where n = 3,

n = 4 , n = 5 , n = 6 and n >_ 7.
Suppose first that n = 3 and let 3`j = 7 ( f , gj) where gl = g and

gj+l = ffgjfg;1)3

forj = 1,2,.... Then/3 = / 3 ( f ) = - 3 and 3'1 # 0,

7j+l = 7j(fj -/3)(3`j - 13 - 1)2(7j - / 3 - 3) 2 = @(7j + 2)2(7j + 3)

b y (2.3), and

(3.7) 13`j+,l = lTjl Ip(3`j)[ < 13`jlp(lTj[)

where p ( z ) = z2(z + 2)2(z + 3).

Set a = 2 c o s ( 2 7 r / 7 ) - 1. Then a 3 + 4a 2 + 3a = 1,

p(z)- 1 =(z 2+3z+l)(z 3+4z 2+3z-1),

and hence
0 < [ p(z)l ~ p(lzl) < p ( a ) = 1

whenever 0 < Iz] < a. Thus if (3.5) did not hold, then (3.7) would imply that

o < J3`j+ll -< t3`jl - < " " <- 13`11 < a

and hence that

(3.8) 0<p(lT1D<l and o<13`j+1]<_13`jlp(13`ll)<...<_171[p(13`lD j

f o r j = 1 , 2 , . . . . This, in tum, would contradict L e m m a 2.21 with 3`0 = 0.

Suppose next that n = 4 and let 7j = 7 ( f , gj) where gl = g and

gj+l = ( f g j f g f l ) 2
186 E W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

forj = 1,2,.... Then/3 = fl(f)=-2, 71 # 0 and

(3.9) 7j+1 = 7j(Tj - ~)(Tj - ~3 - 2) 2 = T i P ( T )

b y ( 2 . 4 ) w h e r e p(z) = z2(z + 2 ) .
S e t b = ( x / 5 - 1 ) / 2 . T h e n b 3 + 2 b 2 = 1 and

0 < [p(z)l _< p(lzl) < p(b) = 1

w h e n e v e r 0 < ]z[ < b. T h u s arguing as above, we w o u l d obtain (3.8) f r o m (3.9)

and h e n c e a contradiction if ( 3 . 5 ) did not hold.
S u p p o s e now that n = 5 and let 7j = "/(f, gj) w h e r e gl = g and

(3.10) gj+l = g f l f g i f g j - 1

forj = 1,2,.... T h e n t3 --- ~ ( f ) = - ( 5 - x/5)/2, 71 # 0 and

(3.11) 7j+l = 7j(Tj - / 3 - 1) 2 = P(Tj)

by (2.5) w h e r e p ( z ) = z(z + (3 - x/~)/2) 2.

Again let b = (x/5 - 1)/2. T h e n

(3.12) p(z) + (3 - v ~ ) / 2 = (z + 1 ) ( z - zl)(z -z2)

where [Zll = Iz2[ = b and thus

(3.13) 0 < ~o(z)l _< Izl(Izl + (3 - x/5)/2) 2 < Izl and p(z) # -(3 - x/5)/2

for z in the twice punctured disk

O = {z: 0 < Izl < b, z # - ( 3 - v~)/2}.

In particular if 7 ( f , g ) = 71 is in D, then we see f r o m (3.11) and (3.13) that

f o r j = 1 , 2 , . . . again contradicting L e m m a 2.21. H e n c e either (3.5) holds or

" / ( f , g) = - ( 3 - v )/2
in which c a s e f o r f -1 is a primitive elliptic o f order 5.
 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 187

Suppose that n = 6 and let 7j = 7(f, gj) where gj is as in (3.10). T h e n / 3 =

/ 3 ( f ) = - 1, # 0 and

7j+l = 7j(7j --/3 -- 1) 2 = 73 = 7 ( f , g ) 3J

by (2.5). Hence (3.5) is an immediate consequence o f L e m m a 2.21.

Finally suppose that n > 7. Then

I 7 ( f , g ) l -> 1 - I / 3 ( f ) l = 2 cos(27r/n) - 1 -- a(n)

by L e m m a 2.19 and the p r o o f for inequality (3.5) is complete.

To show that (3.5) is sharp for each n, let < f , g > denote the (2, n, m) triangle
group w h e r e f and g are primitive w i t h f n = gm = (fg)2 = id. Then

(3.14) 7 ( f , g ) = tr ( [ f , g ] ) - 2 = trZ(f) + tr2(g) - 4 = / 3 ( f ) +/3(g) + 4

by (2.10) and

(3.15) 7 ( f , g) = 2 cos(27r/n) + 2 cos(27r/m) = a(n)

provided that (n, m) satisfies one of the following conditions:

n=3, m=7, n=4, m=5, n=5, m=4,

(3.16)
n=6, m=4, n>_7, m = 3 .

H e n c e (3.5) is sharp for each value of n > 3. []

P r o o f o f T h e o r e m 3.1 Inequality (3.2) now follows from (3.5), (3.6) and the
fact that

(3.17) 2 c o s ( 2 7 r / 7 ) - 1 = min (m!n(a(n)),(3 - v ~ ) / 2 ) .

\ n /

[]

3.18. Remark If 1 < a < oo and i f

(a 2 + a-2)z - 2
f(z) = ~z-_--(-~-~--~-a=-~ , g(z) = - a 2 z ,

then < f , g > is discrete [ J 3 ] , f is of order 2 and

7 ( f , g ) = 7(fg, g) = 4(a - l / a ) -2.

188 F.W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

Since 3/( f , g) = -y( fg, g) --* 0 as a --* oo, we see that the restriction n > 3 is
essential in Theorems 3.1 and 3.4. In addition,

fl(fg) = ( a - l / a ) 2 + 4 ( a - l / a ) -2 > 0,

fg is hyperbolic and hence no analog of these results hold w h e n f or g is hyperbolic.

However, see [Gi, Theorem 1].
Although Theorem 3.4 concerns Kleinian groups, the examples which show
that (3.5) is sharp are all Fuchsian. Hence we have the following result (cf. [Ro,
Corollary]):
3.19. C o r o l l a r y Suppose that < f , g > is a discrete Fuchsian subgroup o f M,
t h a t f is elliptic o f order n > 3 and that "y(f , g) # O. Then

(3.20) -y(f,g) > a(n).

Inequality (3.20) is sharp f o r each n >_ 3.

P r o o f L e m m a 2.32 implies that 7 ( f , g ) > 0. Hence 7 ( f , g ) # f l ( f ) and (3.20)
follows directly from Theorem 3.4. D

We conclude this section with the following characterization for groups with
parameters (fl + 1, t , fl), a result which we will need in Section 6.
3.21. T h e o r e m A two generator subgroup G of 1V~ is Nielsen equivalent to
a group with elliptic generators o f orders 2 and 3 if and only if it is Nielsen
equivalent to a group with parameters (fl + 1, t , fl).
P r o o f Suppose that G is Nielsen equivalent to < f , g > with parameters
(fl + 1, t , t ) and suppose thatA representsf in SL(2, C). Then tr2(f) = trY(g) and,
by replacing A by - A if necessary, we may arrange that t r ( f ) = tr(g). Next

+ 1 = tr2(f) + tr2(g) + tr2(fg) - tr(f)tr(g)tr(fg) - 4

= tr2(f) + trE(g) - t r ( f g ) t r ( f g -1) - 4
= 2fl + 4 - tr(fg)tr(fg -1 )

by (2.9) and (2.10). Hence

t r ( f g ) t r ( f g - 1 ) = fl + 3 and tr(fg) + t r ( f g - 1 ) = tr2(f) = fl + 4.

Then
(tr(fg) - tr(fg-1)) 2 = (fl + 4) 2 - 4(fl + 3) = (fl + 2) 2
 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 189

and, by replacing g by g - l , we may assume that

tr( fg) - tr( fg -I) = / 3 + 2 .

Hence tr(fg -1) = 1,

tr(fg -2) = t r ( f ) ( t r ( f g -1) - 1) = 0

and G is Nielsen equivalent to the group < qS,~b > where ~b =fg-1 and ~b =fg-2
are of orders 3 and 2.

Suppose next that G is Nielsen equivalent to a group < ~b,~b > where ~b and ga
are of orders 3 and 2 and l e t f = ~b~b, g = ~b2~b, /3 = / 3 ( f ) . Then

/3(g) =/3(~,b-1~-1) = /3(,(b-l~-l) = / 3 ( f - l ) =/3,

7 = tr[~b, ~,] -- 2 = tr2(~b) + tr2(~b~,) -- 4 = / 3 + 1

by (2.10), and G is Nielsen equivalent to < f , g > with parameters (/3 + 1,/3,/3). []

4. Collars for elliptic elements

I f f in M is nonparabolic, we let axis(f) denote the hyperbolic line in the upper
half space H 3 which has the fixed points o f f as its endpoints. Next i f f and g in
M are both nonparabolic, we let

(4.1) ~ ( f , g) = p(axis(f), axis(g)),

where p denotes the hyperbolic distance in H 3 with curvature - 1 . Note that

6 ( f , g) = 0 w h e n e v e r f and g have a common fixed point.
We derive here sharp lower bounds for the distance 6( f , g) when f and g are
elliptics of order n > 3 in a discrete group. Our proofs depend on a formula for
6 ( f , g) which must be known. However, we have no reference and therefore give a
proof in L e m m a 4.4 for the convenience of the reader. We begin with the following
result (cf. [Mal, V.I.3]):

4.2. L e m m a Suppose that f and g in M have disjoint pairs of fixed points and
that a is the hyperbolic line in H 3 which is orthogonal to the axes o f f and g. Then

4-y(f, g) _ sinhZ(c5 -4- iO),

(4.3) /3( f )/3( g )

where 6 = 6 ( f , g) and 0 = O ( f , g) is the angle between the spheres or hyperplanes

which contain a x i s ( f ) to ~ and axis(g) to a, respectively.
190 E W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

P r o o f Since f i x ( f ) n fix(g) = O, after a preliminary conjugation we may

assume that fix(f) = { - w , w} and fix(g) = { - 1 , 1} where w = re ir ~ 1, r > 1
and kbl < 7r/2. With this normalization, a is the hyperbolic line joining 0 and oo in
~/I 3 6 = log(r) and 0 = Ir is the angle between the planes containing a x i s ( f ) tO
and axis(g) to a. Then

167(f,g) - (w - w - l ) 2 = 4 sinh2(6 + iO)

/3(f)/3(g)

by [GM3, Lemma 2.12]. []

4.4. Lemma Suppose that f and g in M have disjoint pairs of fixed points.
Then

cosh(26(f,g)) 4"y(f,,g) 11 4"T(f, g) ,

= t3(f)13(g) + +
(4.5)
cos( 20( f , g ) ) 47(f,g) 11 - 4-y(f, g)
= ~(f)13(g) + 13(f)13(g)

andhence

(4.6) 6(f,g) = 0 4 7 ( f , g ) e [-I,01.

if and only if 13(f)t3(g)

P r o o f Let 6 = 6(f,g) and 0 = O(f,g). Then by (4.3),

4 7 ( f , g) + i I = I cosh 2(6 4- iO){ = cosh26cos 2 0 + sinh 2 6 sin z 0,

~(f)/3(g)

4 7 ( f , g)
~ ) = I sinh2( 6 • iO){ = sinh 2 6cos 2 0 + cosh 2 6 sin 2 O,

and we obtain (4.5) by adding and subtracting the second equation from the first.
The assertion in (4.6) follows from (4.5). []

4.7. R e m a r k s Lemma 4.4 yields several different expressions for 6(f, g). For
example, if g is of order 2, then B(g) = - 4 and

(4.8) cosh(Z6(f,g)) = lT(f,g) - O(f)l + tT(f,g)l

I~(f)l
 GEOMETRYOF MOBIUSGROUPS 191

Or if "~(f' g) is real, then

/3(f)/3(g)

4~,(f,g) if 4~,(f,g) _<-1,

(4.9) cosh 26(f, g) = / /3(f)/3(g) /3(f)/3(g)
4"~(f, g) 47(f, g)
/3(f)/3(g) + 1 if t3( f)/3(g) >- 0.

Next by (2.10),

(4.10) 47(f, g) +/3(f)/3(g) = (tr( f)tr(g) - 2tr(fg)) 2.

Then if < f, g > is Fuchsian with elliptic generators, 6( f, g) is the hyperbolic

distance between the fixed points o f f and g in the invariant disk and

(4.11) cosh 2 6(f, g) = (tr(f)tr(g) - 2tr(fg)) 2

by Lemma 2.32, (4.9) and (4.10) (cf. [B1, Section 11]).

Finally if tr(f), tr(g), tr(fg) are each real and if [f, g] is elliptic or the identity,
then
-/3(f)•(g) <_47(f,g) < 0
by (4.10) and hence 6(f, g) = 0 by (4.6) (cf. [B1, Lemma 4.38]).
Lemma 4.4 also yields an analytic proof of the following familiar result.
4.12. L e m m a If f and g are in M with f nonparabolic and g of order 2, then

(4.13) 6 ( f , g f g - 1 ) = 26(f,g).

P r o o f Let 7 = 7 ( f , g ) and/3 =/3(f). Then 7(f, gfg -1) = 7(7 -/3) by (2.2) and
/3(gfg-l) =/3. If fix(f) n fix(gfg -1) r 0, then 6(f, gfg -1) = 0 and 7(7 -/3) = 0
by (1.5); i f 7 = 0, then fix(f) o fix(g) r O and 6(f,g) = 0 while i f 7 =/3, then
6(f, g) = 0 by (4.8). Otherwisef has no fixed point in common with g f g - l or g
and

47(7 _ ~ 4"Y(Z_-- fl) = 417 -/3/212 + I'Y('Y-/3)1

cosh(26(f, gfg-1)) = ) +/32 + /32 1/312
= 2[I'Y-/31
-(-~l+ I'd]2 1 = cosh(46(f,g))

by (4.5) and (4.8). []

192 E W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

We will need the following inequality for the commutator parameter [GM2,
Corollary 2].
4.14. T h e o r e m Suppose that < f , g > is a discrete subgroup of M with
I/3(f)(fl(f) + 2)1 < 1. Then either T ( f ,g) E { - 1 , 0 , / 3 ( f ) , / 3 ( f ) + 1} or

(4.15) 12~/(f,g)-/3(f)l >_ 1 + [1 - I / 3 ( f ) ( f l ( f ) + 2)[] 1/2

We establish Theorem 4.14 in Section 6. This result is particularly useful when

f is elliptic since then it implies both J~rgensen's inequality (2.20) and the Lie
product form of (2.20) where 7 ( f , g) is replaced by f l ( f ) - 7 ( f , g) [J2].
Now let

arccosh ((1 + x/5)/3) = 0 . 3 9 4 . . . if n = 3,

b(n)= arccosh ((1 + x/3)/2)= 0.831... ifn = 4,
(4.16)
arccosh ((5 + v~)/5) = 0.913... if n - - 5,
arccosh (2) = 1.316... if n = 6

and

(cos(27r/n) )
(4.17) b(n) = arccosh \2sin2(Tr/n) > 1.090... i f n >_ 7.

We then have the following estimates for the distance between axes of elliptics in
a discrete group.
4.18 T h e o r e m Suppose that f and g are elliptics of order n > 3 in a discrete
subgroup of I~. Then either ~( f ,g) = 0 or

(4.19) 6 ( f ,g) >_b(n).

Inequality (4.19) is sharp for each n > 3.

4.20. T h e o r e m Suppose that f and g are elliptics of orders n and 2 in a
discrete subgroup o f • where n > 3. Then either ~ ( f ,g) = 0 or

(4.21) 6( f ,g) >_b(n)/2.

Inequality (4.21) is sharp for each n >_3.

P r o o f Theorem 4.20 implies Theorem 4.18 Suppose t h a t f and g are as
in Theorem 4.18 with i~(f,g) > 0. Since axis(fJ) = axis(f) for 1 _<j < n, we may
assume that/3(f) =/3(g). Then ,y(f, g) ~ 0 by (1.5) and L e m m a 2.26 implies there
 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 193

exists h of order 2 such that < f , h > is discrete and such that h f h - 1 = gn where
~=•
N o w 6 ( f , g ) = 26( f , h) by Lemma 4.12 while f and h satisfy the hypotheses
of Theorem 4.20. Hence (4.19) follows from (4.21). Then by Example 8.11 there
exist ellipticsf and g of order n for which < f , g > is discrete and for which (4.19)
holds with equality. []

R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n T h e o r e m s 4.14 a n d 4 . 2 0 The proofs for Theorems 4.14

and 4.20 depend upon each other. We will use Theorem 4.14 in Section 5 to
establish Theorem 4.20 for the case where n > 4; it implies, in particular, the
existence of the central disk Do of L e m m a 4.23. Then in Section 6 we will apply
an inequality, resulting from the proof of Theorem 4.20 for the case where n = 3,
to establish Theorem 4.14.
Outline for p r o o f o f T h e o r e m 4.20 Fix n > 3, set/3 = -4sin2(Tr/n) and
suppose that f and g satisfy the hypotheses of Theorem 4.20 with 6( f , g) > 0.
Since axis(fJ) = axis(f) for 1 _<j < n, we may a s s u m e f is a primitive elliptic and
hence that/3(f) =/3. Then

c o s h ( 2 6 ( f , g ) ) = 1 7 ( f , g ) - / 3 1 + 17(f,g)l and 7 ( f , g ) ~ [/3,0]

1/31
by (4.6) and (4.8). We establish (4.21) by showing that 7 ( f , g) does not lie in the
slit ellipse

(4.22) E, = {z: 1/31 < ]z-/31 + ]zl < e(n)} where e(n) = ]/3]cosh(b(n)).

In particular, we prove that En c Y~n where Kn is the set of 7 in C for which there
exists no discrete group < f , g > with 7 ( f , g ) = 7 and 3 ( f ) = 3. That is, X~ is the
set of values which are never assumed by the commutator parameter of a discrete
two generator group with a primitive elliptic generator of order n.
Our proof depends on the following three properties of the set Xn.
4.23. L e m m a Let

(4.24) { D~176
DI = {z: [zI < a(n)} \ { 0 , 3 , 3 + 1 } f o r n > 3

where a(n) is as in (3.3). Then Do C J~, if n >_4 and D1 c g~ if n >_ 3.

4.25. L e m m a I f D c Xn, then D* c Xn where D* is the symmetric extension
of D consisting of the union of D and its images under rl (z) = 3, rz(z) = 3 - z and
r3(z) =/3 - z.
 194 E W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

4.26. L e m m a p-l(Xn) C ~ wherep is any of the polynomials

(4.27)
pl(z) = Z(Z--/3), p2(z) = z ( z - - / 3 - - 1) 2 , p3(z) =z(z--/3)(z--/3--2) 2,
p 4 ( z ) = z(z 2 - ( / 3 - 1)z--(/3-- 1)) 2 ,
pS(z) = z(z 2 -- (2/3 + 3)z + (/32 + 3/3 + 1)) 2,
p6(z) = z ( z 4 - (3/3 -~- 2)Z3 + (3/32 + 3/3 -- 1)Z2
__(/33 _ 4/3 -- 2)Z -- (/33 + 3/32 + 2/3 -- 1)).

P r o o f o f L e m m a 4.23 Suppose that < f , g > is discrete with 7 ( f , g) = 7 and

/3(f) =/3, and suppose that 7 r {0,/3}. If n _> 4, then 1 - I/3(/3 + 2)1 = I/3 + 112 and
Theorem 4.14 implies that either 127 -/31 > I/3 + II + 1 or that 7 E {-1,/3 + 1}; in
each case 7 r Do. I f n >__3, then Theorem 3.4 implies that either 171 >- a(n) or that
n = 5, 3' = - ( 3 - x/5)/2 and/3 = - ( 5 - v/5)/2, whence 7 = / 3 + 1; again 7 r D1 in
each case. []

P r o o f o f L e m m a 4.25 Fix -y in F~. Then the examples where < f , g > is

cyclic or dihedral show that 7 ~ 0,/3. We complete the proof by showing that/3 - .y
and ~ lie in ~ .
If/3 - ",/r Xn, then there e x i s t f and g in M such that < f , g > is discrete with
7 ( f , g ) = / 3 - "Ya n d / 3 ( f ) =/3. Next by Lemma 2.29 there exists an h of order 2
such that < f , h > is discrete with 7 ( f , h ) = 7. Hence 7 r F~.

If ~ r F~n,then there exist f , g in 1V~such that < f , g > is discrete with "y(f, g) =
a n d / 3 ( f ) =/3. In this case the group < j~, ~ >, obtained from conjugating < f , g >
by reflection in the line y = 0, is discrete with .y(jT, ~) = . / a n d / 3 ( f ) --/3. []

P r o o f o f L e m m a 4.26 Suppose that 7 r F~ and thatp is one of the polynomials

in (4.27). By L e m m a 2.1 there e x i s t f , g and h in M such that < f , g > is discrete
with 7 ( f , g ) = % / 3 ( f ) = /3 and such that h is an element of < f , g > with
7 ( f , h ) = P ( 7 ) . Then < f , h > is discrete andp(-y) r 3~n. []

Finally we will use the following elementary observation to estimate p-1 (Xn)
for the polynomials p in (4.27).

4.28. L e m m a Suppose that D C C is open, that p is a monic polynomial with

p(zo) E D and that d(p(zo), OD) is the distance from p(zo) to 019. If (1,..., ~n are
the roots of p(z) - p(zo) = O, counted according to multiplicity, and if

(4.29) I ~ ( r + [ffj- zo[) < d(p(zo), 019),

j=l

then D' = {z : Iz - zo] < r} lies i n p - l ( D ) .

 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 195

In m o s t cases, it suffices to a p p l y L e m m a 4.28 to the case where D is a disk.

H o w e v e r w h e n n = 3, w e will e n c o u n t e r the situation w h e r e D is the finite u n i o n o f
disks. In this case it will be useful to e m p l o y a c o m p u t e r or the f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a
to e s t i m a t e d(p( zo ), OD ).

4.30. Lemma IfO < s = Izl - z2[ < rl + r2, then thepoints where the circles
{ z : [z - zll = rl} and {z: Iz - z2l = r2) intersect are given by

1
(4.31) w = [(zl + z 2 ) + ( t ~ - t 2 + i v / 4 t ~ t 2 - (tl2 + t22 - 1 ) 2 ) ( z 2 - Zl)]

where tj = (rj/s) 2.

5. P r o o f o f T h e o r e m 4 . 2 0

W e n o w c o m p l e t e the p r o o f o f T h e o r e m 4.20 f o r the five cases n > 7, n = 6, n =

5, n = 4 and n = 3 as follows. We first use L e m m a s 4.23, 4.25, 4.26 and 4.28 to
s h o w that En C_ Xn w h e r e En is as in (4.22); this, in turn, implies that (4.21) holds.
E x a m p l e 8.11 then yields a pair o f elliptics f and g o f orders n and 2 such that
< f , g > is discrete with

(5.1) 6 ( f , g ) = b(n)/2.

5 . 2 . P r o o f for n > 7 H e r e - 1 < / 3 < 0, e(n) = 2 c o s ( 2 ~ / n ) = / 3 + 2 and

En C Do = {z: 12z -/31 < / 3 + 2} \ {0,/3} c ~n

b y L e m m a 4.23. []

5 . 3 . P r o o f f o r n = 6 In this case/3 = - 1, a ( 6 ) = 1 and e(6) = 2. T h e n

Dl={Z:[zl<l}\{O}cX6 and E6cD~'cX6

b y L e m m a s 4.23 and 4.25. See Fig. 1. []

5 . 4 . P r o o f f o r n = 5 H e r e / 3 = - ( 5 - x / 5 ) / 2 --- - 1 . 3 8 1 9 , e(5) = 2 and

o0 = {z: Iz+ (5 - v/-5)/4[ < (5 - x/~)/4} \ { - 1 , - ( 3 - x/5)/2},

(5.5) Ol = {z: Izl < a(5)} \ { 0 , - ( 3 - x / 5 ) / 2 } ,
Do u D~ c Xs,

w h e r e a(5) = ( v ~ - 1 ) / 2 > .618. In addition,

p l ( z ) = z(z + (5 - X/5)/2), p2(z) = z(z + (3 - V ~ ) / 2 ) 2

196 F. W. G E H R I N G A N D G. J. M A R T I N

by (4.27).

> f - . . . . 1

Fig. 1. Disk coveting for n = 6.

Fig. 2. Disk coveting for n = 5.

Let D = Do U { - 1 , - ( 3 - v ~ ) / 2 ) } . Then p 1 ( 2 2 ) = - - ( 5 -- v ~ ) / 4 E O where

z2 -~ - . 6 9 1 + .4621i,{z2,~2} are the roots o f pl(z) = - ( 5 - x/5)/4 and
d ( - ( 5 - v ~ ) / 4 , 0 1 9 ) >_ .690 by (5.5). Hence, with L e m m a 4.28, we obtain

D ' = {z: I z - z21 < .488} C p l l ( D ) .

N e x t P l 1( - (3 - x/5)/2) n O ' = O, p~- 1( _ 1 ) n O ' = {w2 } where w2 = - . 6 9 1 + .7228i

 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 197

and

(5.6) D2 = D ' \ {w2} C p l l ( D o ) and D~ C Xs.

Let D --- D1 u { 0 , - ( 3 - x/5)/2}. Then p 2 ( - ( 3 - v/5)/2) = 0 e D,

{ - ( 3 - v ~ ) / 2 , - ( 3 - v ~ ) / 2 , 0 } are the roots o f p2(z) = 0 and d(0, OD) > .618
by (5.5). Hence

D ' = {z: [z + (3 - x/5)/21 < .741} =p~-l(D)

by L e m m a 4.28. Then p)-l (0) = {0, - ( 3 - v ~ ) / 2 } and p21 ( - ( 3 - x/-5)/2) C/D' =

{ - 1 }; hence

(5.7) D3=D'\{O,-(3-v/-5)/2,-1}=P21(D1) and D;CNs.

Finally Iw2 + (5 - v ~ ) / 2 l + ]w21 = 2 and we see as in Fig. 2 that

E5 cD~UD~ C_X5

by (5.6) and (5.7). []

5.8. R e m a r k Using the disk D' o f L e m m a 4.28 to estimatep-1 (O) for the cases
where n = 3, 4, 5 means that, in general, we must consider more sets than necessary
in order to cover the ellipse En. For example, an analytic but less intuitive argument
shows that E5 c (t921 (D1))* C X5; no such simple p r o o f is available when n = 3, 4.
The arguments using disks also have the advantage that, in each case, they single
out the value of the commutator parameter for the extremal group.

5.9 P r o o f f o r n = 4 In this case/3 = - 2 , e(4) = 1 + ~ and

Do = { z : Iz+ll < 1} \ {-1},

(5.10) Oa = {z Izl < a(4)} \ {0},
Do U D~ C X4,

where a(4) = (x/5 - 1)/2 > .618. Then as in (4.27),

p2(z) = z ( z + l ) 2, p4(z) = z ( z 2+3z-t-3) 2 .

L e t D = DoU{-1}. Thenpz(z2) = - 1 E D wherez2 -- - . 1 2 2 6 + . 7 4 4 9 i , {z2, Z'2,-Iz21-2}

are the roots ofp2(z) = - 1 and d ( - 1, OD) = 1 by (5.10). Thus

O ' = {z: Iz-z21 < .271} C p21(D)

198 F.W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

by L e m m a 4.28, p21 ( - 1) rq D' = {z2 } and

(5.11) O2=O'\{z2}CP2'(Oo ) and D ~ C Z 4 .

Next l e t D : D1 to{0}. Thenpa(z3) -- 0 6 D where z3 : e ''ri/3 - 2 , {0, Z3, Z3, Z3, Z3}
are the roots ofpa(z) = 0 and d(0, 019) > .618 by (5.10). Hence

O ' = {z: I z - z 3 l < .276} CP41(D),

p41(0) N D ' : {z3} and thus

(5.12) D3=D'\{z3}CPnl(D1) and D~cZ4.

Now Iz2 + 21 + Iz21 > 1 + v~, Iz3 + 21 + Iz31 = 1 + v ~ and, as we see in Fig. 3,

EaCO0OO IUD~UD~CZ4

by (5.10), (5.11) and (5.12). []

D~ D3

D3 D~
Fig. 3. Disk covering for n -- 4.
5.13. P r o o f f o r n = 3 Here/3 = - 3 , e(3) = 1 + v'5 and

(5.14) [ O1 = {z: Izl < a(3)} \ {0},

t D7 c X3,
 G E O M E T R Y OF M O B I U S G R O U P S 199

where a(3) = 2cos(27r/7) - 1 > .2469. In this case there is no central excluded
disk Do. The proof consists of showing that E3 can be covered by D T together with
the symmetric extensions of ten (usually punctured) disks D e , . . . , Dll which lie in
the preimages of D~ under compositions of the polynomials

pl(z) =z(z+3), p2(z) = z(z + 2) 2, p3(z) = z(z + l)2(z + 3),

(5.15) p4(z) = z ( z + 2 ) 4 , p5(z) = z ( z 2-k-3z-I- 1)2,
p6(z) =(z+l)(z z+3z+I) 2-1

in (4.27). Figures 4, 5 and 6 indicate three stages of the construction of the covering
by disks of the right half of the ellipse E3.
Let D = DI U {0}. T h e n p 4 ( - 2 ) = 0 E D,d(O, OD) >_.2469 by (5.14) and

D ' = {z: Iz+2l < .5574} c p41(D)

by Lemma 4.28. Then p41 (0) fq D' = {-2} and

(5.16) D2 = D ' \ { - 2 } cP41(DT) and D~ C X3.

Next let D = D~ U { - 1}. Then P 6 ( - - ( 3 -- V ~ ) / 2 ) = -- 1 E D , d ( - 1, OD) = .5574

by (5.16),
D ' = {z: Iz+ (3 - v'5)/21 < .3O56} cp61(D)
by Lemma 4.28 andP61(-1) riD' = {-(3 - v~)/2}. Thus

(5.17) O3=D'\{-(3-v~)/2}cP6~(D~) and D~c•

Let D = D~ U D~ U {-2}. Then p1(-3/2) = - 9 / 4 E D; (5.16) and (5.17) then
imply that the points where the circles Iz + 21 = .5574 and Iz + (3 + v/5)/21 =
.3056 intersect are the points of 019 closest to - 9 / 4 . From (4.31) we obtain
d ( - 9 / 4 , OD) > .3616 and Lemma 4.28 yields

O ' = {z: Iz+ 3/21 < .6013} c p~-l(D).

Then p~-i ( - 2 ) N D' = { - 1, - 2 } and hence

(5.18) D~ = D ' \ {-1,-2} C p]-l(D~ UD]) c X3.

Now letD = D~ UD~ U {-1}. Thenp2(-2/3) = - 3 2 / 2 7 E D and by (5.16) and

(5.18), the points of intersection for Iz + 11 = .5574 and [z + 1.51 = .6013 are the
points of 019 closest to -32/27. Thus d(-32/27, OD) > .5208 by (4.31) and

D' = {z: [z + 2/3[ < .4601} Cp21(D)

200 F.W.GEHRINGANDG.J. MARTIN

by Lemma 4.28. Since p21 ( - 1) n D' = { - 1, - (3 - v/5)/2},

(5.19) Ds=D'\(-1,-(3-v~)/2)}cp21(D~uD~4) and D~cX3.

See Fig. 4 for the five disks described above.

We can use (5.19) to enlarge the disk D~. Let D = D~ UD~ U {-2, ( - 3 - x/5)/2}.
T h e n p l ( - 3 / 2 ) = - 9 / 4 E D, d(-9/4,00) >_.4643 by (5.16), (5.19) and (4.31),
and
O ' = {z: Iz+ 3/21 < .6813} c p ~ l ( O ) .

Next p~-1(-2) n D' = { - 1 , - 2 } , P 1 1 ( - ( 3 + v~)/2) n D' = {z4,24} where z4

- 1 . 5 + .6066i and

t!

(5.20) 0 4 = Ot \ (-1, -2, z4,z4} Qp11(D~ UD~) C X3.

tt
Let D = D 4 U {-1,--2, z4,z4}. Then p2(z6) = - 3 / 2 where Z6 = -.6300 +
.3880i, d(-3/2,019) = .6813 by (5.20) and

O ' = {z: [z-z6[ < .268} C p z l ( D )

by Lemma 4.28. Next p~-l(-1) N D' = ~b, p 2 1 ( - 2 ) n D' = {w6} where W6

-.5804 + .6063i, p~-I ({z4, 34}) N D' = 4~and we conclude that
t! ,

(5.21) D6 =Dt\{w6} Cp21(D4) and D 6 C•3.

0 . 6 . ~

0.4 ~.................. ~....... ""-..

0.2.

-0.

-0.t
Fig. 4. First step for n = 3.
 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 201

Let D = D~ U D~ U D~ and z7 = - . 3 4 + .36i. Then by (5.16), (5.19) and (5.21),

the intersection o f [z + 1[ = .5574 and [z - r r 6 1 = .268 contains the point o f 019
nearest p3(z7) = - . 7 1 3 2 - .2357i and d(p3(27), OD) >_.332 by (4.31). Hence

(5.22) Ov={z:lz-z71<.lOg}CP31(O~UO~UO~) and D~CX3.

Next set D = D~ 0 D~ U D~ U D~ u { - 1, - (3 - x/5)/2} and z8 = - . 2 + .28i. Then

by (5.16), (5.17), (5.21) and (5.22), the point o f 019 closest to p3(28) lies in the
intersection o f Iz + II = .5574 and Iz - z61 = .268. Thus d(p3(z8), 019) > .447 and

D ' = {z: Iz - z 8 1 < .136} c p 3 1 ( D ) .

Next P31 (_ (3 - v/-5)/2) n D ' = 0 and P31 (_ 1 ) O D ' = {w8 } where w8 = - . 2 1 1 9 +

.4014i. Hence

(5.23) D8=O'\{w8}cp~l(O~UD~UD;UO.~) and D~ C X3.

See Fig. 5 for the last four disks described above.

_ .

0.!

0.25-

I I . , , -

~0.2!

-0.5-

- 0 . 7 84 D;

Fig. 5. Second step for n = 3.

Now let D = D~ u D~ U D ; U D~ u D~ U D~ U { - ( 3 - v ~ ) / 2 } . Then p5(29) =

- ( 3 - v/-5)/2 where 29 -~ - . 0 1 9 9 + .2721i and d(ps(zg),OD) > .390. Arguing as
above we see that

(5.24) D9 = {z: 0 < ]z-z9l < .094} C p 5-1 (D1UDzUD3OD6UD7UD8),

. . . . . . . D9 c X 3.
202 E W. GEHRINGAND G. J. MARTIN

Set D = D~ U D~ U D~ U D~ O D[ tO{-(3 - V/(5)/2, 0, ~'9) and z10 = -2.08 + .56i.

Then dGo4(zlo), 019) > .307 and we obtain

D r = {z: Iz-zlol < .121} CP41(D).

Then p41 ({-(3 - v~)/2, 0, 29}) n D' = wlo ~ -2.0496 + .6473i and

(5.25) D1o=Dt\{Wlo}CP41(D~UD~UD~tOD~UD~) and D10CX3.

tt
We use the disks D~0 to enlarge the disk D, one more time. For this let

D -- D~ UD~ UD~ UD$ uD~ UD~o U { - 2 , - ( 3 +.v~)/2}.

Then d(pl ( - 3 / 2 ) , OD) >>_.594 and we obtain

D4 = {z: lz + 3/21 < .770} \ {-1,-2,24,Y.4} C ]K3

as above.

0,7

0.

0.2

-0.2

-0.

-0.7

Fig. 6. Disk covering for n = 3.

Finally set D = D~ UO~ UD~ UD~ UD~ UD; t3{ - (3 - v/5)/2, 0} and Zll = - 2 + .62i.
Then it is not difficult to check that d(p4 (z 11), aD) >__.32 and hence that

D'= {z: ]z-z11t < .106) Cp~-I(D).

 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUSGROUPS 203

T h e n P 4 1 ( ( - 3 - x/-5)/2) N D ' = wlo and

(5.26) Dll = D ' \ {wlo} CP41(D~UD;UD;UD~UD~UD;),D~I C ~;~3.

See Fig. 6 for the final four disks described above.

Now }z4 + 3I + IZ41 = 1 + x/5 and we see as in Fig. 6 that E3 is covered by the
union of D~ through D~o; hence E3 c X3. []

5.27. R e m a r k The disks D~I w e r e introduced in this argument to enable us

to obtain a sharp bound in (6.3) of Lemma 6.1 in the next section.

6. C o n s e q u e n c e s o f T h e o r e m 4.20

The proof of Theorem 4.20 when n _> 4 depends on Theorem 4.14. We now
prove Theorem 4.14 using the covering of E3 constructed above during the proof
of Theorem 4.20 when n = 3. We then apply Theorem 4.20 to obtain a general
lower bound for the distance between axes of elliptics in a discrete group.
We begin with the following estimates for the commutator parameter of a discrete
group < f , g > with ~,(f,g) = / 3 ( f ) + 1. cf. [Tal] and [Ta2].
6.1. L e m m a Suppose that < f , g > is a discrete subgroup of NI and that either
f and g are elliptics of orders 3 and 2 or that 7 ( f , g) = / 3 ( f ) + 1. Then

(6.2) [ I~'(f,g) + (3 - x/~)/21 ~ (3 - x/5)/2 or 7 ( f , g ) = - ( 3 - x/5)/2,

t I'r(f,g) + (3 + v~)/21 > (3 v'5)/2 or "r(f,g) -- -(3 + v'~)/2,

and

/ 17(f,g)+ll->(x/5-1)/2 or 7(f,g)=-l,
(6.3)
] 7 ( / , g ) + 2 [ _> (x/-5 1)/2 or ~/(gf, g ) = - 2 .

Each of these inequalities is sharp.

P r o o f Let h = g f g - 1 . If 7 ( f , g ) = f l ( f ) + 1, then 7 ( f , h ) = "y(f,g) by
(2.2), ~ h ) -=/3 and hence < f , h > is Nielsen equivalent to a group with elliptic
generators of order 2 and 3 by Theorem 3.21. Thus it suffices to establish the
above inequalities and to show that they are sharp under the assumption t h a t f and
g are elliptics of orders 3 and 2.
Now let D denote the union of the disks D ~ , . . . , D~I defined in the above proof of
Theorem 4.20 for the case where n = 3. Then using (4.31) we see that D contains
the four disks

{z:0< Iz+(3 + x/-5)/21 < (3 - x/-5)/2), { z : 0 < I z + ( 3 : k 1)/21 < ( v ~ - 1)/2)

204 E W. G E H R I N G A N D G. J. M A R T I N

and we obtain (6.2) and (6.3).

If < f , g > is the parabolic group w i t h f 3 = g2 = ( f g ) 6 = id in [Mal, V.D.6],
then 7 ( f , g) = 0 and the first part of (6.2) holds with equality. If < f , g > is the
dihedral group D3 w i t h f 3 = g2 = (fg)2 = id, then 7 ( f , g ) = - 3 and the second
part of (6.2) holds with equality.
If < f , g > is the groupA5 w i t h f 3 = g2 = (fg)5 = id, then 7 ( f , g) = - ( 3 - v ~ ) / 2
and the first part of (6.3) holds with equality. Next by L e m m a 2.29 there exists an
h of order 2 where < f , h > is discrete with 7 ( f , h ) = - ( 3 + v/5)/2; the second
part of (6.3) then holds with equality for the group < f , h >. []
6.4. C o r o l l a r y Suppose that < f , g > is a discrete subgroup of M and that
7 ( f , g ) = / 3 ( f ) + 1,0 < [/3(f) + 21 -< 1 and [/3(f)(/3(f) + 2)1 < 1. Then

(6.5) [1/3(f)2 - 41] 1/2 > V'~ > 1 + [1- I/3(f)(/3(f) + 2)1]1/2

P r o o f The hypotheses and the first part of (6.3) imply that

I/3(f) + 21 = I ' v ( f , g ) + 1 1 - ( v ~ - 1)/2 > 2 - x/2.

Hence I/3(f) 2 - 41 > 2,

1 - I/3(f)(/3(f) + 2)1 < (1 - I/3(f) + 21)2 < ( v ~ - 1) 2

and (6.5) follows. []

6.6. P r o o f o f T h e o r e m 4.14 Suppose that < f , g > is discrete with

(6.7) 7~{-1,0,/3,/3+1) and I/3(/3+2)1<1,

where 7 = 7 ( f , g ) and/3 = / 3 ( f ) . We shall show that 7 ~ D where

] 1/2
(6.8) D -- {z: IEz-/31 < r} where r-- 1 + 1 - t/3(/3 + 2)]

Suppose that 7 E D, let p(z) = z(z -/3) and let 7j = 7 ( f , gj) where gl = g and

gj+l = g j f g i 1

forj = 1,2,.... I f z E D, then

(6.9) 12p(z) -/31 < (12z -/312 + [/3(/3 + 2)1)/2 < (r 2 + I/3(/3 + 2)1)/2 = r.
 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 205

T h u s p J ( D ) C D , D lies in the Fatou set forp(z) [B2, Definition 3.1.3] and

(6.10) 3"j+1 = P J(3") E D

f o r j > 0.
If/3 = 0, then D = {z : Izl < 1},f is parabolic and 13"1 > 1 by [Mal, II.C.5];
hence 3" ~ D. Next if/3 = - 1, then D = {z : 12z + 11 < 1 } , f is of order 6 and 13"1 --- 1
by Theorem 3.4; hence again 3" ~ D. Finally if/3 = - 2 , then D = {z : Iz + 11 < 1},

0 < 13"j+l + II = IP(3"j)+ 11 = 13"y+ 112 = 13' + 112j

f o r j > 0, and 3" ~ D by L e m m a 2.21 with 3'0 = / 3 + 1 = - 1 . We conclude that

/3 r { 0 , - 1 , - 2 } .
Suppose that 1/31 < 1. Then 0 is an attracting fixed point forp(z), 0 E D and 3"j --* 0
a s j --* oo [B2, Theorem 6.3.1]. Hence 3"j = 3"(f, gj) = 0 for s o m e j by L e m m a
2.21. Let k denote the smallest such integerj. Because 3" ~ {0,/3}, 3"1 = 3" r 0 and
3"2 = P(3") r 0; thus k _> 3. Thenp(Tk_l) = 0, 3'k-1 r 0 and

7 ( f , gk-1) = 3"k-1 = /3 = / 3 ( f ) =/3(gk-1) # 0.

T h u s f and gk-1 are elliptic of order 2, 3, 4 or 6 by L e m m a 2.31 and 1/31 > 1, a

contradiction.
Finally suppose that I/~1 -> 1. Then I/3 + 21 < 1 by (6.7) and the fact that
/3 r { - 1 , -2},/3 + 1 is an attracting fixed point forp(z) and/3 E D. Thus as above,
7j = / 3 + 1 for s o m e j b y L e m m a 2.21. Let k be the smallest such integerj. Because
"/1 = 7 ~ {-1,/3 + 1}, 71 ~ /3 + 1 and 72 = P(7) ~ /3 + 1; thus k > 3. Hence
3"k-2 E P - I ( - 1 ) and

123'k-2-/31 = [I/32 - 41] 1/2 > 1 + [1 - I/3(/3 + 2)1] 1/2

by (6.5) applied to < f , g ~ >. In particular, 7k-2 ~ D contradicting (6.10). This

completes the proof of Theorem 4.14. []

We derive next a lower bound for 6 ( f , g) for the case where f and g are arbitrary
elliptics. We begin with the following consequence of L e m m a 4.4.
6.11. L e m m a Suppose that f , g, h are elliptics with 7( f , g) = 7( f , h) and that
g and h are of orders m and g where m > L Then

sin(Tr/g)
(6.12) sinh(6(f, g)) > sin(n/m) sinh(6(f, h)),
206 F. W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

(6.13) sin(Tr//) cosh( 6( f , h ) ).

cosh(6(f,g)) < sin(w/m)

There is equality in (6.12) / f 4 - / ( f , g ) + f l ( f ) ~ ( g ) > 0 and hence if < f ,g > is

Fuchsian. There is equality in (6.13) /f4"r(f, h) + f l ( f ) ~ ( h ) < O.
P r o o f We may assume t h a t f has no fixed points in c o m m o n with g and h since
otherwise (6.12) and (6.13) would hold trivially with 6 ( f , g) = 6 ( f , h) = 0. Next
since axis(g k) = axis(g) and axis(h/) = axis(h) for 1 _< k < m and 1 < j < e, we
may further assume that g and h are primitive elliptics. Let

[ sinQr/g) ]2 4q'(f, h) 4 7 ( f , g)
Z ~ W -~- -~ tz.
(6.14) t = tsin(cr/m) > 1, fl(f)fl(h)' fl(f)t3(g)

Then by (4.5) and (6.14),

2 s i n h 2 6 ( f , g ) = c o s h ( 2 6 ( f , g ) ) - 1 = Itz + 11 + Itz] - 1
> t([z + 1l + Iz]- 1) = t ( c o s h ( 2 6 ( f , h ) ) - 1)
= 2t sinh 2 6(f, h),

with equality if tz >_ - 1 and hence if 4~,(f, g) + fl(f)fi(g) > O. Similarly

2 cosh 2 6(f, g) = cosh(26(f,g)) + 1 = Itz+ II + Itzl + 1

< t(lz + 11 + [z[ + 1) ---=t ( c o s h ( Z 6 ( f , h ) ) + 1)
2t cosh z 6 ( f , h),

with equality ifz <_ - 1 and hence if 4 7 ( f , h) + 13(f)fl(h) < O. C]

6.15. T h e o r e m l f < f , g > is a discrete subgroup o f M and i f f and g are

elliptics o f orders 6 andre where m > 3, then either 6 ( f ,g) = 0 or

(6.16) sinh(/~(f, g)) > cot(n/m).

Inequality (6.16) is sharp f o r each m > 3.

P r o o f Suppose that d~(f, g) > 0. Then f i ( f ) = - 1,/9(g) = - 4 sin2(Tr/m) and
lT(f,g)l >-- 1 by Theorem 3.4. Hence

cosh(26(f, g)) = cscZ(~-/m) liT(f,g) + sinZ(Tr/m){ + 17(f, g)l] >- 2 cscZ(Tr/m) - 1

by (4.5) and we obtain (6.16). The groups in Theorem 8.1 with n = 6 show that
this inequality is sharp for all m _> 3. C3
 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 207

Now for each n and m with n > 3 choose c(n, m) so that

c ( n , m ) _ ~ cos(r/m) if n = 6 and m > 3,

(6.17) si--n((~/-n) / sinh(b(n)/2) otherwise.

Then we see from (4.16) and (4.17) that

x/2cos(27r/n) - 1
>0.248... if n > 7 ,
2

~ > 0.25 i f n = 6 a n d m > 3,

1/v/-8 = 0 . 3 5 3 . . . i f n = 6 a n d m = 2,
(6.18) c(n,m) =

V/(V~ - 1)/16 = 0 . 2 7 7 . . . i f n = 5,

V/(v/3 - 1)/8 = 0 . 3 0 2 . . . if n = 4,

V/(v'~ - 2)/8 = 0 . 1 7 1 . . . i f n = 3.

We have the following lower bounds for the distances between the axes o f
elliptics in a discrete group G. (See [B 1, T h e o r e m 11.6.7 and Exercise 11.6.4] for
analogous bounds for the case when G is Fuchsian.)

6 . 1 9 T h e o r e m S u p p o s e t h a t f a n d g are elliptics o f orders n a n d m in a discrete

s u b g r o u p oflV~ with n > min(m, 3). Then either 6( f , g) = 0 or

c(n,m)
(6.20) s i n h ( 6 ( f , g)) _>
sinQr/n) sin(w/m)"

Inequality (6.20) is sharp f o r n > 3 a n d m = 2, f o r n = 5 a n d m = 4, f o r n = 6

a n d m >_ 3, f o r n > 7 a n d m = 3, a n d f o r n > 7 a n d m = n.

P r o o f We may assume that 6 ( f , g) > 0 and hence that 3'(f, g) ~ 0. If n > 3

and m = 2, then (4.21) and (6.17) imply that

c(n,2) c(n,2)
(6.21) s i n h ( 6 ( f , g ) ) >_ s i n h ( b ( n ) / 2 ) - sin(Tr/n) = sin(Tr/n)sin(zr/2)

and we obtain (6.20). Similarly if n = 6 and m > 3, then

s i n h ( 6 ( f , g ) ) > cot(Tr/m) = c(n,m)

- sin(n/n) sin(z/m)
208 F.W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

by (6.16).
Suppose now that n ~ 6 and m _> 3. I f - y ( f , g ) ~ / 3 ( f ) , there exists h of order 2
such that < f , h > is discrete with -y(f , h) = "/(f, g) by L e m m a 2.29; then

sinh(6(f, h)) c(n, m)

sinh(~5(f, g)) > >
sin(Tr/m) sin(r/n) sin(a'/m)

by (6.12) with ~ = 2 and (6.20). If 7( f , g) = / 3 ( f ) , n = 3 or 4 by L e m m a 2.31,

m < 4 and

1 > c(n,m)
sinh(6(f,g)) = cot(It/m) >
2 sin(Tr/m) sin(Tr/n) sin(a-/m)

by (4.9), (4.16) and (6.18).

Inequality (6.20) reduces to (4.21) and hence is sharp if n > 3 and m = 2.
Similarly if n > 7, then

c(n,m) _ c(n, m)
=2 ~ cosh(b(n)/2) = sinh(b(n))
sin2(Tr/n) slntTr/n )

by (4.17) and (6.18). Hence (6.20) becomes (4.19) and is sharp if n = m > 7. If
n = 6 and m > 3, then (6.20) is (6.16) and thus again sharp.
If < f , g > is the (2,n,m) triangle group w i t h f n =gm = (fg)2 = id, n > 7 and
m ___3, then
7 ( f , g) = 2 cos(27r/n) + 2 cos(2zr/m)

by (3.15) and

47(f,g) _ [ d(n,m) ]2
(6.22) sinh2 6 ( f ' g) - /3(f)/3(g) Lsin(Tr/n) sin(zr/m)

by (4.9) where
d(n, m) = V/2 cos(2zr/n) + 2 cos(2rr/m)
2
Hence d(n, 3) = c(n, 3) by (6.18) and (6.20) holds with equality i f n > 7 and m = 3.
Finally Example 8.13 shows that (6.20) is sharp when n = 5 and m = 4. []

The following sharp lower bound for the distance between elliptic axes is an
immediate consequence of Theorem 6.19. Cf. [GM3, Theorem 5.37].

C o r o l l a r y l f f and g are elliptics in a discrete subgroup of M and if f and g

are not both of order 2, then either a ( f ,g) = 0 or

(6.24) 8(f,g) > b(3)/2 = 0.197 . . . .

 GEOMETRY OF MOBIUS GROUPS 209

6.25 Remark It is not difficult to verify that

1 < d(n,m)
- - < 3.02
- c(n,m)

for n > 7 and n > m > 3. F r o m this fact, and examples in Section 8, it then follows
that (6.20) is within the factor 3.02 o f being sharp for each n and m.

7. A d i s c r e t e n e s s c r i t e r i o n

We establish here an arithmetic criterion for discreteness which will be needed

in Section 8. This result follows from a description of the elements h in < f , g >
for which 7 ( f , h) can be expressed as a polynomial in 7 ( f , g) and 3 ( f ) with integer
coefficients. (Cf. [Ho], [J4] and [Tr].) We begin with the following preliminary
result.

7.1. L e m m a Suppose that r is an integer and that u E C \ {0}. Then

(7.2) u 2~ + U-2r =pr((U -- u-l)2),

(7.3) U2r+l -~- U-(2r+l) = (U + u-1)qr((u - u-l)2),

where pr and qr are monic polynomials with integer coefficients and where pr (0) = 2
and qr(O) = 1.

P r o o f L e t p 0 = 2 and q0 = 1,pl = z + 2 and ql = z + 1, and define Pr and qr

by induction so that they satisfy the recurrence relations

(7.4) Pr+I + pr-1 = (z + 2)pr and q~+l + qr-1 = (z + 2)q,

for all integers r. Then (7.2) and (7.3) hold for r = 0, for r = 1 and hence for all r
by virtue o f the identity

with s = 2r and s = 2r + 1, respectively. Next (7.2) and (7.3) with u = 1 imply

t h a t p r ( 0 ) = 2 and qr(O) = 1. []

7.5. T h e o r e m Suppose that f and g are in M and that

(7.6) h =frlgS~ ...frngSnfr,§

210 E W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

where n is even a n d where sl = 4-1 a n d sj = ( - 1)/+is1 f o r j = 1 , 2 , . . . , n. Then

(7.7) tr(h) = ( t r ( f ) ) t p ( 7 ( f , g ) , / 3 ( f ) )

where p is a p o l y n o m i a l in both variables with integer coefficients a n d where t = 0

or 1 d e p e n d i n g on whether rl + . . . + rn+l is even or odd.

Proof L e t / 3 = / 3 ( f ) and 7 = 7 ( f , g ) . Ifr~ = rl + rn+l, then

tr(h) = tr(fr'~g st.. .fr, gS,) = tr(fr.gSnfr'~gSl ...frn-lgS~-~ ).

H e n c e w e m a y a s s u m e without loss o f generality that rn+l = 0 and that sj = ( - 1)i+1

forj = 1,2,...,n.
S u p p e s e first that n - 2 and t h a t f and g are r e p r e s e n t e d b y

A =
[u0]0 u -1 ' B=
[ab]
c d

in SL(2, C). T h e n

(7.8) t r ( f ) = (u + u - l ) , /3 = (u - u - l ) 2, 7 = -bc(u - u-l) 2

and w e see that

79) bc[urlr2+ur2r']
I f 2r = rl + r2 is even, then so is 2s = rl - / ' 2 and with (7.2), (7.8) and (7.9) w e
obtain

tr(h) = (1 + bc )pr(/3) - bcps(/3) = pr(/3) -- .ypr(13) -- ps(/3 ) = P( 7, /3).

/3

T h e n p r ( 0 ) - p ~ ( 0 ) = O, pr - p ~ has no constant t e r m and h e n c e p is a p o l y n o m i a l

in 7 and/3 with integer coefficients.
I f 2r + 1 = rl + r2 is odd, then so is 2s + 1 = rl - r2 a n d (7.3), (7.8) and (7.9)
yield
tr(h) = t r ( f ) [(1 + bc)qr(/3) - bcqs(/3)]

= t r ( f ) [ q r ( / 3 ) - ../qr(/3) ~ qs(/3) ] = t r ( f ) p ( 7 , / 3 ) .

A g a i n p is a p o l y n o m i a l in 7 a n d / 3 b e c a u s e qr - qs has no c o n s t a n t term.
 G E O M E T R Y OF MOBIUS GROUPS 211

S u p p o s e next t h a t f and g are represented b y

A=
I' 1]0 1 ' c d "

T h e n -y = c 2,/3 ~- 0 and

tr(h) = 2 - r~r2c 2 = 2 - rlr27 = p ( 7 ) = p ( % 0).

T h i s c o m p l e t e s the p r o o f o f T h e o r e m 7.5 for the case w h e r e n = 2.

N o w s u p p o s e that T h e o r e m 7.5 holds for n = 2, 4 , . . . , m - 2, let h be as in (7.6)
w i t h r , + l = 0 and n = m, a n d set

u =frlgSl ...fr,-zgS,-2, V = f r , _ l g S . _ l f r , gS,.

Then h ~ uV~Sn-2 ~ --Sn-1 ~ Sn and

t t
W = UV -1 =f r't g sl . . . f r . _ z g S . - 2 f r . _ , ,

w h e r e rj -- r~ f o r j = 1 , . . . , n - 3 , r ' _ 2 = rn-2 - 1", and r',_ 1 = - r n - 1 .

S u p p o s e that rl + - . . + r , is even. T h e n r~ + ..- + r ' _ 1 is even and

(7.10) tr(w) - - P w ( % 3 )

w h e r e Pw is a p o l y n o m i a l in -y and/3 b y the i n d u c t i o n hypothesis. I f rl + . . - + r , - 2

is even, then so is rn-1 + rn a n d

(7.11) tr(u)tr(v) = p u ( % /3)Pv(% /3)

as above. I f r l + . . . + rn-2 is odd, then so is r,,-1 + r~ and

tr(u)tr(v) = tr( f ) 2 p u ( % /3)Pv(3', b) = ( 3 + 4)pu(7,/3)Pv(%/3).

H e n c e , in either case, it f o l l o w s that

(7.12) tr(h) = tr(u)tr(v) - tr(w) = p(%/3)

w h e r e p is a p o l y n o m i a l in -y and/3 with integer coefficients.

S u p p o s e next that rl + . . . + rn is odd. T h e n a r g u i n g as a b o v e w e obtain (7.10),
(7.11) and h e n c e (7.12), e a c h with the a d d e d f a c t o r t r ( f ) on the right h a n d side.
T h u s (7.7) holds for n = m and h e n c e for all e v e n integers. []
212 F.W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

7.13 T h e o r e m Suppose that f and g are in M and that

(7.14) h = f r , gSl ...fr, gS,fr,+~

where sl = + 1 and sj = ( - 1 ~+l sl f o r j = 1 , 2 , . . . , n. Then

(7.15) " / ( f , h) = P ( ' l ( f , g), 13(f))

where p is a polynomial in both variables with integer coefficients. If, in addition,

n is even, then

(7.16) /3(h) = q(~/(f , g),/3(f))

where q is a polynomial in both variables with integer coefficients.

Proof Since I f , hi = f h f - l h -1 we have

(7.17) {If, h] .fr~gS~=f[frlgr~+!Sl'''frngSnfrn+l]f....--lg--Slf--rl]

[f--rn+lg--Snf--r...fr
where r~ + . - - + r ~ n + l = 0 and where s t = +1 and s~ = ( - 1)J+ls] f o r j = 1 , 2 , . . . 2n.
Thus
../(f, h) = tr([f, h]) - 2 = p ( ' y ( f , g ) , / 3 ( f ) )

by (7.7). Next if n is even, then

(7.18) h2 . ~rl. gSl . .fr, .gs,fr,+l] 2 f rlg

' s .l ...frz,
. . .gS2,fr2.+l

where r] + ... + r~n+l is even and where s] = +1 and s~ = (-1)J+ls] f o r j =

1 , 2 , . . . 2n. Thus
/3(h) = tr(h 2) - 2 = q ( 7 ( f , g ) , / 3 ( f ) )

again by (7.7).
7.19. C o r o l l a r y Suppose that f and g are in M and that g is o f order 2. I f h
is in < f , g >, then

(7.20) 7(f,h) =P(7(f,g),/3(f)) and /3(h) = q ( f ( f , g ) , / 3 ( f ) )

where p and q are polynomials in both variables with integer coefficients.

Proof Since g is o f order 2, each h in < f , g > is o f the form

h = f r , g . . . f r , gfr,+,.
 GEOMETRYOF MOBIUSGROUPS 213

Then since g = g - l , [f,h] and h 2 can be expressed as in (7.17) and (7.18) and we
obtain (7.20) from (7.7) as above. []

The following sufficient condition for discreteness is now an easy consequence

of Corollary 7.19.
7.21 T h e o r e m Suppose that f and g are in M, that g is of order 2 and that
, y ( f , g) ~ O. I f ' y ( f , g) and ~ ( f ) lie in a discrete ring R of complex numbers which
contains 1, then < f , g > is discrete.
P r o o f Suppose otherwise. Then there exists a sequence of distinct elements hk
in < f , g > which converge uniformly in the chordal metric to the identity. Next
7 ( f g , g) = 7 ( f ,g) E R and

t3(fg) = "r(f ,g) - t3(f) - 4 E R

by (2.10). Hence by replacingf b y f g if necessary, we may assume t h a t f is not

of order 2 since otherwise < f , g > would be the dihedral group D2 and hence
discrete. Because R is a discrete ring, Izl _> 1 for each z E R \ {0}.
Let fl = f , f 2 =fg,f3 = g f . Then "y(fl,f2) = 3'(fl,f3) = "y(f,g) ~ O,

7(f2,f3) = "r(fg,f 2) = (/3(f) + 4)'y(f,g) r O,

and thus the sets fix(fj) are pairwise disjoint f o r j = 1,2,3 by (1.5). Since
<3~,g > = < f , g >, "Y(J~,g) E R and ~(3~) E R for eachj. Hence 7(fj, hk) E R for
e a c h j and k by Corollary 7.19. Then since

lim "/(]), hk) = 7(3~,id) = 0,

k----~ o o

there exists an integer k such that 7(3~, h,) = 0 f o r j = 1,2, 3. Thus by (1.5) each J)
shares a fixed point with hk and since hk has at most two fixed points, two of the3~
must have a common fixed point, a contradiction, o

7 . 2 2 . R e m a r k The hypothesis that ",/(f,g) ~ 0 is essential in Theorem 7.21.

For example, i f f = (x/2 + 1)2z and g = - z + 1, t h e n f and g have exactly one fixed
point in common and < f , g > is not discrete [B 1, Theorem 5.1.2]. On the other
hand, -~(f, g) = 0,/3(f) = 4 and h e n c e f and g satisfy the remaining hypotheses of
Theorem 7.21 with R = Z.
7 . 2 3 . L e m m a R is a discrete ring o f complex numbers which contains I if and
only if either R = Z or R = {m + no; : m, n E Z} where

(7.24) t o = i x / -fi or to=(l+iv~-l)/2

214 E W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

a n d p is a positive integer.

P r o o f I f R is a discrete ring, then Iz[ > 1 for each z in R \ {0}. Hence i f R r Z

we can choose ~v in R with - 1/2 < Re (w) < 1/2 and Im(w) > 0 such that

[w[ = inf {Izl : z ~ R, Im (z) # 0}.

Then a standard argument [Ah, pp. 265-266] shows that R = {m + nw : m, n E Z}.

Next since w 2 E R with Im(w) > 0,

(w - n / 2 ) z = (4m + n 2 ) / 4

where m, n E Z, 4m + n 2 < 0 and n E {0, 1}. Then (7.24) holds w i t h p = - m .

Conversely i f R = {m + nw : m, n E Z} where w is as in (7.24), then R is a ring
and Izl - z21 > 1 for each pair o f distinct numbers Zl, zz in R. []

8. G r o u p s with m i n i m u m axial distances

We exhibit here some groups < f , g > with elliptic generators for which the
distance between the axes o f f and g achieves its minimum. The examples we
consider belong to three families o f discrete subgroups o f M. The first o f these
families is due to Maskit [Ma2].

8.1. T h e o r e m S u p p o s e that n = 2, 3, 4 or 6 a n d that m >_ 3. T h e n there exist

elliptics f a n d g o f orders n a n d m such that < f , g > is discrete with

(8.2) s i n h ( 6 ( f , g)) = cot(Tr/m).

P r o o f B y [Ma2, Theorem 2] there exist primitive e l l i p t i c s f and g o f orders n

and m such that < f , g > is discrete and such that g maps one point o f f i x ( f ) onto
the other. Then

f i x ( f ) fq fix(g) = ~b, f i x ( f ) f3 fix(gfg -1) r (~

and 7 ( f , g ) = / 3 ( f ) by (1.5) and (2.2). Then (8.2) follows from (4.9). I-1

The second family arises from the discreteness criterion in T h e o r e m 7.21.

8.3. T h e o r e m S u p p o s e that R = Z or that R = { m + nw : m, n E Z} w h e r e

o r = i v / -fi or w=(l+iv/~-l)/2
 G E O M E T R Y OF M O B I U S G R O U P S 215

and p is a positive integer. Then for each "y a n d / 3 in R with ,y r 0 there exists
a discrete subgroup < f , g > o f • with 7 ( f , g ) = "y,/3(f) = / 3 and g o f order 2.
Moreover if~3 r O, then f is nonparabolic and

(8.4) cosh(Z/~(f,g)) - I'Y -/31 + 1"71

1/31
P r o o f By [GMI, Lemma 2.2] there exists a subgroup < f , g > of 1V~unique up
to conjugacy with 7 ( f , g ) = "/,/3(f) =/3 and/3(g) = - 4 . Then < f , g > is discrete
by Theorem 7.21 and Lemma 7.23, and (8.4) follows from (4.8). []
8.5. R e m a r k Three rings to which we can apply Theorem 8.3 are the integers
Z, the Gaussian integers G = {m + ni : m, n C Z} and the Eisenstein integers
E = {m + nw : m, n E Z} where w = e ~ri/3 [ C S ] . Although these examples are quite
special, they yield a large number of discrete two generator groups.

The last family of groups are subgroups of tetrahedral orbifold groups.

8.6. T h e o r e m I f ( n , p , m ) is one o f the triples (3, 5, 3), (5, 3, 5), (5, 3, 4),
(4, 4, 3), then there exist elliptics f and g of orders n and m such that < f , g > is
discrete with

cos( /p)
(8.7) cosh(6(f, g)) -- sin(Tr/n) sin(Tr/m)"

P r o o f A tetrahehral orbifold group G is a discrete subgroup of M whose

Poincar6 extension to H3 is generated by products of an even number of reflections
in the faces of a hyperbolic tetrahedron qF;~" is Completely determined by the
dihedral angles at each of its six edges. A convenient description for qr is given by
means of a Coxeter diagram such as

a b c d

Here a, b, c, d denote the vertices of "i" and A , B , C, D are the faces of 5" which are
opposite a, b, c, d, respectively. Then if n _> 0 denotes the number of lines joining
two vertices, 7r/(n + 2) is the dihedral angle formed by the corresponding faces. In
particular, this angle is 7r/2 if n = 0.
If two faces of T meet in an edge and form a dihedral angle 7r/n, then the
composition of the two reflections in these faces is a rotation of angle 2rein about
the edge and hence an ellipticf of order n in the group G whose axis contains the
edge. Thus in order to find 6(f, g) for ellipticsf and g in the group corresponding
to "IF,it suffices to calculate the hyperbolic distance between the hyperbolic lines
through the corresponding edges of qr.
216 F.W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

We shall consider tetrahedra qr with each of the following Coxeter diagrams:

(8.8) [ '~1 : O - - O ~-'~O - - O ' '~2 : O ~ ' O - - O ~-'~O'

"~3 : O ~ O - - O = O , '~4 : e = o = o - - o .
l
(See [Me, Appendix] or [Th, Theorem 13.5.3] for a list of all such groups.) As
above we let a , b , c , d denote the consecutive vertices of q/'j and A , B , C , D the
corresponding faces. Then A and C,A and D , B and D all meet at right angles.
Let 7r/n, Trip, 7r/m denote the dihedral angles formed by the faces A and B, B and
C, C and D, respectively, and l e t f and g be the elliptics of order n and m in G with
A n B C axis(f) and C n D C axis(g). Then the segment bc is perpendicular to
A n B and to C n D and 8(f, g) is the hyperbolic length 6 of bc.
In order to calculate 8 we may assume that hyperbolic 3-space is the unit ball ]~3
and that a is the center of ]~3. Then D is a hyperbolic triangle with vertices a, b, c
and angles Zabc = 7r/2, Zbca = 7r/n. Hence if Zbac = 0, then

(8.9) cosh(6)- cos(0)

sin(Tr/n)

by the second cosine law of hyperbolic geometry [B 1, w Next a small sphere

about a intersects T in a spherical triangle A whose angles are Trip, 7r/m, 7r/2, the
dihedral angles formed by the faces B and C, C and D, D and B. Then 0 is the
angular measure of the side of A opposite the angle of Trip,

(8.10) c o s ( 0 ) - cos(Tr/p)
sin(Tr/m)

by the second cosine law for spherical trigonometry and (8.7) follows from (8.9)
and (8.10). Since the tetrahedra "Yl, "ii"2,T3, "/I'4 correspond to the triples (3, 5, 3),
(5, 3, 5), (5, 3, 4), (4, 4, 3), this completes the proof. []

8.11. E x a m p l e For n > 3 there exist ellipticsf , g, h of orders n, n, 2 such that

< f ,g > and < f ,h > are discrete with

(8.12) tS(f,g) = b(n) and /5(f,h) = b(n)/2.

P r o o f Suppose first that n >_ 7, let < f , h > be the (2, 3, n) triangle group with
fn = h a = (fh)3 = id and set g --- hfh -1. Then < f , g > and < f , h > are discrete
with f , g, h elliptics of orders n, n, 2 and

7 ( f , h ) = 2cos(27r/n) - 1 = / 3 ( f ) + 1 and q,(f,g) = 7 ( f , h )

 GEOMETRYOF MOBIUSGROUPS 217

by (3.15) and (2.2). Hence 6(f, g) = b(n) by (4.9) and 6(f, h) = b(n)/2 by Lemma
4.12.
Suppose next that n = 4 or 6. Then by Theorem 8.3 there existf and h of orders
n and 2 with < f , h > discrete, -y(f,h) = ( - 1 + iv~)/2 and

(1+v'3)/2 if n = 4 ]
cosh(26(f, h)) = 2 if n = 6 cosh(b(n)).

Next i f g = hfh -1, then g is of order n, < f , g > is discrete and 6(f,g) = b(n).
Suppose finally that n = 3 or 5 and let f and g be the elliptics in Theorem 8.6
corresponding to the triples (3, 5, 3) and (5, 3, 5), respectively. T h e n f and g are
of order n, < f , g > is discrete and

(1 + r if n = 3 }
cosh(6(f,g)) = (5 + v/5)/5 = cosh(b(n))
ifn = 5

by (8.7) and (4.16). Next by Lemma 2.26 there exists an h of order 2 such that
hfh -1 = g~ where r/= +1. Then 6(f, h) = b(n)/2 by Lemma 4.12. []

8.13. E x a m p l e There exist elliptics f and g of orders 5 and 4 such that < f , g >
is discrete with

c(5,4)
(8.14) sinh(6(f, g)) = sin(Tr/5) sin(Tr/4)"

P r o o f If < f , g > is the group in Theorem 8.6 corresponding to the triple

(5, 3, 4), then (8.14) follows from (6.18) and (8.7). []

8.15. R e m a r k s For each pair of integers n and m, let b(n, m) denote the lower
bound of the distances 6 ( f , g) taken over all pairs of ellipticsf and g of orders n
and m with < f , g > discrete and 6(f, g) > 0. Then

(8.16) b(n,m) = b(m,n), b(n,n) = b(n), b(n,2) = b(n,n)/2

for all n and m. In addition,

(8.17)
( x/2cos(27r/n)- 1
forn>_7 and m=2,3,n,
b(n, m) = arcsinh \ 2 sin(Tr/n) sin(Tr/m) )

arcsinh (cot(Tr/m)) forn=6 and m>3,

by Theorem 6.19 and Lemma 6.15.

The following table summarizes what we know about b(n, m) for 2 < n, m < 7.
218 E W. GEHRING AND G. J. MARTIN

Values of b(n, m)

(8.18)
n 2 3 4 5 6 7
m
2 0 0.197... 0.415 .. 0.456.. 0.658... 0.545..
3 0.197... 0.394... 0.549 .. 0.842.. 0.549... 0.620..
4 0.415... 0.549... 0.831 .. 0.626.. 0.881... 1.070..
5 0.456... 0.842... 0.626 .. 0.913.. 1.124... 1.293..
6 0.658... 0.549... 0.881 .. 1.124.. 1.316... 1.477..
7 0.545... 0.620... 1.070 .. 1.293.. 1.477... 1.090..

The upper bounds for b(4, 3) and b(5, 3) in (8.18) c o m e from the reflection
groups associated with qr4 and 773 while those for b(7, 4) and b(7, 5) are associated
with groups generated by reflections in the face o f a hyperbolic pentahedron. The
lower bounds for all of these numbers result from covering the ellipses, given by
(4.5), with disks as in Section 5. See [GM8].

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F. W. Gehring
MATHEMATICSD E P ~ N T
UNIVERSITYOF MICHIGAN
ANN ARBOR,M148109, USA
G. J. Martin
DEPARTMENTOF MATHEMATICS
UNIVERSITYOF AUCKLAND
AUCKLAND,NEW ZEALAND
(Received March 15, 1992 and in revised form September 24, 1992)