Introduction to Ozone Depletion

Ozone is both beneficial and harmful to us. Near the ground, ozone
forming as a result of chemical reactions involving traffic pollution and
sunlight may cause a number of respiratory problems, particularly for
young children. However, high up in the atmosphere in a region known
as the stratosphere, ozone filters out incoming radiation from the Sun
in the cell-damaging ultraviolet (UV) part of the spectrum. Without
this ozone layer, life on earth would not have evolved in the way it has.

Concentrations of ozone in the stratosphere fluctuate naturally in

response to variations in weather conditions and amounts of energy being released from
the Sun, and to major volcanic eruptions. Nevertheless, during the 1970s it was realised that
man-made emissions of CFCs and other chemicals used in refrigeration, aerosols and cleansing
agents may cause a significant destruction of ozone in the stratosphere, thereby letting through
more of the harmful ultraviolet radiation. Then in 1985 evidence of a large "ozone hole" was
discovered above the continent of Antarctica during the springtime. This has reappeared
annually, generally growing larger and deeper each year. More recently, fears have emerged
about significant ozone depletion over the Arctic, closer to the more populous regions of the
Northern Hemisphere.

In response to this and additional fears about more widespread global ozone depletion,
the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was implemented in 1987.
This legally binding international treaty called for participating developed nations to reduce the
use of CFCs and other ozone depleting substances. In 1990 and again in 1992, subsequent
Amendments to the Protocol brought forward the phase out date for CFCs for developed
countries to 1995.

Protecting the ozone layer is essential. Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun can cause a variety
of health problems in humans, including skin cancers, eye cataracts and a reduction in the
body's immunity to disease. Furthermore,ultraviolet radiation can be damaging to microscopic
life in the surface oceans which forms the basis of the world’s marine food chain, certain
varieties of crops including rice and soya, and polymers used in paints and clothing. A loss
of ozone in the stratosphere may even affect the global climate.

International agreements and other legislation have gone a long way to safeguarding this life-
supporting shield. Nevertheless, for there to be real and long-lasting success, everyone must
become part of the solution. Individual efforts taken together can be powerful forces for
environmental change. There are a number of things that we, as individuals, can do to both
protect the ozone layer. These include proper disposal of old refrigerators, the use of halon-free
fire extinguishers and the recycling of foam and other non-disposable packaging. Finally, we
should all be aware that whilst emissions of ozone depleters are now being controlled, the
ozone layer is not likely to fully repair itself for several decades. Consequently, we should
take precautions when exposing ourselves to the Sun.

Ozone depletion and global warming

There are five areas of linkage between ozone depletion and global warming:

The same CO2 radioactive forcing that produces global warming is expected to cool the
stratosphere. This cooling, in turn, is expected to produce a relative increase in ozone (O3)
depletion in polar area and the frequency of ozone holes.

Conversely, ozone depletion represents a radioactive forcing of the climate system. There are
two opposing effects: Reduced ozone causes the stratosphere to absorb less solar radiation,
thus cooling the stratosphere while warming the troposphere; the resulting colder stratosphere
emits less long-wave radiation downward, thus cooling the troposphere. Overall, the cooling
dominates; the IPCC concludes that "observed stratospheric O3 losses over the past two
decades have caused a negative forcing of the surface-troposphere system" of about −0.15 ±
0.10 watts per square meter (W/m²).

One of the strongest predictions of the greenhouse effect is that the stratosphere will cool.
Although this cooling has been observed, it is not trivial to separate the effects of changes in
the concentration of greenhouse gases and ozone depletion since both will lead to cooling.
However, this can be done by numerical stratospheric modeling. Results from the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory show that
above 20 km (12.4 miles), the greenhouse gases dominate the cooling.

As noted under 'Public Policy', ozone depleting chemicals are also often greenhouse gases. The
increases in concentrations of these chemicals have produced 0.34 ± 0.03 W/m² of radioactive
forcing, corresponding to about 14% of the total radiative forcing from increases in the
concentrations of well-mixed greenhouse gases.

The long term modeling of the process, its measurement, study, design of theories and testing
take decades to document, gain wide acceptance, and ultimately become the dominant
paradigm. Several theories about the destruction of ozone were hypothesized in the 1980s,
published in the late 1990s, and are currently being proven. Dr Drew Shinwell, and Dr Paul
Newman, NASA Goddard, proposed a theory in the late 1990s, using a SGI Origin
2000 supercomputer, that modeled ozone destruction, accounted for 78% of the ozone
destroyed. Further refinement of that model accounted for 89% of the ozone destroyed, but
pushed back the estimated recovery of the ozone hole from 75 years to 150 years. (An
important part of that model is the lack of stratospheric flight due to depletion of fossil fuels.)

Causes:

The cause of ozone depletion is the increase in the level of free radicals such as hydroxyl
radicals, nitric oxide radicals and atomic chlorine and bromine. The most important compound,
which accounts for almost 80% of the total depletion of ozone in the stratosphere are
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). These compounds are very stable in the lower atmosphere of the
Earth, but in the stratosphere, they break down to release a free chlorine atom due to
ultraviolet radiation. A free chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O3) and forms
chlorine monoxide (ClO) and a molecule of oxygen. Now chlorine monoxide reacts with an
ozone molecule to form a chlorine atom and two molecules of oxygen. The free chlorine
molecule again reacts with ozone to form chlorine monoxide. The process continues and the
result is the reduction or depletion of ozone in the stratosphere.

Causes of Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and destruction of
stratospheric ozone is tipped in favour of destruction. Although natural phenomena can cause
temporary ozone loss, chlorine and bromine released from man-made compounds such
as CFCs are now accepted as the main cause of this depletion.
It was first suggested by Drs. M. Molina and S. Rowland in 1974 that a man-made group of
compounds known as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were likely to be the main source of
ozone depletion. However, this idea was not taken seriously until the discovery of the ozone
hole over Antarctica in 1985 by the British Antarctic Survey.

Chlorofluorocarbons are not "washed" back to Earth by rain or destroyed in reactions with

other chemicals. They simply do not break down in the lower atmosphere and they can remain
in the atmosphere from 20 to 120 years or more. As a consequence of their relative stability,
CFCs are instead transported into the stratosphere where they are eventually broken down
by ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun, releasing free chlorine. The chlorine becomes actively
involved in the process of destruction of ozone. The net result is that two molecules of ozone
are replaced by three of molecular oxygen, leaving the chlorine free to repeat the process:

Cl + O3 ® ClO + O2

ClO + O ® Cl + O2

Ozone is converted to oxygen, leaving the chlorine atom free to repeat the process up to
100,000 times, resulting in a reduced level of ozone. Bromine compounds, or halons, can also
destroy stratospheric ozone. Compounds containing chlorine and bromine from man-made
compounds are known as industrial halocarbons.

Emissions of CFCs have accounted for roughly 80% of total stratospheric ozone depletion.
Thankfully, the developed world has phased out the use of CFCs in response to international
agreements to protect the ozone layer. However, because CFCs remain in the atmosphere so
long, the ozone layer will not fully repair itself until at least the middle of the 21 st century.
Naturally occurring chlorine has the same effect on the ozone layer, but has a shorter life span
in the atmosphere.

Effects:

Possible Effects of Ozone Depletion

If you are wondering why is the ozone layer important, then the answer lies in the harmful
effects of ultraviolet rays. The ozone layer is responsible for absorbing the ultraviolet rays and
thereby preventing them from passing through the atmosphere of Earth. Ultraviolet rays of the
Sun are associated with a number of health related and environmental issues. The most
important of these is the association between ultraviolet rays and an increased risk of
developing several types of skin cancers including malignant melanoma, basal and squamous
cell carcinoma. Even the incidents of cortical cataracts can also increase significantly with the
increased exposure to ultraviolet rays. 

Another observation in this regard is that a decrease in the ozone in the stratosphere can lead
to an increase in the ozone present in the lower atmosphere. Ozone present in the lower
atmosphere is mainly regarded as a pollutant and a green house gas that can contribute
to global warming and climate change. However, researches have pointed out that the lifespan
of atmospheric ozone is quiet less as compared to stratospheric ozone. At the same time,
increase in the surface level of ozone can enhance the ability of sunlight to synthesize vitamin
D, which can be regarded as an important beneficial effect of ozone layer depletion.

The effects of ozone depletion are not limited to humans only, as it can affect animals and
plants as well. It can affect important food crops like rice by adversely affecting cyanobacteria,
which helps them absorb and utilize nitrogen properly. Phytoplankton, an important
component of the marine food chain, can also be affected by ozone depletion. Studies in this
regard have shown that ultraviolet rays can influence the survival rates of these microscopic
organisms by affecting their orientation and mobility. 

The increasing concern for the causes and effects of ozone depletion led to the adoption of the
Montreal Protocol, in the year 1987, in order to reduce and control the industrial emission of
chlorofluorocarbons. International agreements have succeeded to a great extent in reducing
the emission of these compounds, however, more cooperation and understanding among all
the countries of the world is required to mitigate the problem.

Impact of Ozone Depletion

A. General Significance
Evaluations of impacts from increased ultraviolet radiation at a given location must
consider the time of year and the latitude. Ultraviolet radiation naturally varies with
time of year, latitude, and altitude. For example, four times as much ultraviolet
radiation reaches the earth's surface at Philadelphia at 10 AM in the summer than in
the winter. Southern latitudes receive more ultraviolet radiation than northern
latitudes. (Zurer, 1993).

However, it is clear that reductions in ozone levels will lead to higher levels of UVB
reaching the Earth's surface. The sun's output of UVB does not change; rather, less
ozone means less protection, and hence more UVB reaches the Earth. In Antarctica,
studies have shown that the amount of UVB measured at the surface can double
during the annual ozone hole (Figure 4). A United Nations Environmental Program
(UNEP) assessment estimates that for every 1 percent decrease in ozone, biologically
damaging ultraviolet radiation will increase 1.3 percent. Another study recently
confirmed the relationship between reduced ozone and increased UVB levels in
Canada during the past several years.

Figure 13
Oceanic Carbon Cycle

B. Impact on the Biosphere

1. Marine Ecosystems

The effects on aquatic ecosystems, especially on phytoplankton and larvae of higher

organisms, are of particular concern. Marine phytoplankton play a fundamental role
both in the food chain as well as the oceanic carbon cycle by which atmospheric
carbon dioxide is converted into oxygen. See Figure 13. Approximately 30 percent of
the world’s animal protein for human consumption comes from the sea (Tevini, 1983).
The base of the marine food chain are the phytoplankton organisms which are
concentrated in high latitudes where reductions in stratospheric ozone are predicted to
cause the greatest increase in the amount of UV-B radiation reaching the Earth’s
surface. Equatorial regions contain densities of phytoplankton approximately 10 to
100 times smaller than the circumpolar regions (UNEP, 1994). Additional
concentrations of phytoplankton occur in upwelling areas along the continental
shelves. Investigations in Antarctica indicate that current UV-B radiation levels
already affect phytoplankton productivity (UNEP, 1994; Tevini, 1993). Current UV-B
radiation levels are also limiting factors for early developmental stages of fish,
shrimp, crab, amphibians, and other animals (UNEP, 1994).
Quantitative estimates of the potential effects of increased UV-B radiation on the
marine ecosystem are questionable given the current state of knowledge. A
complicating factor is that small changes could cause nonlinear (multiplicative)
reactions. One study estimated that a 16 percent reduction in stratospheric ozone
levels would produce a five percent loss of phytoplankton productivity, leading to a
loss of approximately seven million tons of fish from the annual fisheries harvest
(UNEP, 1994).

2. Crops

Terrestrial plants vary considerably in their response to UV-B radiation between

species and even between cultivars of the same species. Plants have several
mechanisms to ameliorate or repair adverse effects from UV-B radiation, and may
acclimate to a certain extent to increased UV-B radiation levels. In agriculture,
reduction in stratospheric ozone will require the use of UV-B tolerant cultivars and
the development of new ones. Scientific evidence indicates that there will be an
adverse effect on crops, but the magnitude of these effects cannot be estimated given
the current state of knowledge (UNEP, 1994; Tevini, 1993).

The risks of increased UVB due to stratospheric ozone depletion includes damage to
crops and aquatic organisms, increased formation of ground-level smog, and
accelerated weathering of outdoor plastics.

3. Global Warming

Another concern relates to the global warming potential associated with decreases in
stratospheric ozone. However, recent modeling studies conclude that decreases in
stratospheric ozone serve to cool the global climate (WMO, 1994).

C. Impact on Humans

In addition to the above effects on the biosphere, increased UVB can have direct
effects on humans including increased skin cancer, cataracts, and suppression of the
human immune response system.

1. Skin Cancer
Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes nonmelanoma
skin cancer and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. A major
effort over the last several decades has been to understand the results of human
epidemiological studies that have investigated the relationship between various forms
of skin cancer and increased UV-B radiation. The USEPA has used the results of
these studies to support its rulemaking on the protection of stratospheric ozone,
concluding that it may be reasonably anticipated that an increase in UV-B radiation
caused by a decrease in the ozone column would result in increased incidences of
cutaneous malignant melanomas (potentially mortal skin cancers). In addition to the
conclusions reached by USEPA, other analyses have been published which
acknowledge the adverse relationship between reduced stratospheric ozone and
increased cancer incidences (Shea, 1988; Van Der Leun, 1986).

Non-melanoma skin cancers mainly include basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell
carcinoma. The mortality rate from non-melanoma skin cancer is less than or equal to
one percent in areas with good medical care (UNEP, 1994; Tevini, 1993). An
estimated 1.2 million cases occur worldwide annually (UNEP, 1994). The
development of non-melanoma skin cancer is correlated strongly to exposure to
sunlight and sufficient scientific information is available to roughly forecast the
effects of increase UV-B radiation. A one percent decrease in stratospheric ozone is
estimated to cause an increase of approximately 2.3 percent in non-melanoma skin
cancer (UNEP, 1994; Tevini, 1993).

For melanoma skin cancer, sufficient scientific information is not available to project
increased incidences. The incidence of melanoma skin cancer is lower than non-
melanoma skin cancer by a factor of ten (Tevini, 1993) for an estimated 120,000 cases
worldwide annually. However, the mortality is much higher, approximately 25
percent in areas with good medical care (Tevini, 1993). Rather than cumulative
exposure to UV-B radiation, studies suggest that melanoma may be produced by
severe episodic exposures (sunburn). These results are inconclusive. Earlier estimates
by USEPA (1987) were that each one percent decrease in stratospheric ozone would
increase the incidence of melanomas by one to two percent and mortality by 0.8 to 1.5
percent. Because of the many uncertainties involved, these estimates are considered
questionable (Tevini, 1993).

2. Cataracts
Potential human health effects on the eyes include increased incidence of
"snowblindness" and cataracts. The medical term for snowblindness is photokeratitis,
an acute inflammation of the superficial layers of the eyes. The effect is dose related
and can cause lasting damage in severe cases. Increased UV radiation will likely
increase incidences. However, eye protection is available and a single incident is
usually sufficient to encourage use of protective sunglasses (UNEP, 1994; Tevini,
1993). Sufficient information is available with regard to cataracts to roughly forecast
increases. An approximate 0.5 percent increase in cataracts would occur for each one
percent drop in stratospheric ozone (UNEP, 1994; Tevini, 1993). An estimated 17
million people in the world are blind due to cataracts (Tevini, 1993). Based on
calculations presented in the cited reference (Tevini, 1993), the number of additional
blindness annually due to cataracts is estimated as 680,000. A one percent drop in
stratospheric ozone therefore could cause an additional 3,400 cases of blindness due
to cataracts each year.

3. Immune System

Laboratory studies have also shown that increased exposure UVB weakens the
immune response system. A reduction in the efficiency of the immune system could
lead to increases in cancers and infectious disease. The complexity of the immune
system, which is comprised of several subsystems that help and suppress each other,
and the complex reactions of different types of diseases to UV-radiation prevent any
quantitative predictions of the effects of increased UV-B radiation given the current
state of scientific knowledge (UNEP, 1994; Tevini, 1993).

All sunlight contains some UVB, even with normal ozone levels. It is always
important to limit exposure to the sun. However, ozone depletion will increase the
amount of UVB, which will then increase the risk of health effects.