Section 12.3 and 13.1.

Homework #8 Masaya Sato

Sec 12.3
2. Prove the if λ1 , . . . , λn are the eigenvalues of the n × n matrix A then λk1 , . . . , λkn are the
eigenvalues of Ak for any k ≥ 0.
Proof. By assumption for each λi there exists some nonzero vector vi such that

Avi = λi vi (i = 1, . . . , n).

Therefore for nonnegative k

k times k−1 times
z }| { z }| {
Ak vi = (A · · · A) vi = (A · · · A)(Avi )
= (A · · · A)(λi vi )
= λi (A · · · A)vi

and thus Ak vi = λki vi . Hence λk1 , . . . , λkn are the eigenvalues of Ak .

17. Prove that any matrix A is similar to its transpose At .
Proof. Consider the Jordan canonical form JA of A. Then for an n × n invertible matrix
 
0 0 ··· 0 1
0 0 · · · 1 0
 
T =  ... ... .. ..  .

 . . 
0 1 · · · 0 0
1 0 ··· 0 0

Then T −1 = T and
T −1 JA T = JAt .
Moreover JAt = JAt , where JAt is the Jordan canonical form of the transpose At . Hence A
and At are similar.
18. Determine all possible Jordan canonical forms for a linear transformation with charac-
teristic polynomial (x − 2)3 (x − 3)2 .
Solution: Observe first that the characteristic polynomial (x−2)3 (x−3)2 has the eigenvalues
2 and 3, with multiplicity 3 and 2, respectively. Let Ji (λ) denote a Jordan block with respect
to the eigenvalue λ with multiplicity i. Then the Jordan canonical J form is given by

(i) J1 ∼
= J3 (2) ⊕ J2 (3) ,
(ii) J2 ∼
= J1 (2) ⊕ J2 (2) ⊕ J2 (3) ,
(iii) J3 ∼
= J1 (2) ⊕ J1 (2) ⊕ J1 (2) ⊕ J2 (3) ,
(iv) J4 ∼
= J3 (2) ⊕ J1 (3) ⊕ J1 (3) ,

Abstract Algebra by Dummit and Foote 1

Section 12.3 and 13.1. Homework #8 Masaya Sato

(v) J5 ∼
= J1 (2) ⊕ J2 (2) ⊕ J1 (3) ⊕ J1 (3) , and
(vi) J6 ∼
= J1 (2) ⊕ J1 (2) ⊕ J1 (2) ⊕ J1 (3) ⊕ J1 (3) .
Therefore for (i) to (vi)
     
2 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
0 2 1 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0
   
 
J1 =  0 0 2 0 0 , J2 0 0 2 0 0 , J3 = 0 0 2 0 0,
 
0 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 3 1
0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3
     
2 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
0 2 1 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0
   
 
J4 = 0 0 2 0 0 , J5 = 0 0 2 0 0 , and J6 = 0 0 2 0 0.
 
0 0 0 3 0  0 0 0 3 0  0 0 0 3 0
0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3

20. Show that the following matrices are similar in Mp (Fp ) (p × p matrices with entries from
Fp ):  
  1 1 0 ··· 0 0
0 0 0 ··· 0 1 0 1 1 · · · 0 0
1 0 0 · · · 0 0  
  0 0 1 · · · 0 0
0 1 0 · · · 0 0
 and  .. .. .. .. ..  .
 

 .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .
 
. . . . . 
0 0 0 · · · 1 1
0 0 0 ··· 1 0
0 0 0 ··· 0 1
Proof. Suppose first that p 6= 2 since two matrices are not similar, i.e. the diagonal matrix
 
0 1
1 0
is not similar to another one  
1 1
.
0 1
Let A denote the right above matrix, and let B denote the left above matrix. Since A is a
companion matrix, its characteristic polynomial pA (x) is given by

pA (x) = det (xI − A) = xp + 0xp−1 + · · · + 0x − 1 = xp − 1.

Then since B is an upper triangular matrix, its characteristic polynomial pB (x) is given by

pB (x) = det (xI − B) = (x − 1)p = xp − 1.

Moreover pA (x) and pB (x) are both minimal polynomial for A and B, respectively. Therefore
two matrices A and B are similar.

Abstract Algebra by Dummit and Foote 2

Section 12.3 and 13.1. Homework #8 Masaya Sato

21. Show that if A2 = A then A is similar to a diagonal matrix which has only 0’s and 1’s
along the diagonal.
Proof. Consider an eigenvalue λ ∈ F for A. Then for the corresponding nonzero eigenvector
v
Av = λv
and
λv = Av = A2 v = A(λv) = λ2 v.
Therefore
λ(λ − 1)v = 0
and hence λ = 0 or λ = 1. Now obverse that the Jordan canonical form J of an idempotent
matrix A is also idempotent. In fact since A is similar to its Jordan canonical form J, there
exists an invertible matrix T such that

J = T −1 AT .

So
J 2 = (T −1 AT )(T −1 AT ) = T −1 A2 T = T −1 AT = J. (0.1)
Therefore J is of the form  
0 0 ··· 0 0
0
 0 ··· 0 0 
 .. .. . . ....  ,
. . . . .
 
0 0 ··· 1 0
0 0 ··· 0 1
a diagonal matrix whose entries are all equal to 0 or 1. Otherwise J would not be idempotent.

22. Prove that an n×n matrix A with entries from C satisfying A3 = A can be diagonalized.
Is the same statement true over any field F ?
Proof. Note that every n×n matrix A over a field F is similar to some diagonal matrix if and
only if the minimal polynomial of A has no repeated roots. Since A3 = A by assumption,
the minimal polynomial m(x) divides x3 − x = x(x − 1)(x + 1). So m(x) has no repeated
roots. Thus A can be diagonalizable.
However, for a field F2 , the matrix  
1 1
A=
0 1
satisfies A3 = A. But A is not diagonalizable.
23. Suppose that A is an 2 × 2 matrix with entries from Q for which A3 = I but A 6= I.
Write A in rational canonical form and in Jordan canonical form viewed as a matrix over C.

Abstract Algebra by Dummit and Foote 3

Section 12.3 and 13.1. Homework #8 Masaya Sato

Proof. Observe first that the minimal matrix m(x) of A divides the polynomial x3 − 1 =
(x − 1)(x2 + x + 1). Moreover note that x2 + x + 1 is irreducible over C since +1 or −1 would
be a root by the Rational Root Theorem or Gauss’s Lemma. Since A 6= I, m(x) = x2 + x + 1.
Therefore the rational canonical form for A is given by
 
0 −1
1 −1

and the Jordan canonical form is given by

" √ #
− 12 + i 23 0 √
.
0 − 12 − i 23

25. Determine the Jordan canonical form for the n × n matrix over Q whose entries are all
equal to 1.
Solution: By applying finitely many row and column operations, the matrix is converted
to another of the form  
1 0 0 ··· 0
0 0 0 · · · 0
.. . . ..  ,
 
 .. ..
. . . . .
0 0 0 ··· 0
and the matrix is of the Jordan canonical form.
26. Determine the Jordan canonical form for the n × n matrix over Fp whose entries are all
equal to 1.
Solution: Let A be an n × n matrix whose entries are all equal to 1 ∈ Fp . Then
 
n n ··· n
n n · · · n
A2 =  .. ..  .
 
.. . .
. . . .
n n ··· n

Then consider the following two cases.

Case 1: p|n. Then A2 = 0. So the minimal polynomial m(x) is of the form m(x) = x2 .
Therefore the Jordan canonical form of A is given by

A∼
= B ⊕ C,

where  
0 1
B=
0 0

Abstract Algebra by Dummit and Foote 4

Section 12.3 and 13.1. Homework #8 Masaya Sato

and C is the (n − 2) × (n − 2) zero matrix.

Case 2: p - n. Then p and n are relatively prime. So A2 = A and the minimal polynomial
of A is m(x) = x2 − x. Therefore the Jordan canonical form of A is given by
J∼= B ⊕ C,
where B = 1, a 1 × 1 matrix, and C is the (n − 1) × (n − 1) zero matrix.
31. Let N be an n × n matrix with coefficients in the field F . The matrix N is said to be
nilpotent if some power of N is the zero matrix, i.e., N k = 0 for some k. Prove that any
nilpotent matrix is similar to a block diagonal matrix whose blocks are matrices with 1’s
along the superdiagonal and 0’s elsewhere.
Proof. Let u be a nonzero vector such that N k−1 u 6= 0. Observe first that {u, N u, . . . , N k−1 u}
is linearly independent. So for a0 , a1 , . . . , ak−1 ∈ F it is immediate to show that
a0 u + a1 (N u) + · · · + ak−1 (N k−1 u) = 0
has only the trivial solution a0 = 0, a1 = 0, and ak−1 = 0 by applying N k−1 , . . . , N 2 , N to
the equation. Now consider the following two cases.
Case 1: k ≥ n. The matrix representation for N with respect to the basis {N n−1 u, . . . , N u, u}
is given by  
0 1 0 ··· 0
0 0 1 · · · 0
 
 .. .. .. . . .. 
. . . . . ,
 
0 0 0 · · · 1
0 0 0 ··· 0
which consists of a single Jordan block whose entries are 1 along the superdiagonal and 0’s
elsewhere.
Case 2: k < n. Since there is a unique pair of positive integers q and r such that n = qk + r,
where 0 ≤ r ≤ k − 1 consider a k × k submatrix Q contained in N . Then its representation
for K with respect to a basis {u, N u, . . . , N k−1 u} is given by
 
0 1 0 ··· 0
0 0 1 · · · 0
 
 .. .. .. . . .. 
. . . . . .
 
0 0 0 · · · 1
0 0 0 ··· 0
Now let R be an r × r matrix. Then the representation matrix for R with respect to the
basis {N k−1 u, . . . , N k−r−1 u, N k−r u} is given by
 
0 1 0 ··· 0
0 0 1 · · · 0
 
 .. .. .. . . .. 
. . . . . ,
 
0 0 0 · · · 1
0 0 0 ··· 0

Abstract Algebra by Dummit and Foote 5

Section 12.3 and 13.1. Homework #8 Masaya Sato

and thus N ∼ = Q ⊕ · · · ⊕ Q ⊕ R, where Q ⊕ · · · ⊕ Q is q copies of a k × k submatrix Q.

Therefore N is similar to a block diagonal matrix whose entries are 1’s on the superdiagonal
and 0’s elsewhere.
32. Prove that if N is an n × n nilpotent matrix then in fact N n = 0.
Proof. Using the result from Exercise 31, consider the two cases.
Case 1: k ≥ n. Then N is similar to M , where M is an n × n matrix whose entries are 1’s
on the superdiagonal and 0’s elsewhere. So there exists an n × n invertible matrix T such
that N = T −1 M T .
N n = T −1 M n T
and moreover M n = 0. Therefore N n = 0.
Case 2: k < n. Then N is similar to a block diagonal matrix M , where each block has
entries 1’s on the superdiagonal and 0’s elsewhere. Note that M k = 0 since

M k = Qk ⊕ · · · ⊕ Qk ⊕ Rk = 0 ⊕ · · · ⊕ 0 ⊕ 0.

Therefore
N n = T −1 M n T = T −1 M k M n−k T = 0
as desired.
34. Prove that the trace of a nilpotent n × n matrix is 0.
Proof. Let M be an n × n matrix given above. Since a nilpotent matrix N is similar to M ,
N and M share the same characteristic polynomial

p(x) = det (xI − N ) = det (xI − M ) = xn .

Observe that the coefficient of xn−1 for p(x), which is the trace of M , is equal to 0. Therefore
the trace of N is 0.

Sec 13.1
3. Prove that x3 + x + 1 is irreducible over F2 and let θ be a root. Compute the powers of
θ in F2 (θ).
Proof. Suppose by contradiction that x3 +x+1 is reducible, i.e. there exists some polynomial
p(x) and q(x) in F2 [x] such that

x3 + x + 1 = p(x)q(x).

Observe that one of p(x) and q(x) is a polynomial of degree 1, so let p(x) be of degree 1 for
simplicity. Then p(x) is of the form

p(x) = x or p(x) = x + 1.

Abstract Algebra by Dummit and Foote 6

Section 12.3 and 13.1. Homework #8 Masaya Sato

It is obvious that p(x) 6= x. So p(x) = x + 1 and thus p(1) = 0. However

x3 + x + 1 ⇒ 13 + 1 + 1 = 1 6= 0.

This contradicts that p(x) divided x3 + x + 1. Therefore x3 + x + 1 is irreducible over F2 .

Now let θ is a root. Then θ3 + θ + 1 = 0. Moreover
θ4 = θ2 + θ,
θ5 = θ3 + θ2 = θ2 + θ + 1,
θ6 = θ3 + θ2 + θ = θ2 + 1,
θ7 = θ3 + θ = 1, and
θ8 = θ.
Therefore for a nonnegative integer k
θ7k+1 = θ,
θ7k+2 = θ2 ,
θ7k+3 = θ + 1,
θ7k+4 = θ2 + θ,
θ7k+5 = θ2 + θ + 1, and
θ7k+6 = 1.

5. Suppose that α is a rational root of a monic polynomial in Z[x]. Prove that α is an

integer.
Proof. Since α ∈ Q is a root of some polynomial p(x) ∈ Z[x] of the form

p(x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,

α = ±a0 or α = ±1 by the Rational Root Theorem or Gauss’s Lemma. Moreover α ∈ Z

since a0 ∈ Z.
7. Prove that x3 − nx + 2 is irreducible over Q for n 6= −1, 3, 5.
Proof. Suppose that there is a pair of monic polynomials p(x) and q(x) of degrees 1 and 2
respectively such that
x3 − nx + 2 = p(x)q(x).
Then p(x) is of the form p(x) = x − r, where r ∈ Q. r is a root of the polynomial x3 − nx + 2
and moreover r = 2, r = −2, r = −1, or r = 1 by the Rational Root Theorem or Gauss’s
Lemma. If r = 2, then

x3 − nx + 2 ⇒ 23 − 2n + 2 = 10 − 2n.

If r = −2 or r = 1, then

x3 − nx + 2 ⇒ (−2)3 − (−2)n + 2 = −6 + 2n, or

Abstract Algebra by Dummit and Foote 7

Section 12.3 and 13.1. Homework #8 Masaya Sato

x3 − nx + 2 ⇒ (1)3 − (1)n + 2 = 3 − n.
Moreover if r = −1, then

x3 − nx + 2 ⇒ (−1)3 − (−1)n + 2 = 1 + n.

Therefore x3 − nx + 2 is reducible over Q if n = −1, n = 3, or n = 5. Otherwise x3 − nx + 2

is irreducible over Q.

Abstract Algebra by Dummit and Foote 8