Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Thesis
Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of
degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENNGINEERING
By
N.MADHURI-07141A0419
G.SOWMYA-07141A0455
G.SHABARINATH-07141A0418
Under the esteemed guidance of
P. ARUN KUMAR, B.Tech
Assistant Professor.
Page No.
We take this opportunity to express our profound sincere gratitude to all those
who helped us to carry out this project successfully.
We owe our sincere gratitude to our principal Mr.DHURGA PRASAD and also
to our college committee members for giving the encouragement that helped us to
complete the project.
At the very outset we convey our gratitude to our HOD Mr.SUBBIAH for
allotting us this project and enabling us to complete the same successfully; we express
our profound gratitude for his valuable guidance and support.
Our sincere thanks to P.ARUN KUMAR of the Department of electronics and
communication engineering, SWAMI RAMANANDA TIRTHA INSTITUTE OF
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY who inspired us with her valuable suggestions and
advice through out our Graduation. Studies at the college and also during our project
work. We also express our sincere thanks to all the staff members.
We here by thank one and all who extended their helping hand in the
accomplishment of the project.
ABSTRACT
ENTRY
SENSOR
IR
EXIT
SENSOR
IR
89C51
CRYSTAL
L293D
DC MOTOR
RESET
CIRCUIT
Memory :
Most often all the memory required for the operation of a micro controller is
included on board. Program is usually stored in non-volatile memory such as ROM. In
that situation the program has to be fully tested before committing it to silicon. Micro
controllers are usually equipped with an emulation mode that enables access to external
memory. This mode of operation can be used for program development or debugging.
Other forms of memory used in micro controllers include EEPROM and RAM.
EEPROM is used for non-volatile storage of variables such as calibration data and system
settings. RAM is used for temporary storage of variables.
3.1.5 External Device Drivers:
1) LCD Interface: Liquid Crystal Display drivers consisting of logic, signal level
generation and row and column drivers may be included on the micro controller chip.
LCD interface usually involves a large number of pins for the LCD row and column
drivers. Including LCD driver on the chip results in a significant increase in the package
pin count.
2) LED Interface: LED’s are used for status indicator or signal transmission. Special
high current drivers are needed to handle the large current required by the LED.
Integrating the driver on the micro controller simplifies system level design but the large
currents can complicate the design of the chip.
3.1.6 Features of 8051 Micro Controller:
The features of the micro controller are as follows:
• Compatible with MCS-51 ™ Products
• 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory
– Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
• Three-level Program Memory Lock
• 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM
• 32 Programmable I/O Lines
• Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
• Six Interrupt Sources
• Programmable Serial Channel
• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
Status of External Pins During Idle and Power-down Mode
Upon rest, all interrupts are disabled (masked), meaning that none will be
responded to by the micro controller if they are activated. The interrupts must be enabled
by software in order for the micro controller to respond to them. There is a register called
INTERRUPT ENABLE (IE) that is responsible for enabling and disabling the interrupts.
IE (Interrupt Enable) Register
6) Port 3:
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are
pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that
are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.
Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as listed
below:
Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification
7) RST:
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is
running resets the device.
8) ALE/PROG:
Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during
accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during
Flash programming. In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6the
oscillator frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note,
however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external Data Memory.
If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH.
With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise,
the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the
microcontroller is in external execution mode.
9) PSEN:
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice
each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to
external data memory.
10) EA/VPP:
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the
device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to
FFFFH.
Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on
reset.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also
receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for
parts that require 12-volt VPP.
11) XTAL1:
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.
12) XTAL2:
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
3.2L293DIC(DCMOTORDRIVER):
The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is
designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36
V.
The L293D is designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at
voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both devices are designed to drive inductive loads such as
relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping motors, as well as other high-current/high-
voltage loads in positive-supply applications. All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output
is a complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a Darlington transistor sink and a pseudo-
Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with drivers 1 and 2 enabled by 1,2EN
and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN.
When an enable input is high, the associated drivers are enabled and their outputs
are active and in phase with their inputs. When the enable input is low, those drivers are
disabled and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance state. With the proper data
inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or bridge) reversible drive suitable for
solenoid or motor applications. On the L293, external high-speed output clamp diodes
should be used for inductive transient suppression. A VCC1 terminal, separate from
VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize device power dissipation. The
L293and L293D are characterized for operation from 0°C to 70°C.
3.3 DC MOTOR:
DC motors are
configured in many types and sizes, including brush less, servo, and gear motor types. A
motor consists of a rotor and a permanent magnetic field stator. The magnetic field is
maintained using either permanent magnets or electromagnetic windings. DC motors are
most commonly used in variable and torque.
Motion and controls cover a wide range of components that in some way are used
to generate and/or control motion. Areas within this category include bearings and
bushings, clutches and brakes, controls and drives, drive components, encoders and
resolves, Integrated motion control, limit switches, linear actuators, linear and rotary
motion components, linear position sensing, motors (both AC and DC motors),
orientation position sensing, pneumatics and pneumatic components, positioning stages,
slides and guides, power transmission (mechanical), seals, slip rings, solenoids, springs.
Motors are the devices that provide the actual speed and torque in a drive system.
This family includes AC motor types (single and multiphase motors, universal, servo
motors, induction, synchronous, and gear motor) and DC motors (brush less, servo motor,
and gear motor) as well as linear, stepper and air motors, and motor contactors and
starters.
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-
carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external
magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and
to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with
magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities
(North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is
designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an
external magnetic field to generate rotational motion. Let's start by looking at a simple 2-
pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet or winding with a "North"
polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).
Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator,
commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that
Beamers will see), the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent
magnets1. The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing,
as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle
and attached commutator) rotates with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of
windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to the
commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside
the stator (field) magnets.
The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such
that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator
magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the
stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next
commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor,
the rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip"
of the rotor's magnetic field, and driving it to continue rotating.
In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a
very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You
can imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of
its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there.
Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out
the power supply (i.e., both brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously).
This would be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as
well. Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a high
amount of torque” ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with the
position of the rotor).
So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the
workings of one via an interactive animation (JavaScript required):
You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a
time (but two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one
commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's
field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about
the effects of this later, but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the
coil windings' series wiring:
There's probably no better way to see how an average dc motor is put together,
than by just opening one up. Unfortunately this is tedious work, as well as requiring the
destruction of a perfectly good motor.
This is a basic 3-pole dcmotor, with 2 brushes and three commutator contacts.
3.4 IR SENSORS:
The basic idea is to send infra red light through IR-LEDs, which is then reflected
by any object in front of the sensor
Then all you have to do is to pick-up the reflected IR light. For detecting the
reflected IR light, we are going to use a very original technique: we are going to use
another IR-LED, to detect the IR light that was emitted from another led of the exact
same type. This is an electrical property of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) which is the
fact that a led Produce a voltage difference across its leads when it is subjected to light.
As if it was a photo-cell, but with much lower output current. In other words, the
from light, It can barely be detected. that's why as you will notice in the schematic, we
are going to use a Op-Amp (operational Amplifier) to accurately detect very small
voltage changes.
BR1
Red led
O/P power
Power supply
The power supply consists of ac voltage transformer, diode rectifier, ripple filter,
and voltage regulators. The transformer is an AC device, which increases or decreases the
input supply voltage without change in frequency. There are 2 types of transformers. One
of Step-up and the other is Step-down. Here we are using a Step-down transformer,
which decreases the 230 supply volts to 12 volts. The rectifier is a device which converts
an AC voltage to the pulsating DC voltage. Here IN4007 diodes are used as rectifiers. A
bridge type full wave rectifier is constructed using these diodes, as its efficiency is 81.2%
and ripple factor is 0.482.
After the rectification, the output voltage signal contains both an average dc
component and a time varying ac component called the ripple. To reduce or eliminate the
ac component, one needs low pass filter(s). The low pass filter allows the dc component
to pass through it but attenuate the ac at 60 Hz or its harmonics, i.e., 120 Hz. Here we use
1000Mf, 470Mf & 100Mf capacitors at the o/p and i/p of regulators. The 12v DC output
of the filter is passed through voltage regulators of 7812 & 7805. “78” indicates that it is
a regulator for positive voltage. There is a corresponding “79” model for negative
voltage. “12” indicates that it has an output of 12 V. similarly we are connecting a 7805
to the 7812 regulator o/p, to generate 5volts. An LED in series to a 100ohms resistor is
connected in parallel to the output voltage to indicate the supply. And also a switch is
connected in series to the o/p voltage terminal to ON/OFF the supply.
3.5.1 Transformer:
1) Definition: -
The transformer is a static electro-magnetic device that transforms one alternating
voltage (current) into another voltage (current). However, power remains the some during
the transformation. Transformers play a major role in the transmission and distribution of
ac power.
2) Principle: -
Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. A transformer consists of
laminated magnetic core forming the magnetic frame. Primary and secondary coils are
wound upon the two cores of the magnetic frame, linked by the common magnetic flux.
When an alternating voltage is applied across the primary coil, a current flows in the
primary coil producing magnetic flux in the transformer core. This flux induces voltage
in secondary coil.
Transformers are classified as: -
(a) Based on position of the windings with respect to core i.e.
(1) Core type transformer
(2) Shell type transformer
(b) Transformation ratio:
(1) Step up transformer
(2) Step down transformer
(a) Core & shell types: Transformer is simplest electrical machine, which consists of
windings on the laminated magnetic core. There are two possibilities of putting up
the windings on the core.
(1) Winding encircle the core in the case of core type transformer
(2) Cores encircle the windings on shell type transformer.
(b) Step up and Step down: In these Voltage transformation takes place according to
whether the
Primary is high voltage coil or a low voltage coil.
(1) Lower to higher-> Step up
(2) Higher to lower-> Step down
3.5.2 DIODES:
It is a two terminal device consisting of a P-N junction formed either of Ge or Si
crystal. The P and N type regions are referred to as anode and cathode respectively.
Commercially available diodes usually have some means to indicate which lead is P and
which lead is N.
FEATURES:
Low forward voltage
High current capability
Low leakage current
High surge capability
Low cost
3.5.3 Resistors:
(3) Terminals
The following characteristics are inherent in all resistors and may be controlled by
design considerations and choice of material i.e. Temperature co–efficient of resistance,
Voltage co–efficient of resistance, high frequency characteristics, power rating, tolerance
& voltage rating of resistors. Resistors may be classified as
(1) Fixed
(2) Semi variable
(3) Variable resistor.
3.5.4 Capacitors:
The fundamental relation for the capacitance between two flat plates separated by
a dielectric material is given by:-
C=0.08854KA/D
Where: -
C= capacitance in pf.
K= dielectric constant
A=Area per plate in square cm.
D=Distance between two plates in cm
Design of capacitor depends on the proper dielectric material with particular type
of application. The dielectric material used for capacitors may be grouped in various
classes like Mica, Glass, air, ceramic, paper, Aluminum, electrolyte etc. The value of
capacitance never remains constant. It changes with temperature, frequency and aging.
The capacitance value marked on the capacitor strictly applies only at specified
temperature and at low frequencies.
Applications:
• Post regulator for switching DC/DC converter
• Bias supply for analog circuits
3.6 LCD
3.6.1 Pin Descrition:
1)VCC, VSS, VEE: While Vcc and Vss provide +5V and ground, respectively, Vee is used
for controlling LCD contrast.
2)RS, register select: There are two very important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin
is used for their selection as follows. If RS = 0,the instruction command code register is
selected, allowing the user to send a command such as clear display,cursor at home,etc.If
RS=1 the data register is selected ,allowing the user to send data to be displayed on the
LCD.
3)E, enable:The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented to its data
pins. When data is supplied to data pins ,a high to low pulse must be applied to this pin
in order for LCD to latch in the data present at the data pins. This pulse must be a
minimum of 450ns wide.
4)D0---D7:The 8--bit data pins ,D0-D7 are used to send information to the LCD or read
the contents of the LCD's internal registers. To display letters and numbers we send
ASCII codes for the letters A - Z, a - z and numbers 0 - 9 to these pins while making RS
= 1.There are also instruction command codes that can be sent to the LCD to clear the
display or force the cursor to the home position or blink the cursor.
We also use RS = 0 to check the busy flag bit to see if LCD is ready to receive the
information. The busy flag is D7 and can be read when R/W = 1 and RS = 0, as follows,
if R/W = 1,RS = 0.When D7 = 1 (busy flag bit=1), the LCD is busy taking care of
internal operations and wil not accept any new inforamtion.
NOTE: It is recommended to check the busy flag before writing any data to the LCD.
Pin Diagram:LCD
4. CONCLUSION