Description and Analysis of Random waves

Prof.V.Sundar

Description and Analysis of Random waves

Prof. V.SUNDAR
Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, INDIA

1. GENERATION OF OCEAN WAVES

Winds blowing over the water surface generate waves. In general, the higher the wind
velocity, the longer the fetch over which it blows; and the longer will be the average
waves. Waves still under the action of the winds (within Fetch) that created them are
called wind waves, or a sea. After the waves leave the generating area of the fetch,
principally they are smoother losing their rough appearance. These waves are called
swell.

The ultimate state of wave growth depends primarily on three parameters of wind Fetch
(F) or the distance over which it blows on the water surface, its velocity (v) and the
duration (t) of time for which the wind blows. Thus, for a given steady wind speed, the
development of waves may be limited by the fetch or the duration. If however, the wind
blows over a sufficient distance for a sufficient length of time, a more or less steady state
conditions where the average wave heights do not change will occur. This condition is
called a fully developed sea (FDS). Fig.1a shows development of ocean waves within
generating area.

Experience has shown that the emperical formulae, proposed by Stevenson, which
contain only a single independent variable, namely the fetch, may be used with
reasonable confidence in estimating the height of critical storm wave (H) for any
particular site where long term records of measured wave heights are not available.
These formulaes are:

H = 1.5 F for F > 30 miles (1)

4
H = 1.5 F + 2.5 − F for F < 30 miles (2)

where H is in feet and F in nautical miles.

 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Wave age is the ratio of wave celerity (C) to the wind speed (V) and is a significant factor
in the wind wave development. When wave age reaches a value of about 1.37, a fully
developed sea is attained, and it becomes difficult for the wind to impart further energy to
the waves. Within an FDS, wave age may range from 0.1 to 2.0.

The width (W) of the generating area has a noticeable effect on wave development for
narrow fetches where W < 2 F. Saville (1954) found effective wave heights of
approximately 23%, 65%, 88%, 98% and 100% for W/F = 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0
respectively. This may be a factor in narrow harbours and channels. However, in the
open ocean W/F is usually greater than unity, and fetch width is seldom an important
factor.

A few empirical relationship for estimating the maximum wave height and period are
given below:

Hmax = 0.026V 2 (3)

H max = 0.0555 V2F (4)

1
Tmax = 0.5(V 2 F) 4 (5)

where Hmax max. wave height in feet, F = fetch in nautical miles, V wind speed in knots
and Tmax – Maximum wave period in seconds. These relations are particularly useful for
short fetches and high wind speeds such as found in hurricanes and other intense storms.

Wind force and direction are of importance to sea defence engineers and in
meteorological reports the strength of the wind and wave is usually given in accordance
with the Beaufort scale (Table 1).

2. IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF WAVE DATA

The study of waves gives valuable information both direct and indirect in the following
aspects of oceanography and ocean engineering.

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

1. Design of structures
2. Design of ships
3. Coastal process studies
4. To verify wave forecasting and hind casting models
5. Wave energy computation studies.

Major applications of wave data include offshore platform design, breakwater jetty
design, site selection criteria, operation planning, military operations, transportation
studies, environmental impact studies, real time input to wave forecasting, search and
rescue pollution and cleanup. Wave data also find important applications in the
specification of ship responses, ship design and ship operation and planning. In coastal
processes studies, measured wave data are needed for studies and applications involving
sediment structure interaction, shore line erosion, design of navigation channels, beach
nourishment, coastal hydrodynamics, coastal zone planning, coastal operations, harbour
surging, dredging, recreation and marine facilities designs. Wave data are also important
in testing newly developed wave forecasting models and in verifying existing hindcasting
and forecasting models. Wave data analysis forms the most important component in
studies relating to estimation of wave energy potential for different offshore and coastal
regions.

3. COLLECTION OF WAVE DATA

A number of methods are available for obtaining information on wave heights and
periods, some approximate and some accurate.

The simplest way is to look at the sea and make a visual estimate, but it needs
considerable experience to obtain reliable data this way. The next method is to make
visual observations or the water, surface against a vertical scale mounted on a pier in
shallow water, or on a float, which is damped to limit short period vertical oscillations in
deep water.

A third method is to use a fixed pressure-sensor mounted at a particular depth below the
water surface or at the sea bottom. As the hydrostatic pressure below the surface waves

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

varies periodically, a continuous record of pressure against time will give information on
surface shape. Bottom mounted pressure sensors can be used effectively in the nearshore
zone since the decrease in pressure variations with depth is slower for shallow water
waves.

As seawater is an electrolyte, information on height variations of the sea surface can be

obtained using electrical devices by measuring the changes in resistance or capacitance of
a vertical conductor placed in seawater, as the water surfaces move up and down.

Wave heights can also be measured from ships by measuring the pressure at a point on
the hull to give the wave height relative to the ship. Wave heights can also be obtained
from the records of a vertical accelerometer, mounted in a buoy floating at the surface of
the sea. This method is now used extensively.

All the above methods provide information on waves only at a point. Spatial information
on waves can be obtained from stereo photographs or by taking records on the sea surface
using altimeters mounted on aircraft or satellite. Satellite measurements or microwave
scattering give very nearly correct information on both wave and wind speed and
direction.

For some studies it is desirable to obtain information on the direction of propagation of

waves. This can be obtained by recording waves simultaneously at different locations and
examining the phase relationships between the records. Directional information can also
be obtained from stereo photographers or from measurements made from aircrafts or
satellites.

4. ANALYSIS OF OCEAN WAVES

4.1 General
The ideal arrangement would be to record the waves continuously as shown in Fig. 1b,
but this would result in far too much data to be analysed. Typical random wave record

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

and its respective spectral density plot are shown in Fig. 1c. No doubt, the accuracy of
any statistical analysis of the data or a random variable such as the wave height increases
with the sample size (number of waves). Catwright (1958) has mathematically analysed
this aspect and his results are shown in Fig.2.

It can be seen that standard error in the statistical averages worked out on the basis of 100
consecutive waves is about 12 percent and if number of consecutive waves considered is
10,000 the standard error is about 6.5 percent. Hence, considering a very large sample
size does not appreciably increase the accuracy. It is a standard practice of record once in
every hour for a period of 20 minutes such that about 100 waves are recorded each time.

4.2 Detailed Analysis

4.2.1 General

The different methods of analysis of ocean waves are shown in Fig.3. Two methods of
analysis of waves are the statistical procedure and the spectral method. In the case of the
statistical procedure individual waves are defined by zero up crossings or zero down
crossings. The unit of analysis in the case of spectral method is η(t) which is read at a
fixed and a very small time interval ∆t.

A number of computer models have been developed in India and elsewhere to analyze the
wave records. The steps to be followed are discussed below.

The time series η(t), wave record is digitised at a constant time interval ∆t, say 1 or 2
secs. The amplitude of the time series is read from base line, which should be well below
the lowest trough. All such data points are subtructed with the distance between the
mean line and the base line. The mean of the data points (amplitude of the time series)
are found and then the time series is converted to mean zero process. If x1 (t) is η(t) then
the reduced series will be x1 = (x1 / x) where x is the mean.

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

The initial check is for normality. The probability density function for the wave elevation
is found and verified whether it follows the Normal or Gaussian distribution. In general,
it has been widely accepted that the water surface elevation follows the Gaussian
distribution. The p.d.f. of normal distribution is given by
⎡
⎢ −2 ⎤
⎥
⎢ −⎛⎜⎜ xi − x ⎞⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥
⎢
⎢ 2σ 2 ⎥
⎥
⎢ ⎥
1 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
P ( xi ) = e -∝ < xI < ∝ (1)
σ 2π
where σ is the standard deviation.

4.2.2 Statistical Procedure

The individual waves in the record are evaluated based on either zero up cross or zero
down cross methods. It has been proved by researchers that difference in wave heights
based on these two methods is small. However, wave periods, defined by using Z.U.C.
method is slightly more that that of Z.D.C. method. There is slight difference in the
probability density estimated for both methods like the Z.D.C. method would yield
Biomodal function. Hence if one is interested in studying the distribution of wave
heights and wave periods of a particular site, it is suggested that both the methods could
be adopted.

On arriving at the individual wave heights and periods, the observed p.d.f. of these two
variables should be compared with the theoretical Rayliegh distribution function given as

⎛ − ⎞2
π Hi −(π 4 )⎜⎜ Hi H ⎟⎟
( )
PR H i =
−2
e ⎝ ⎠
for H>=0 (2)
2H
⎡ 4⎤
2.7Ti3 ⎛T ⎞ ⎥
( )
PT Ti =
−4
⎢
.exp ⎢0.675 ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥
⎜ ⎟
for T>=0 (3)
⎢⎣ ⎝T ⎠ ⎥
T ⎦
If the wave heights do not follow Rayleigh distributions certain other standard
distributions should be tried. e.g. two such distributions are given below:

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Weibull distribution explains the shallow water distribution of wave height given by

⎛ ⎞ ( β −1) ⎛ β ⎞
P⎜ H ⎟ =αβ H exp⎜ −α H ⎟ (4)
⎝ i⎠ i ⎝ i ⎠
The peakness coefficient, β is given by
∞
β = 4 ∫ H i f ( H i )dh
0

( )
β
⎡Γ 1 + 1 ⎤
⎢ β ⎥
α=⎢ − ⎥
⎢⎣ H ⎥
⎦
where H is the mean wave height, Γ is gamma function.

It should be noted that the above distribution become Rayleigh if β = 2 and α = 1/H2rms

Taking into account the depth factor (H/d) Gluhovski has recommended another pdf
given by
⎛ 1+ H * ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎡ ( 21− H ) ⎤
⎞ 1− H* ⎤⎛ H ⎞ ⎞⎛ H ⎞
*⎟
π
*
⎡
P ( H i ) = ⎢π H ⎛⎜1 + H
− ⎝ 1− H ⎠
⎟( )⎦⎥ ⎜ − ⎟ exp ⎢ − ⎛⎜1 + H ⎥
* *

2 ⎢ 4⎝ ⎟⎜ − ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2π ⎠ ⎝ H⎠ 2π ⎠⎝ H ⎠
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
-----(5)

where H* = H/d where is water depth.

Off Mangalore it has been found that the wave heights follow the Rayleigh distribution.
With the individual wave heights one can arrive at the statistical characteristics like H1/3
(Average of highest 1/3 waves, significant wave height), H1/10 (Average of highest 1/10th
waves) H1/100 (Average of the highest of 1/100th waves), H and HRMS.

With the wave periods individual wavelengths are evaluated using the dispersion
relationship is given below

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

d d ⎛ 2πd ⎞
= tanh ⎜ ⎟
Lo L ⎝ L ⎠
where Lo = 1.56 T2 m. Hence the individual steepness and the maximum wave steepness
can be evaluated.

The average zero crossing period, Tz and the average crest period Tc are evaluated as

Tz = (Duration of the record / No: of zero up or down crosses) (7)

Tc = (Duration of the record / No of crests) (8)

The spectral width parameter indicating the shape of the spectrum is

∈= 1 − ( Tc Tz )
2
(9)

The root mean square of wave heights can also be evaluated by Tucker’s method which is
a quick and simple method for analysing the wave record. Tucker (1963) assumed the
nature of spectra as narrow banded and gave the following expression to determine HRMS
of the record.

H rms = 2H 1 ( 2θ ) (1 + 0.289θ − 0.248θ −2 )

−1 2 −1 −1
(10)

= 2H 2 ( 2θ ) (1 − 0.289θ − 0.103θ −2 )
−1 2 −1 −1
(11)

Where H1 is the distance between the highest crest and the lowest trough, H2 is the
distance between the second highest crest to the second lowest trough, θ = log Nz where
Nz is the number of zero up-crosses in the recording interval.

Further the maximum wave height, H max and other wave characteristics can be evaluated
as

H max = H rms 2 ( 2θ ) (1 + 0.298θ − 0.247θ −2 )

1
2 −1

H s = 4H rms
(12)
H 1 = 5.09H rms
10

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

4.2.3 Spectral Method

In order to perform the spectral analysis of the random wave record the number of lags is
determined (0,1,2,……..m) where m = 10 percent of the number of data points.

The autocorrelation function Rr is estimated for these lags.

1 N −r
Rr = ∑ xi x (13)
N − r i =1 i + r ,r = 0,1,2,................m

The smoothed spectral density function estimates are computed for these lags, sη(f)
⎛ Rf ⎞ ⎡ m −1 ⎛ πrk ⎞ ⎤
S η ( f ) = S η ⎜ c ⎟ = 2∆t ⎢ R o + 2 ∑ Dr R r cos ⎜ ⎟⎥ (14)
⎝ m ⎠ ⎣ r =11 ⎝ m ⎠⎦

where k = 0,1,2,………….. m
f c is cut off frequency = 1/2∆t
and D = 1 2 (1 + cos ( πr m ) ) for r = 0,1,2,…………m

=0 for (r > m)
where Sη(f) is linear spectral density estimates.

The spectral density estimates can be checked by determining the area under the spectral
density curve (Sη(f) vs f) which is equivalent to zeroth spectral moment (mo) and
comparing this with the autocorrelation function at zero log (Ro) and the square of the
standard deviation of η, ( σ η2 ) originally estimated.

That is,
mo = Ro = ( σ η2 ) (15)

The observed spectral density curves could be checked under agreement with any of the
standard wave spectra like Scott, Bretschneider or Neumann, etc. All other
characteristics could be arrived using the relationship shown in Table 2.

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Table 2: Seaway Characteristics based on spectral method

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Characteristic Relationship
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
∈2 1 – m2 /mom4
−
H 2.5 mo
Hs 4 mo
H1/10 5.09 m 0
H1/100 6.67 mo

Tc m2 m4
Tav mo m 2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Note that the above characteristics should have to be multiplied with a correction factor
(1− ∈2 ) in case the observed spectrum is broadband.
12

Apart from the above information that could be derived from a wave record, a scatter
diagram between Hs and Tz available from a number of wave records can be prepared.
For a true nature of a seaway off a site in consideration wave records for a minimum of
one year should be obtained.

5. FAST FOURIER TRANSFORMATION METHOD

The problem, which must be addressed, is to estimate the spectrum from a finite sample,
and to state how closely this estimate can be expected to approximate the true spectrum
on the occasion of a simple measurement. The emergence of microcomputers has
enabled us to fulfill this task by the usage of FFT technique. We start by determining by
this technique the an and bn in the following Fourier series representation of the sample.
⎡ 2 πi ∆ t 2πni∆t ⎤
η ( i ) = ∑ ⎢an cos
N 2
+ b n sin (16)
n =1 ⎣ T T ⎥⎦
where we have η(i) the water surface elevation to have zero mean. The components an
and bn are available at the fundamental frequency (1/T), the integral multiples theory up

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

to Nyquist frequency, 1/2 ∆t, and there are N/2 components (of which ao, the mean, is
one, but bo and bn/2 being identically zero are not included. Our best estimation of the
variance in the process at the frequency n/T (=fn) and this variance is associated with
frequency interval of 1/T = ∆f. Thus we can define our elementary sample estimate of
the spectrum by
∧
S ( fn ) f =
2
(
1 2
an + bn2 ) (18)

∧
i.e. S ( fn ) =
1
2 ∆f
(
an2 + bn2 = )
T 2
2
(
an + bn2 ) (19)

6. IRREGULAR SEAWAY

For an irregular seaway the disturbance of the sea surface at any given point is a function
of time. From an ocean wave record the individual waves can be arrived at either by the
zero up cross method or zero down cross method as shown in Fig.4. Once the individual
waves are computed the significant wave height Hs (average of the highest one third or
waves), H1/10 (average of highest one tenth or waves) and H (average of highest of one
hundredth waves).

6.1 Wave-Wave Spectrum Relationship

One of the fundamental premises of the spectral approach is that irregular waves are the
results of the super-position of an infinite number of simple sine waves of small
amplitudes that have a continuous frequency distribution. This process can be
approximated with a finite number of small amplitude sine waves having discrete
frequencies. Under these conditions the mean total wave energy per unit surface area is
given by

E=
8
(
pg 2
H1 + H 22 + ...................... + H n2 ) (20)

where Hn is the wave height associated with a given discrete angular frequency, wn. The
frequency distribution of energy is called the energy spectrum for a particular seaway.
Let us look at a problem to understand the concept of the wave spectrum.

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

6.2 Example Problems

Problem 1
Find the energy distribution of an irregular seaway composed of 4 different waves having
the following characteristics.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Wave No. 1 2 3 4
Wave length 380 170 96 61
Wave height 3 5 4 2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Solution:

From
C = gL 2π (Deep water Condition)

σ i orw i = 2π g L , g = 9.81
i

2π x 9.81
w1 = = 0.4
380
Similarly w2 = 0.6, w3 = 0.8, w4 = 1.0
The total energy per sq.m. of the wave surface

ET =
pg 2
2
(
a1 + 222 + a32 + a42 )
=
1025
2
(1.52 + 2.52 + 22 + 1)
=6918.76 kg/m
The distribution of this total energy is given in Fig 5. In this figure the ordinates are
obtained by dividing the individual energy content by the bandwidth, which is 0.2 in the
present case.

Note: The dimension of energy is kg/m. Since the area under the total curve should give
this dimension, the ordinates represent kg-sec/m, since the abscissa has the dimension
sec-1.

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

We have thus seen in the problem that the energy in waves and that the area under the
curve yields the same quantity. Now, instead of drawing the spectrum like before one
can draw a different in which the ordinates represent

(
1 2
2
a1 + a22 + a32 + ..................... + an2 )

Note: g is divided through out and the area under the curve of the new figure, generally
denotes mo is later multiplied by to obtain the energy. The Fig.6 is wave spectrum and
the ordinates are represented as which is called the spectral density of the wave energy.

Hence
1
2
(
1.52 + 2.52 + 22 + 1 )
Total area = 6.75 m2
For a wave spectrum, the above values corresponding to different waves are divided by
the bandwidth (0.2) to get the ordinates. The total area under the wave spectrum in Fig.6
would have a value 6.75 which when multiplied by g (1025 kg/m3) gives the energy,
which is 6918.75 kg/m.
The useful information that can be observed from a spectral density curve are:
(i) The range of frequencies those are important for the contribution to the seaway.
(ii) The frequency at which the maximum energy occurs or supplied.
(iii) The content of energy at different frequency bands.
(iv) The existence of a swell at low frequencies.

Problem 2

The following wave heights were recorded

Hgt(m) 0–2m 2–4m 4–6m 6–8m 8 – 10 m
No.of waves 5600 7200 1920 960 320
observed

Plot the wave height histogram along with the theoretical raliegh distribution?

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

The histogram data is shown in table given below

Wave Ht (m) Mean of Hi / H No. of waves % occurrence = % of occurrence per
col(3)/sum x m of Wave Ht from
100 record = col(4) / ∆H
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
0–2 1 5600 35 17.5
2–4 3 7200 45 22.5
4–6 5 1920 12 6
6–8 7 960 6 3
8 – 10 9 320 2 1
SUM = 16,000
Note: The values of col (5) is obtained by dividing col (4) by 2 which is interval of H.
This gives the ordinates for the wave histogram. ie, [pdf = prob(xi / ∆x].
30
P(Hi) Percentage of occurrence of Hi

20
Theoretical Rayliegh Distribution

10

Observed PDF

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Hi (m)

Rayliegh Distribution (Sample Calculation):-

H i2 fi ⎡⎣1 * 5600 + 3 * 7200 + 5 * 1920 + 7 * 960 + 9 * 320 ⎤⎦

2 2 2 2 2

H 2
=∑ =
∑ fi
RMS
16000
H 2RMS = 11.96m 2
H RMS = 3.46m

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Now according to Rayliegh Distribution

2H i
p (H) = 2
.exp − ⎡⎣ H i2 H 2RMS ⎤⎦
H RMS
2 * 1 −(12 ) 11.96
p ( H = 1m ) = e = 0.154 = 15.4%
11.96
III ly p(H=3) = 0.24, in terms of % = 24
p(H=5) = 0.103, in terms of % = 10.3
p(H=7) = 0.019, in terms of % = 1.9
p(H=9) = 0.0017, in terms of % = 0.17

Note: The total area under the Rayliegh distribution curve should be equal to 1.
(ie, the total probability should be 1)
Area from H = 1 to Hi = 9 (Simpson rule)
1
= h ∑ product. ie, I st and last ordinate should be multiplied by I and II, IV th
3
i.e. even ordinate by 4 and odd ordinates III, V, etc by 2.
h = interval
Area from
1
H = 1 to H = 9 = * 2 [ 0.154 * 1 + 0.24 * 4 + 0.103 * 2 + 0.019 * 4 + 0.0017 * 1]
3
2
=
3
[ 0.154 + 0.96 + 0.206 + 0.076 + 0.0017]
= 0.93
Area from
1
H = 0 to 1 = * 1* 0.154 = 0.077
2
Total area = 0.93 + 0.077 ≅ 1.0
−
From its definition H orH RMS being average over the entire area of the sea, should very
closely represent the average energy of the sea way, ie,
− 2
ρg H ρg ⎡ H12 + H 22 + ............ + H n2 ⎤
8 ⎢⎣ ⎥ = ENERGY
8 n ⎦

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

−
∴If the area under the histogram curve is known, one can directly relate H orH rms to

rayliegh distribution formula and determine from this the probability of occurrence of
different wave heights. Thus the probability that H > Hi is
2H i − Hi2
p [ H〉 H i ] = 1 − ∫
Hi
H 2RMS − Hi2 H 2RMS
.e = .e Probability of excedence
0 H 2RMS

For eg. If HI = 3m where H 2RMS = 11.96 m2

Hence p = e
(
− 32 11.96 ) = 0.47

There is a probability of 0.47 that the wave height will be greater than 3m. In other

words out of a number of waves N, Ne

(
− H12 Hrms
2
) will be higher that H . From such a
i

formulation one can find out Hmean , H1/3 , H 1/10, etc.

Relation between Representative Wave Heights:

If we adopt Rayliegh distribution as an approximation to the distribution of individual

wave heights, according to Longuet Higgins (1952)
− −
H 1 10 = 1.27H1 3 = 2.03 H, H 1 3 = 1.60 H

OR,
−
H = 0.885H RMS , H1 3 = 1.416H RMS ,
(A)
H1 10 = 1.8H RMS , H max = 2.172H RMS

These results represent the mean values of wave records taken together. Individual wave
records containing less than 100 waves may give noticeable departures from these mean
relation.
The above relations are valid for narrow band spectrum. For broad band spectrum
Cartwright and Longuett Higgins (1956) suggested that Eq (A) be multiplied by

(1− ∈ )
12
2
where
12
⎡ ⎡ T ⎤2 ⎤
∈= ⎢1 − ⎢ C ⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎣ TZ ⎦ ⎥⎦

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Problem:
Wave Ht No. of Waves Cumm. No. of Waves Number x Ht = (1) x (2)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1 5600 5600 5600
3 7200 12800 21600
5 1920 14720 9600
7 960 15680 6720
9 320 16000 2880
16000 46400

−
46400
H= = 2.9m
16000
According to Rayliegh Distribution = 0.89*HRMS
HRMS for this problem = 3.46m
−
H = 0.89 * 3.46 = 3.08m
−
H = ∑ H i fi ∑ fi
−
5600x1 + 3x7200 + 5x1920 + 7x960 + 9x320
H=
16000
−
H = 2.9m
It is seen that the theoretical Rayliegh distribution fits well with the wave data
H max = (1.6 to 2.0) H1/3.
In the design of offshore structures, H max = 2H1/3 or a higher value is often employed.
For the design of a breakwater Goda has proposed the use of the relation
H max = 1.8 H1/3.

6.3 Double peaked spectra

There are two types of double peaked spectra namely wind dominated spectrum and swell dominated
spectrum.

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 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Wind dominated spectrum could have been generated by a low frequency swell system that had travelled a
considerable distance loosing, much energy before meeting a wind wave system.

Spectra dominated by the low frequency peak could have been generated by a refreshing wind or by a
change in wind direction, which creates a system of short period wave coexistent with the old wave system.
When the wind does not drive the old system longer, the wave components become uncoupled and the
wave system turn into swell. This type of spectrum is called as a swell dominated spectrum. Fig.7 shows
these two types of double peaked spectrum.

7. Standard Representation of wave spectra

A number of mathematical spectrum models have been proposed by researchers in past. These have been
tested with measured wave elevations and are generally a function of significant wave height and/or wave
period. Later shape factors have been introduced to fit measured spectra for certain locations and some of
such spectral models later became standard ones. The widely adopted single-parameter spectrum is the
Pierson-Moskowitz (1964) model based on the significant wave height or wind speed. Typical two
parameter spectra are due to Bretschneider (1969), Scott (1965), ISSC (1964) and ITTC (1966). A five-
parameter spectrum with usually three of which are held constant is the JONSWAP spectrum described by
Hasselman (1973, 1976). A double peak spectrum like the swell or sea dominated spectrum was suggested
by Ochi and Hubble (1976).A few of the above spectral models are discussed below.
Pierson-Moskowitz Spectrum
The P-M spectral model describes a fully developed sea determined by one parameter, namely, the
wind speed. The fetch and duration are considered infinite. For the applicability of such a model, the wind
has to blow over a large area at a nearly constant speed for many hours prior to the time when the wave
record is obtained and the wind should not change its direction more than a certain specified small amount.
In spite of these assumptions, the P-M model has been found to be useful in representing a severe storm
wave in offshore structure design.
The P-M spectrum model is written as

⎡ −4 ⎤
− ⎛ ωU ⎞
S (ω ) = α g ω exp −0.74 ⎜ w
2 5 ⎢ ⎟ ⎥ (21)
⎢ ⎝ g ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where α = 0.0081. Alternatively, in terms of the frequency of the spectral peak

⎡ −4 ⎤
S (ω ) = α g 2ω −5 exp ⎢ −1.25 ω ω
⎣
0( ⎥
⎦
) (22)

18
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Herein, ω is the angular frequency= 2πf, ω0 is the angular frequency of spectral peak and f is linear
frequency in Hz. The variance of the wave elevation (σ2) or the zeroth moment (m0) is the area under the
spectral curve
∞
σ 2 = m = ∫ S (ω ) dω (23)
0 0
The eq (21) can be simplified as

ω −5 ⎡ −4 ⎤
S (ω ) = 5σ 2
ω −4
exp ⎢ −1.25 ω ω
⎣
0( ⎥
⎦
) (24)
0
The root mean square water surface elevation, σ, is related to the peak frequency as

σ = α 5 g ω2 (25)
0
Noting that
Hs = 4σ (26)

the peak frequency is related to the significant wave height Hs by

ω 2 = 0.161g Hs (27)
0
An equivalent expression for the P-M spectrum in terms of the cyclic frequency, f (=ω/2π) may be
written as

⎡ −4 ⎤
αg2 ⎢ ⎛ f ⎞ ⎥
S (f ) = f −5 exp ⎢ −1.25 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (28)
4 ⎜f ⎟
( 2π ) ⎢
⎣
⎝ 0⎠ ⎥
⎦
where f = ω 2π . Note the factor of 2π between the expressions of S(f) in Eq. (28) and S(ω) in
0 0
E.(22). The second moment of the energy spectral density, m2, is defined as
∞
m = ∫ f 2S ( f ) df (29)
2 0

Bretschneider Spectrum

On the basis of the assumption that the spectrum is narrow-banded and the individual wave height and
wave period follow the Rayleigh distribution, Bretschneider (1959, 1969) derived the following form of the
spectral model:
4
ωs4 −0.675(ωs ω )
S (ω ) = 0.1687Hs
2 e (30)
5 ω

19
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

where ωs = 2π Ts , Hs = significant wave height and Ts = significant wave period defined as the
average period of the significant waves. From the Bretschneider spectral model it can be shown that
Ts = 0.946T0 (31)
Where T0 = peak period. This relationship makes the Bretschneider and the P-M models equivalent.

ISSC Spectrum

The International Ship Structures Congress (1964) suggested slight modification in the form of the
Bretschneider spectrum,

ω −4 −0.4427(ω ω )
4
S (ω ) = 0.1107Hs
2 e (32)
ω5
Bhattacharyya (1978) discussed this form with the definition of ω =ω . The relationship between the
0.1
peak frequency, W0 and ω for ISSC spectrum is
ω = 1.296ω (33)
0
ITTC Spectrum

The International Towing Tank Conference (1966, 1969, 1972) proposed a modification of the P-M
spectrum in terms of the significant wave height and zero crossing frequency, ωz. The average zero
crossing frequency is calculated from

m
ωz = 2 (34)
m
0
∞
where, mn is defined as mn = ∫ ω S (ω )dω
n

The ITTC spectrum has been written as

⎡ 4α g 2ω −4 ⎤
S (ω ) = α g 2ω −5 exp ⎢ − ⎥ (35)
⎢ Hs 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where
0.0081
α= (36)
k4
and

20
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

g σ
k= (37)
3.54ω z

in which σ = m = Hs 4 , the standard deviation (r.m.s. value) of the water surface elevation. If k =
0
1, Hs is related to ωz as
g
ω z2 = (38)
3.13Hs
JONSWAP Spectrum
The JONSWAP spectrum was developed by Hasselman, et al. (1973) during a Joint North Sea Wave
Project and hence the name. The formula for the JONSWAP spectrum can be written by modifying the P-
M formulation as follows
⎡ 2 ⎤⎥
⎢
⎢
⎛
⎜ ω −ω ⎞
⎟ ⎥
exp −
⎢ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2τ ω 2
2 ⎥
⎡ −4 ⎤
( )
⎢ 0 ⎥
S (ω ) = α g 2ω −5 exp ⎢ −1.25 ω ω ⎥γ
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
(39)
0
⎣ ⎦
in which γ = peakedness parameter, and τ = shape parameter (τa for ω ≤ ω0 and τb for ω > ω0). Considering
a prevailing wind field with a velocity of Uw and a fetch of X, the average values of these quantities are
given by
γ = 3.30 may vary from 1 to 7
τa = 0.07
Considered fixed
τb = 0.09
α = 0.076(X0)-0.22 α = 0.0081 (when X is unknown)
The P-M and JONSWAP spectra are compared in Fig. 8.
Scott Spectrum
The Scott (1965) spectral formula is independent of the wind speed, fetch or duration, and, as such, should
represent a fully-developed sea spectrum. The Scott spectrum is a two-parameter model given as

⎧
( )
12
⎪ ⎡ ω −ω ⎤
2
⎪0.214Hs exp −⎢ 0 ⎥
⎪
⎪
⎢
(
⎢⎣ 0.065 ω − ω0 + 0.26 ) ⎥
⎥⎦
⎪
(
S (ω ) = ⎨for − 0.26 < ω − ω < 1.65
⎪
0 ) (40)

⎪0elsewhere
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩

21
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

An example of the Scott spectral model in normalized form is shown in Fig. 9. The spectrum is
correlated with field data from the North Atlantic.

Ochi-Hubble Spectrum

Ochi and Hubble (1976) developed a six-parameter spectrum model consisting of essentially two parts: one
for the lower frequency components of the wave energy and the other covering the higher frequency
components. Each component is expressed in terms of three parameters and the total spectrum is written as
a linear combination of the two. Thus, double peaks present in a wave energy density can be modeled with
their formula, e.g., a (low-frequency) swell along with the (high-frequency) wind-generated waves. It
appears to represent almost all stages of development of a sea in a storm.

⎛ 4λ j + 1 ⎞
⎜ ω4 ⎟ ⎡ 4λ + 1 ω 4⎤
1 2 ⎜⎝ 4
0j ⎟ H2 ⎢ ⎛ j ⎞⎛ 0 j ⎞ ⎥
S (ω ) = ∑ ⎠ sj
exp ⎢ − ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎥
( )
(41)
4 j =1 Γ λ ω 4λ j +1 ⎢ ⎝
⎜ 4 ⎟⎜ ω
⎠⎝
⎟
⎠ ⎥
j ⎣ ⎦
where Hs1, ω01, and λ1, are the significant wave height, modal frequency, and shape factor for the lower
frequency components which Hs2, ω02, and λ2 correspond to the higher frequency components. In the above
expression, if in either spectral component the values of the parameters Hsj and ω0j are held constant, the
parameter λj controls the shape, or in particular, the sharpness of the spectral peak. Thus, λj is called the
spectral shape parameter. If we set λ1 = 1 and λ2 = 0, we obtain the modified P-M spectrum model. In the
general formulation of Eq.(41), the equivalent significant height, Hs is obtained from

Hs = H 2 + H 2 (42)
s1 s2
on the assumption of narrow banded ness of the entire spectrum. Generally, the value of λ1 is much higher
than that of λ2.

8. Simulation of Wave Profile from Spectra

It is sometimes necessary to calculate the height of a wave at a particular frequency from an energy density
spectrum curve. This is illustrated with the help of a mathematical spectral curve shown in Fig. 10 At a
frequency, f1, the energy density is S(f1). The wave height at this frequency is obtained as follows

( )
H f = 2 2S f ∆f
1 1 ( ) (43)

and the corresponding wave period is given by T = 1 / f1

Where (H,T) is the wave height-period pair. A phase angle associated with each pair of height and period
is chosen uniformly distributed in the range of (0,2π) by a random number generator, RN as
ε(f1) = 2πRN (44)

22
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Then, for a given horizontal coordinate, x, which is the location at which the wave profile is desired, and
time, t, which is incremented, the wave profile is computed from

N H (n )
η ( x, t ) = ∑ cos ⎡⎣k ( n ) x − 2π f ( n ) t + ε ( n ) ⎤⎦ (45)
n =1 2
where k(n) = 2π/L(n) and L(n) corresponds to the wave length for the nth frequency, f(n). The quantity, N,
is the total number of frequency bands of width,∆f, dividing the total energy density in above figure.
Sometimes, f(n) is chosen randomly within each ∆f for more randomness.
The method outlined here requires a given spectrum model or an actual input wave energy density
spectrum. The spectrum curve is divided into several equal divisions. It is not necessary to divide the
spectrum equally. It is done only for computational convenience. Moreover, if a sufficient number of
components is used, then it will suffice to use equal increments, ∆f. The number of components should be
at least 50 to assure randomness. Use of about 200 components duplicates the spectrum accurately. The
value of the wave height, of course, will differ for different value of ∆f is small, this method produces a
satisfactory random wave profile.
This method is a widely used method in simulating random waves for a given wave energy density
spectrum. Since the amplitudes of the individual wave components in this superposition method are
deterministic, it may be referred to as a deterministic spectral amplitude (DSA) method. Only the phases of
individual components are randomly chosen, and thus, the method may also be termed the random phase
method. It has been shown [Tucker, et al. (1984)] that this representation of the random wave simulation
does not satisfy the condition of a Gaussian sea unless N → ∞ in the limit,
An alternative scheme is to represent the sea surface in terms of two Fourier coefficients as

η ( x, t ) = ∑ {an cos ⎡⎣k ( n ) x − 2π f ( n ) t ⎤⎦ + bn sin ⎡⎣k ( n ) x − 2π f ( n ) t ⎤⎦}

N
(46)
n =1
In this case an and bn are obtained as independent, Gaussian distributed random variables with zero mean
and variance of S(fn)∆f. Thus, amplitude and a phase are equivalently replaced by two amplitudes, which
are the coefficients of the sine and cosine components of the wave profile. This equation, Eq.(54) is a
proper representation of a Gaussian sea. N should still be large for a true random sea. This is referred to as
a random coefficient scheme. Since the amplitudes are random in the case, it is also called a non-
deterministic spectral amplitude (NSA) model. The main difference between the DSA and NSA models is
the satisfaction (or lack of it) of the Gaussian sea. Certain wave statistics by the DSA model may produce
error including wave group statistics. However, the simultaneous simulation of both narrow and broad
banded spectra by Elgar, et al. (1985) showed that there is no significant difference between the two
simulation schemes in many wave group statistics. In both cases, a large number of Fourier components (N
> 1000) were used.

23
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

8 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cartwright, D.E., “On estimating the mean energy of sea waves from the highest waves in record”, Proc.
Royal Society, A Vol.247, 1957, pp.22-48.
Darbyshire, M. and Draper, L., “Forecasting wind – generated sea waves”, Engineering (Lond), April
1963, pp.482-484.
Gumbel E.J. “Structures of Extremes” Columbia University Press, New York, 1958.
Kinsman, B., “Wind waves, their generation and propagation on the ocean surface”, Prentice Hall, 1965.
Longuet-Higgins, M.S. “On the statistical distribution of height of sea waves”, Journal of Marine
Research, IX 3. 1952, PP.245-268.
Pierson, W. J., and Moskowitz, L., “A proposed spectral form for fully developed sea based on similarity
theory”, Journal of Geophysical Research, 1964, Vol.62, No.24, 5181-5190.
Shore Protection Manual U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Centre, Virginia,
Vol.1, 1977.
Chakrabarti,S.K.” Hydrodynamics of offshore structures”Springler-Verlag Berlin, 1987
Pierson, W. J., and Moskowitz, L., A proposed spectral form for fully developed wind seas based on the
similarity theory of S. A. Kitaigorodskii, Journal of Geophysical Research, December 1964, 69 (24), 5181
– 5203.
Bretschneider, C. L., Wave variability and wave spectra for wind-generated gravity waves, Technical
Memorandum No. 118, Beach Erosion Board, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1959.
Bretschneider, C.L., Wave forecasting, Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering, Myers, J.J., et
al. (Editors), McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1969, Chapter 11.
Bhattacharyya, R., Dynamics of Marine Vehicles, John Wiley and Sons. Chapter 5, New York, 1978.
Proceedings of the Second International Ship Structures Congress, Delft, Netherlands, 1964.
ITTC, Recommendations of the 11th International Towing Tank Conference, Proceedings 11th ITTC Tokyo
1966.
ITTC, Technical Decisions and Recommendations of the Seakeeping Committee, Proceedings 12th and 13th
ITTC, Rome, 1969, Berlin, 1972.
Hasselman, K., et al., Measurement of wind-wave growth and swell decay during the Joint North Sea
Wave Project (JONSWAP), Deutschen Hydrographischen Zeitschrift, Erganzunscheft 1973, 13, No. A.
Hasselman, K., et al., A parametric wave prediction model, Journal of Physical Oceanography 1976, 6,
200-228.
Scott, J.R., A sea spectrum for model tests and long-term ship prediction, Journal of Ship Research,
December 1965, 9, 145-152.
Ochi, M.K., and Hubble, E.N., Six parameter wave spectra, Proceedings of the Fifteenth Coastal
Engineering Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, ASCE, 1976, pp. 301-328.
Tucker, M.J., Challenor, P.J., and Carter, D.J.T., Numerical simulation of a random sea: a common
error and its effect upon wave group statistics, Applied Ocean Research, 1984, 6 (2), 118-122.

24
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

FETCH LENGTH

Short steep Fully Swell

Wind waves Developed
sea

Fig. 1a. Development of waves within Generating area

η(t)

1m

10 secs

Fig. 1b Typical sample of wave record

25
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

0.10
wave elevation (m)

0.00

-0.10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (sec)

Typical random wave time series for Tp=1.6sec and Hs=0.15m

2.4

1.8
S (f) x 10-3

1.2

0.6

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Frequency, f (Hz)

Spectral density curves for the above time series

Fig. 1c Typical random wave record and its respective spectral density plot

26
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

0.30

0.20
Standard error

0.10

0.00
0.0 100 1000 10000
Number of waves

Fig. 2 Standard error versus number of waves

ANALYSIS OF OCEAN WAVES

Statistical Procedure Spectral Method

Zero-up- Zero-down- Fast Fourier Co-Variance

Cross Method Cross Method Transform Method
Technique

Fig. 3 Methods of Ocean wave Analysis

27
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Tc Tc

Down-1(Tzd) Down-2(Tzd)

HU2
HD1

HD2
Hu1

Up1(Tku) up2(Tzu)

(t) : Time history of water surface elevation, Hu1, Hu2 : Wave height (up cross),
HD1, HD2 : Wave height (down cross), TZU : Zero crossing period (up cross),
TZd : Zero crossing period (down cross), Tc : Crest period.
Fig. 4. Difference of wave heights due to methods of definition

18000 6

16000

14000

12000 4
Spectral density

10000
Energy

8000

6000 2

4000

2000

0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Frequency Frequency

Fig. 5. Distribution ofofenergy

Fig. 5. Distribution energy Fig.
Fig. 6. Wave
6. Wave spectrum
spectrum

28
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Wind dominated
spectrum
Swell dominated
spectrum
Sη (f)

Sη (f)
Frequency Frequency

Fig. 7. Types of Double peaked spectrum

29
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Table 1. WAVE AND SEA SCALE FOR FULLY ARISEN SEA

30
 Random waves ( wave data collection & analysis)

Fig. 8. Comparison of JONSWAP & PM spectrum

Fig.9. Average,normalized spectral values from North Atlantic data (19 Mar, 1968) vs Scott spectrum

Fig. 10. Energy Contribution at a given frequency (shaded area) of an energy spectrum

31