Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of

learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that
behavior.

Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may
occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed
that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior. Instead, he
suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.
Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explained
how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of
children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees
finishing projects to receive praise or promotions.
In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior, but
operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of an undesirable
outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors.
For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in
class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

Components of Operant Conditioning

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:

• A reinforcer is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There
are two kinds of reinforcer's:
1. Positive reinforcer's are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after
the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or
behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct
reward.
2. Negative reinforcer's involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes
after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened
by the removal of something considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

• Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome

that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:
1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application,
involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken
the response it follows.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an
favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.
Existential Theory
EXISTENTIALISM THEORY is describe as “A philosophy that emphasizes the uniqueness
and isolation of the individual experience in a hostile or indifferent universe, regards human
existence as unexplainable, and stresses freedom of choice and responsibility for the
consequences of one's acts.”
1. What are the basic assumptions underlying this theory?
The Existential theory emphasizes a keen respect of the person. Humans are in a state
of constant transition and evolution. The theory allows for independent choice, freedoms,
personal responsibility and self-determination. As we have control in our lives, we must take
responsibility for our actions. Loneliness is a natural condition. We create meanings in our
lives when questioning who we are, were have we been, and where are we going. Sooner or
later, we must face death or the state of our non-being.
2. What are the fundamental ideas behind this theory?
There are six key concepts behind the Existential theory:
Proposition 1: The Capacity for Self-Awareness
Clients have a capacity for self-awareness. It is their choice to expand awareness;
Clients choose to live freely and fully. They can also choose, however, to restrict
themselves.
Proposition 2: Freedom and Responsibility
People are free beings and must accept that responsibility of their actions.
People are responsible for choosing their own destinies because they chose freely
from alternatives. Therefore, responsibility for their actions lies with themselves.
Proposition 3: Striving for Identity and Relationship to Others
Clients have a concern to preserve their uniqueness and identity. They learn of
themselves though their interaction with others. Clients strive to develop a personal
identity or self, but it takes courage and struggle, and is often realized at a price.
Loneliness is a natural condition and one derives strength from the experience. Clients
also depend on relationships with others. There is a paradox in that the ability to relate
to others is impossible less they be able to stand alone.
Proposition 4: The Search for Meaning
The significance of a person’s existence is never set, rather it changes though their
projects and goals. The meaning in life can be found by engaging in activities that
might include commitment to creating, loving, working and building. Our search for
meaning in our lives is never-ending. Meaninglessness in life leads to a existential
vacuum, a hollow and empty feeling. Existential guilt is the concept of
meaninglessness, which progresses out of a sense of incompleteness. Logotherapy is
designed to help clients find meaning in life.
Proposition 5: Anxiety as a Condition of Living
Anxiety is a part of the human condition and a potential growth source. Neurotic
anxiety tends to immobilize people. Normal anxiety is felt when an event is being
 faced. Normal anxiety comes from when people feel freedom and the consequences of
accepting or rejecting the choices.
Proposition 6:Awareness of Death and Non-being
Death is eminent. Death is a part of living and awareness of death gives life
significance. Death is not negative, but it is a motivating factor for the living. If people
commit themselves to a full life, then they can be at peace nearing its end.
3. What key things make it different from other approaches?
Existential therapy is an invitation to clients to recognize the ways in which they are not
living full, authentic lives. It helps one in making choices that will lead to one’s realization of
what they are able to become. An Existential therapist shares their reactions to clients with
genuine empathy. It can sometimes be confrontational. Therapists must also be in touch with
their own phenomenological world. An awareness of death is essential and can help oneself
make choices in life.
4. What are the goals of the therapeutic approach?
One goal is to enable an individual to accept the freedom and responsibility that goes
along with action. This approach is an invitation to get the clients to see where they are not
living authentically and challenge them, which then will lead to their becoming what they are
capable of becoming. Help the clients see that they are free and they will become aware of
their possibilities. A therapist’s further responsibility is to help clients recognize factors that
block freedom. Also point out that there is a price to pay for an increased awareness.
5. What are the roles and responsibilities of the therapist in this approach? The client?
Existential therapy places primary emphasis on understanding the subjective world of
the client’s experience through empathy. Techniques are tools to help the client become
aware of their choices and their potential for action. No particular technique is viewed as
essential. Therapists invite clients to recognize and explore how they have allowed others to
make decisions for them and embolden them to take actions toward autonomy. The clients
have a limited awareness of themselves, or restricted existence, and are vague about their
difficulties.
The clients are encouraged to take seriously their own-subjected experience of their
world. For some people, just taking psychotherapy is a frightful event. Eventually, the client
becomes aware of what they have been and who they are now. The client is better able to
decide what kind of future they want. When the clients attempt to convince themselves on the
powerlessness of the situation, the therapist may remind them of the choice to start therapy.
Some of the major themes of therapy include anxiety, freedom, responsibility, isolation,
alienation, death and its implication for the living.
6. What are the limitations to this theory/approach?
This approach lacks a systematic statement of principals and practices of therapy.
Existential writers use vague, global terms and abstract principles that are difficult to grasp.
The model has not been subjected to scientific research that would allow validation of its
procedures. Therapists must develop their own techniques or borrow them from other schools
of therapy. Existential therapy has nominal effect for lower-functioning clients, clients in
extreme distress who need direction, and those clients that are nonverbal.
7. What are the major strengths of this theory/approach?
The therapist-client relationship is person to person, which lessons the chances of a
dehumanizing effect. The theory stresses self-determination, the personal responsibility that
comes with choices and the viewing of one as the author of one’s life. It provides a
perspective for the understanding of anxiety and guilt. Death is very important in Existential
theory, but as a motivating factor for the living. Being alone is natural feeling. The approach
has something to offer regardless theoretical orientation.
8. What particular strengths/relevance does this theory/approach have for counseling with
persons with disabilities? What are its limitations in this area?
Existential therapy, particularly with its emphasis on anxiety and death, can be
very positive regardless of the therapy used. People who have courage to face themselves
will benefit from this outlook. I have encountered many courageous people while in my own
rehabilitation. People who are in the impact stage of denial may have a problem with this type
of therapy, but the life skills gained may be used to help the clients move on.
9. What particular strengths/relevance does this theory/approach have for counseling with
special populations? What are its limitations in this area?
The clients need to take a different view of their lives. They cannot be allowed to see
themselves as victims. Others are not doing something to them and taking their control. They
are instead responsible for their actions and choices. There are some who say Existential
therapy is cross-cultural because it is the foundations of human interactions. A strength of
Existential therapy is that it enables clients to examine the degree in which their behavior is
being influenced by social and cultural conditioning.
10. What is your overall evaluation of this theory/approach?
I like the philosophy and outlook of the Existential theory. I especially like where death
is referred to as motivator and test of living. I like where the theory says we are free beings
and must accept that responsibility of our actions. The theory explains that feelings of
loneliness and anxieties are perfectly natural. The weak point is that the theory lacks
validation. I would borrow quite extensively from the Existential theory, but there are other
theories I must investigate.
A great amount of courage and honesty is required for this type of therapy to succeed
with any client, but most especially one who has sustained a speech related disability.
A large deterrent to its successful use with the greater disabled client population is the
unspoken social imperative that those with disabilities are somehow un-whole, or unable to
function on a one to one basis with the general population. This politically correct stereo-
typing, which deters one’s rising to their greatest ability, fails to demand the level of personal
responsibility needed to actualize the benefit of this type of therapy.