Quality of The Environment in Japan 1993 (MOE)

Quality of the Environment in Japan 1993 [MOE] 11/03/08 22:05
(1) General Wastes
The volume of general wastes which are discharged in conjunction with the everyday life came to about 50,440,000 tons
in fiscal 1990 (about 49,970,000 tons in fiscal 1989), and the emission of trash per capita stood at about 408.8 kg (about
406.6 kg in fiscal 1989), both figures being higher than in the preceding years (Fig. 1-1-36). A check of trends in the
emission of trash shows that it has been consistently on the upswing in proportion to the increase in standard of living.
Though somewhat on the decline at the time of an oil crisis in 1973, there subsequently appeared signs of a rise in total
emission. From fiscal 1985, the total emission rose by 16.1% and the per-capita emission by 13.6%. Given the diversification
of life styles, the kinds of trash have become diverse, and problems are posed by large household appliances and other
things difficult to dispose of.
Fig. 1-1-36 Trends in Total Trash Discharge and Per Capita Discharge a Day
Source:Ministry of Health and welfare
When it comes to the treatment of wastes, it is difficult to construct disposal plants, final ones in particular. Given
an increase in the emission of trash, there is a rapid drop in the residual capacity of final disposal plants for general
wastes. Particularly in the National Capital Region, including Tokyo, Kanagawa, Chiba, Saitama other prefectures, their
final disposal of trash accounted for 24.5% of the national total in fiscal 1990. However, it is projected that unless new
ones are prepared, the residual capacity of final disposal plants will go down to zero in a year or so (in a computation
with the final disposal volume in the National Capital Region at 4,122,000 tons, the residual capacity at about 3,870,000
tons and the specific gravity of trash at 0.3). Given the growing difficulty of assuring space for disposal, it is an urgent
task to reduce trash emissions and recycle and reuse trash. For this reason, the Law Concerning the Disposal and Cleaning of
Wastes was amended in 1991, and a Law for the Promotion of Uses of Recycled Resources enacted, thus striving to encourage
the utilization of recycled resources. Details on this matter are to be given in 4, Section 1, Chapter 4.
There has been a steady drop in the disposal of human waste for a long time, coming to about 36,210,000 kiloliters in
fiscal 1990 (about 36, 870,000 kiloliters in fiscal 1989). This was because the shift to flush toilets had increased due to
a rise in the number of people employing them. In recent years, incidentally, the interest in waste from human- waste
disposal facilities from the standpoint of preventing water pollution in waters for public use, and the development of
sophisticated technology to cope with COD, nitrogen and phosphorus has been stepped up.
Beside trash collected as mentioned in the foregoing, there are many kinds of trash illegally thrown away. One of the
problems broadly observed across the nation is the dispersion of empty drink cans. It is projected that about 30.9 billion
empty drink cans were thrown away in fiscal 1991, up 6.5% from the previous fiscal year (about 29 billion cans). The central
and local governments are taking various measures to prevent the dispersion of empty cans, but radical remedies have yet to
be drawn up, making it necessary to come up with more aggressive measures (Table 1-1-11).
Table 1-1-11 Numbers of Empty Cans Dispersed
Source:Environment Agency
http://www.env.go.jp/en/wpaper/1993/eae220000000005.html 第 1 页（共 33 页）
(2) Industrial Wastes
Industrial waste emissions in fiscal 1991 totaled 394,740,000 tons (Table 1-1-12), about eight times the total emission
of household wastes in fiscal 1991. A check of rises in the total emission of industrial wastes indicates that the increase
in fiscal 1985 was 26.4%, virtually the same as the rise of 26.3% registered in GNP that year, suggesting that the total
emission of industrial wastes increased in proportion to the economic growth. Eventually, about 15,057 tons of the total
emission of industrial wastes were recycled, the amount of final disposal coming to about 89,730,000 tons. The emitted items
included sludge (43%), cattle excretions (20%) and waste construction materials (14%), among others. According to a survey
performed once every five years by the Ministry of Health and Welfare on industrial wastes, sludge has significantly
increased since fiscal 1975, whereas waste acid and alkali have decreased. Similar trends were observed in fiscal 1991,
too. In terms of emissions on a weight basis by line of business, agriculture came on top of the list with 20%, followed by
the construction industry, electricity, gas and heat supplies, and the tap water service.
Table 1-1-12 Trends in Discharge of Industrial Wastes (National)
Source: Surveyed by the Ministry of Health and Welfare

Note:Tthe figures in brackets represent the shares in the total discharge.
A wide variety of controls is imposed on the treatment and disposal of industrial wastes under the Law Concerning the
Treatment and Cleaning of Wastes, and efforts are being made for their proper treatment and disposal. When those emitted
industrial wastes, excluding that which is reduced in the intermediate processing phase or diverted for recycling, 23% of
the total amount, or 89,730,000 tons, was subjected to the final disposal process. In recent years, the location of final
disposal plants has become a grave issue. Particularly in the National Capital Region, the residual capacity of the final
waste disposal plants was only 10,360,000 m3 in fiscal 1989, and many industrial wastes are disposed of in other
prefectures. The shortage of final disposal plants is one reason for the illegal dumping of industrial wastes. In fiscal
1989, illegally dumped industrial wastes, centering on waste materials coming from construction work, amounted to about
870,000 tons across the nation (Fig. 1-1-37).
Fig. 1-1-37 Trends in Illegal Dumping of Industrial Waste
No data available for 1986

Source: National Police Agency
When it comes industrial waste emissions in foreign countries, a comparison is difficult to do as data on a uniform basis
are not available, but it is projected that in all OECD countries, for example, annual emissions stood at about 1 billion
tons in the first half of the 1980s, rose to 1.3 billion tons in or around 1985 and reached 1.5 billion tons in 1990.
(8) Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Matter
Hazardous wastes tend to be moved from countries where the processing costs are high in cost to those with low processing
costs or from countries with strict restrictions on disposal to those with lenient restrictions. Therefore, in situations
where proper disposal is not done by countries accepting hazardous matter, there is a danger that it would affect their
living environment or area's ecosystems.
A well-known example is the incident in which the soils polluted by dioxins generated in an explosion (in 1976) at a
pesticide plant in Seveso, Italy, were found missing in 1982 but detected in a small French village the following year.
There was yet another incident in which prospective ports of call refused to accept a ship loading 14,000 tons of
incinerated hazardous ash in Philadelphia, the United States, and the ash was suspected as having been dumped in the Indian
Ocean after drifting for a little more than two years.
In the case of Europe, the transboundary movements of hazardous matter did not extend beyond its regional boundaries in
the first half of the 1980s. In the second-half of the 1980s, however, they began to rapidly encompass Africa and Latin
America. In Japan, there were cases in which hazardous substances were internationally traded for the recovery of useful
matter from wastes. Given such transboundary movements of hazardous matter in a global dimension, studies were made on the
formulation of an international rule primarily by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and in March 1989, the
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal came out in Basel,
Switzerland.
The Basel Convention came into effect on May 5, 1992. In Japan, the Law Concerning the Control of Specified Hazardous
Waste Exports and Imports was enacted on December 10, 1992, and efforts are being made for Japan's early membership to the
convention and the implementation of measures in this international framework.
1-1-9 Environmental Pollution in Developing Countries
In developing countries and regions, a wide variety of issues crop up, not the least of which is environmental pollution.
Som of them might affect mankind as a whole. It is useful for an increasingly interde- pendent world economy to address
those problems and e to it that developing countries will pursue environmentally sound economic development.
In least less-developed countries (LLDCs), poverty and increasing pollution leads to environmental disruption, which in
turn accelerates poverty in a vicious cycle. In those developing, countries, however, there are cases in which they are so
ardent for economic development that environmental conservation is not given due priority and environmental measures are not
in tune with economic development. There are cases where industrialization is being stepped up without adequate environ-
mental pollution prevention measures for factories and other facilities, and urbanization is being promoted without
developed social overhead capital, thereby producing excessive loads on the environment and giving rise to air pollution,
water pollution and other grave environmental issues. In Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, moreover, it has come
to light that they were plagued by air pollution, water pollution and other grave environmental issues in a planned
economy with production made for production's sake without consideration given to environmental conservation. Some of those
environmental problems are of a transboundary nature, directly linked to pollution in a global dimension, taking on an
increasingly grave character.
Many of the Asian countries, closely tied in with Japan, are industrializing rapidly. In those countries,
industrialization- related environmental pollution is taking on. a serious character. Given the progress of
industrialization, the emission of waste gas, wastewater and wastes from factories and other facilities is on the upswing,
but timely environmental pollution prevention measures are not being taken due to the low priority given to environmental
measures and the lack of consideration to the environment. Environmental issues such as air pollution by sulfur oxides and
other chemicals, and by water and soil pollution are becoming more serious. Urbanization due to the inflow of rural
populations and the development of means of public transport, hygiene facilities and other social overhead capital left
inadequate, air pollution by pollutants emitted from autos, water pollution by miscellaneous household wastewater and
other urban and livelihood types of pollution have become a grave issue. In those countries, tragically, the share of
primary products in their exports remain so high that it is economically important to protect natural resources, but there
are cases in which the worsening pollution by industrialization and urbanization produces adverse impacts on those very
natural resources.
Here, let us see where the environment of developing countries, focusing on East Asian countries closely tied to Japan
both in economic and environmental terms, stands today.
(1) China
With a population of 1,102,090,000, China was economically developing at a real growth rate of 9-odd percent on the
average in the latter half of the 1980s. The nation's GNP, which stood at $267,800 million in 1980, soared by about 47% to
$393 billion in 1989, suggesting that China has made significant economic progress in recent years.
a. Air
Energy consumption has also significantly increased in conjunction with economic development. Standing at 387 million
tons in 1980 in terms of oil, it soared by about 48% to 574 million tons in 1988. For much of the energy it needs, China
relies on coal, abundantly produced at home (Table 1-1-13). Air pollution by sulfur dioxide and by dust and soot from coal
combustion has become a grave issue. A check of trends in the annual mean of sulfur dioxide across China suggests that it
has leveled off in the last several years, albeit with small fluctuations, and signs of a rise in recent years (Fig. 1-1-
38). The annual national mean in 1990 was 0.098 mg/me (equivalent to 0.038 ppm), somewhat better than in the preceding year,
and the levels of pollution have remained high.
Table 1-1-13 Output of Primary Energy in China
Source:China Energy Statistical Yearbook, 1989
Fig. 1-1-38 Trends in Annual Means of Air Pollutant Concentrations in China (Jntire Land)
Source: China Environmental Yearbook 1992
As it has been pointed out that the sulfur oxides emitted in China have something to do with acid rain in Japan. Surveys
are under way at present.
Pollution by dust and soot is serious in China's northeastern cities where much coal is used by households for heating
purposes. The fallout of dust and soot there is a little less than three times as much as in southern cities. A check of
trends in the annual mean across the nation suggests that though it had virtually leveled off in the 1980s, it was improved
by about 14% from 19 tons/km2 /month from the preceding year (with the national mean registered at 22 tons/km2 /month). The
levels of pollution by suspended particulate matter are also higher in northern cities, and the annual mean of
concentrations is roughly twice as high as in southern cities. In terms of trends in the national average value, there were
signs of a slight improvement.
Pollution by nitrogen oxides is not so serious partly because the use of autos is not widespread. The national annual
mean has leveled off in the last several years.
In China, environmental quality standards are formulated in three categories by area--Categories I, II and III. A check
of compliance with environmental quality standards for each substance in 1990 suggests that the values of sulfur dioxide
and suspended particulate matter exceeded the Category II environmental quality standards which were applied to residential
areas, but when it comes to nitrogen oxides, the Category II environmental quality standards were satisfied.
b. Water
As for water pollution in China, the main pollutants are organic matter and ammoniac nitrogen. Besides, pollution by
phenol, cyan and other chemicals is in progress. Those substances come mainly from industrial wastewater and miscellaneous
household wastewater. A little less than 40% of industrial water and most of miscellaneous household wastewater are
discharged into the environment without treatment. On the other hand, there have been signs of a decline in pollution by
lead in recent years.
In a check of China's six principal rivers, the water quality of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River and its tributaries is
relatively good, but there have been signs of a deterioration in recent years. The main pollutants are ammoniac nitrogen,
COD, phenol and cadmium, among others (Table 1-1-14). The most polluted of the six rivers is the Daliao River, the main
pollutants consisting of phenol, ammoniac nitrogen, COD and other chemicals.
The pollution of lakes and reservoirs around cities is particularly conspicuous. In addition to pollution by phenol, BOD,
mercury and other chemicals, eutrofication by nitrogen and phosphorus is in progress, so is pollution by heavy metals,
chemicals and organic pollutants from industrial wastewater. In the basin of Lake Songhua, a huge dam reservoir with a
catchment of 1 billion in mining and chemical factories were established, with the consequence that lake water pollution by
heavy metals is greater than in Japan's Kasumigaura and North America's lakes and reservoirs (Table 1-1-15).
c. Acid Rain
Table 1-1-14 Trends in Pollution of China's Six Longest Rivers
Note:The comprehensive pollution index is the index of a water assessment, and the greater the value, the worse the
pollution.
Source:China Environmental Yearbook
In China, an acid rain survey (the first one) was performed from 1983 to 1984. The findings of the survey covering 189
cities and districts across the nation show that acid rain was detected in 45 cities. Presum- ably, sulfur oxides are
primarily responsible for acid rain in China, and the emission of sulfur oxides from the combustion of coal and other fuels
in 1989 is projected at 15,650,000 tons/year (with Japan's total emission at about 1 million tons/year). The content of
sulfur in southwestern China's coal is particularly high, the mean reaching 3.2%. The findings of an observation of acid
rain in Chinese cities are given in Table 1-1-16. The cities where the mean of pH values in the rainfall is small are all
situated south to the Yangtze River.
Table 1-1-15 Comparison of Heavy Metal Pollution Between Lake Songhua and Other Lakes
Note:F=C/Co (C: concentration in the lake water; Co: concentration in the background)
Source: Environment Agency
Table 1-1-16 Values of Acid Rain Monitored in Chinese Cities
Source:According to a survey by the Chinese Environment Protection Bureau.
(2)Republic of Korea
Having a popu1ation about 42,380,000, the Republic of Korea economically developed at an average rate of 10.5% a year
from 1985 to 1989 with GNP coming to $186.5 billion. Its economic growth is particularly high among Asian nations where
the economic growth rate is high as a whole.
a. Air
In the Republic of Korea, energy consumption significantly rose from 36 million tons in terms of oil in 1980 to about 60
million tons in 1989 in proportion to its rapid economic development in recent years. Given this picture, air pollution by
sulfur dioxide became a grave issue particularly in major cities. The Environment Ministry (an agency in those years) has
implemented measures to encourage the use of oil containing less sulfur and LPG in major cities since 1981. As a result,
there have been signs of a decline in pollution by sulfur oxides in major cities in recent years with the exception of some
cities. But there still are cities where the level is in excess of the WHO guideline (with the annual mean at 40-60 ƒÊ g/m3 ,
equivalent to 0.015-0.023 ppm), suggesting that the pollution is serious (Table 1-1-17). Incidentally, as regards sulfur
oxides emitted in the Republic of Korea and other countries, surveys are under way on its drifts along the rim of the Sea of
Japan.
Table 1-1-17 Sulfur Oxide Pollution in Major Cities in the Republic of Korea
Source:Republic of Korea's National Report
Pollution by total suspended dust and soot has become a grave issue for many major cities. The primary reason is
emissions from autos on trips and factories, among others which have increased in proportion to the nation's economic
development. The levels of pollution have often been in excess of the environmental quality standard of 150 ƒÊ g/m3 (the
annual mean). Given this picture, the change of fuels, the strengthening of controls on fixed emission sources and other
measures have been enforced, with the result that there have been significant improvements in the past several years. Yet
the levels are in excess of the WHO guideline (60-90 ƒÊ g/m3 ), and the pollution is of serious proportions (Table 1-1-18).
Table 1-1-18 Pollution by Suspended Particulate Matter in Major Cities of the Republic of Korea
Source:Republic of Korea's National Report
As regards other pollutants, the use of non-lead fuels, curbs on emissions from diesel engines and other measures for
autos and other generation sources have been stepped up, with the consequence that the levels of pollution by nitrogen
oxides, ozone and carbon monoxide stay low.
b. Water
Due to rapid urbanization and ongoing industrialization, wastewater from factories and other facilities have greatly
increased in the Republic of Korea, and the increase rate reportedly exceeds 20% a year. The heavy metals and other
chemicals contained in the wastewater and the environmental loads boosted by the wastewater has given rise to pollution by
heavy metals and other types of pollution. Given the evolution of urbanization, miscellaneous livelihood wastewater
increases, but a delay in the development of disposal facilities and other reasons, the disposal of wastewater is
insufficient, driving organic matter to pollute the water. In the survey conducted in 1989, it came to light that about 25%
of the total volume of wastewater was treated. In a fairly large number of districts, tap water is polluted by heavy metals
and other pollutants and found unsuitable for drinking water.
(3) Phillippines
Situated about 3,000 km southeast to Japan, the Philippines has a population of about 60,100,000 with its GNP coming to
$42.8 billion in 1989. The average economic growth rate was 5.0% from 1985 to 1989. and efforts are being made for its
economic development through industrialization.
a. Air
Table 1-1-19 Trends In Results of Monitoring of Suspended Particulate Matter in Metropolitan Manila
Source:EMB
In Metro Manila, the Philippines' major urban area, total suspended dust and soot, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide
were monitored at six stations as air pollutants, but the monitoring was suspended from 1983 to 1986 as the monitoring
instruments were out of order. A comparison of the findings before 1983 with those after resumption of the monitoring
indicate that the values of total suspended dust and soot monitored at four stations before 1983 had virtually leveled off,
satisfying the Philippines' environmental quality standards. The Ermita and Pasay stations had done the monitoring befor
l983, too, and the value monitored after resumption of the monitoring significantly soared from 93ƒÊg/m3 (the annual mean)
in 1982 to 207 ƒÊg/m3 (the annual mean) in 1988 at Ermita and from 64 ƒÊg/m3 (the annual mean in 1982 to 154 ƒÊg/m3 (the
annual mean) in 1988 at Pasay (Table 1-1-19). According to the data of monitoring stations which started monitoring in 1988,
the values in the following year, or 1988, worsened at almost every monitoring station. The increase in the volume of
autos on trips particularly in urban areas is pointed out as the primary cause.
When it comes to sulfur dioxide, there were signs of an improvement from the findings obtained before 1983, and in the
surveys performed in 1988 and 1989, signs of a deterioration were not observed (Table 1-1-20).
Table 1-1-20 Trends in Results of Monitoring of Sulfur Dioxide in Metropolitan Manila
Source:EMB
b. Water
The Philippines came out with environmental quality standards and drainage standards in 1978 and amended them in 1990
with a view to maintaining the water environment, but the development of the environmental monitoring system is not in
progress due to the breakdown of monitoring instruments and other factors. The survey performed on Metro Manila's four
main rivers in 1990 revealed that the Class C environmental quality standards for DO and BOD were not satisfied except the
upstream of the Marikina River, and all that is possible now is ship trips. Lake Laguna with an area of 900 km3 is one the
Orient's biggest lakes, but according to the survey performed from 1986 to 1987, is eutrophicating as the concentration of
phosphate is on the upswing (Table 1-1-21). The Bay of Manila turns out to be the final place to take in pollutants
generated in Metro Manila, and the water quality of the Bay of Manila is such that it does not satisfy the Class SC standard
value of 5,000 MPN/100 ml, in terms of the number of colitis germ groups, with which to maintain the water quality fitted to
the propagation and growth of fish and other marine organisms. In recent years, the levels of pollution have been in
excess of that standard value along the seacoast south to Metro Manila.
Table 1-1-21 Water Quality of Lake Lagna's Water Quality
Source:Environment Agency
That water pollution came out because there are increasing loads on the water quality due to miscellaneous household
wastewater and other factors and to increased wastewater from factories and other facilities. A check of trends in the BOD
load on the Pasig, the biggest of all rivers in Metro Manila, it began to rise in or about 1950 and the increase began to
accelerate particularly in or about 1970.
(3) Other Asian Countries
Table 1-1-22 Trends in Emission of Air Pollutants in Bangkok
Source:UNEP/WHO, Urban Air Pollution In Megacities of the World
For Bangkok in Thailand, a serious problem is posed as urbanization has been stepped up in recent years without means
of public transport and other social overhead capital developed. In Bangkok, the emission of carbon monoxide doubled from
1980 to 1990 and that of suspended particulate matter increased more than two times (Table 1-1-22). Indonesia's national
dust and soot survey indicates that the concentrations of dust and soot are high in Jakarta, Bandoeng and Surabaja and in
districts where industrial and other human activities are brisk (Fig. 1-1-39). The pollution of main Indonesian rivers by
heavy metals has been. in progress in recent years, and a high concentration of heavy metals is detected from each river. In
the 1981 survey, the high concentrations of a number of heavy metals were detected from the Sundar River.
As we have just seen., the deterioration of the environment is striking in particularly in. Asian developing countries
and areas in conjunction with the evolution of industrialization. and urbanization. Indeed, the aggravation has become a
serious issue. What those countries are urged to do is to realize sustainable development. To support efforts to solve
this question., Japan has been rendering various forms of cooperation, while making the most of the experience it had in
working for the prevention of environmental pollution in the course of its economic development. In 9, Section 1, Chapter
4, we will see in detail the factors that deter the solution of environmental issues in developing countries and areas and
the measures to overcome them.
Fig. 1-1-39 Trends in Concentration of Suspended Particulate Matter in Indonesia
Source:Vadan Metrorologi Dan Geofisika, 1988
Fig. 1-1-29 Simulated Distribution and Quantities of Sulfurous Fall in 1985
Source:Yuzuru Matsuoka, associate professor, Kyoto University
Fig. 1-1-29 Projected Distributions and Quantities of Sulfurous Fall for 2100 If No Measures Are Taken
Source:Yuzuru Matsuoka, associate professor, Kyoto University
Fig. 1-1-34 Traffic Noise on Main Trunk Roads (Nighttime, 1991)
The tanker Maritime Gartynia was stranded off Kyougamisaki in Kyoto Prefecture
People living at a dumping ground
The precious wetland as a habitat of waterfowls (Katano duck pond in ishikawa Prefecture designated and registered as a
Wetland of International Inportance under the Ramsar Convention)
Operation for re-establishment of albatosses (Lured to a safe place with decoys. There are seven decoys on the ground.)
1-2 Natural Environment at Present
Nature is made up of non-biological elements, such as air, water, soil and climate, and biological elements, including
fauna and flora, and formed on the basis of complicated and delicate relations between those groups and between elements.
We, mankind, are part of the natural environment as one of its elements. We have taken in and used a wide variety of useful
things in nature by means of cultivation, fishing and hunting, among others, while utilizing delicate relations between ele-
ments in nature. Our life styles are significantly regulated by the natural environment, which forms the basis for our
sensibility and the culture of communities. On the other hand, there are cases in which the district environment is
regulated by the modes of our life, which center on agriculture, forestry and fisheries.
Nearly 200 years of industrialization since the Industrial Revolu- tion has drastically transformed our lives, the
relations built between nature and us through historically long years of trials have changed, and the natural environment
has metamorphosed. The plots used for com- merce and industry and leisure activities have increased and many lands have been
exploited. With agriculture, forestry and fisheries incorpo- rated into the market economy, their dimensions rapidly
expanded, leading sometimes to excessive yields.
Moreover, environmental pollution of the serious sort which was caused by industrialization has significantly scarred
forests and wildlife. Developed countries have experienced them since the Industrial Revolu- tion. Poised to industrialize
over short spans of time, developing countries are to experience disruption of the natural environment in much severer
forms, coupled with the leaving of many poor people behind. Such a deterioration of the natural environment will
qualitatively and quantitatively lower the quality of food available from nature and other useful things and drastically
change social culture and custom. A deterioration of the natural environment itself will dwindle nature's capacity of
absorbing and purifying pollution and accelerate the expansion of pollution.
A check of conditions up to fiscal 1991. indicates that though the deterioration of wilderness nature was checked to some
extent, it is necessary to take further measures in Japan so that nature in nearby areas may be conserved while giving life
to its features. In developing countries, furthermore, there are signs that the disruption of nature will rather continue,
and changes in the nature of those countries are becoming grave globally. It might be said that though he significantly
affects nature, man is urged to think of himself as relying on a delicate balance of ecosystems to survive as part of
nature, and to restructure relations between himself and nature by while taking account of economic and technological
conditions in the contemporary era. With this in mind, we will make clear the conditions of nature and provide a general
picture in this section, while taking up the natural environment in terms of ecosystems, first, and then, cast light on
species, which are nature's components.
1-2-1 Natural Ecosystems at Present
(1) Natural Ecosystems in japan at Present
a. Climate and Topography
Japan is a long and narrow country which stretches from about 24 degree C to about 46 degree C in the north latitude east
to the Eurasian Continent. The difference in latitude is virtually the same as that of the United States which has a vast
expanse of territory from the Great Lakes in the north to Miami in the south. Japan is a seagirt country. The Pacific Ocean
extends to the east of Japan, whereas the nation is hemmed in by the Japan Sea, the East China Sea and the Okhotsk Sea on
the other sides. Off Japan in the Pacific, the Kuroshio current drifts in from the south and the Oyashio current from the
north and bump against each other. In the Sea of Japan, the Tsushima current, coming from the East China Sea, goes north
along the seacoast of the Hokuriku district. Japan is also a mountainous country. With 3,000-meters, including the Japan
Alps, about 60% of the national land constitutes mountain.
Partly because of such geographical features, Japan, situated from the subtropical zone to the subarctic zone, features a
mild climate. Because of its diverse geographical features, Japan's climate is aiso diverse, though the area of the national
land is limited(Fig. 1-2-1). As the temperature goes down by about 0.7 degree C at every 100 meters in altitude, the climate
changes arising out of differences in altitude are significant, thereby bringing about aditional changes in an already
complicated climate.
The climate is a significant factor which regulates the natural environment. The conditional changes artificially brought
into the environment, such as global warming and ensuing rainfall changes, the increase in the radiation of ultraviolet rays
due to disruption of the ozone layer, the urbanization-induced heat island phenomenon and drying in cities, might affect the
natural environment as a matter of course.
Fig. 1-2-1 An Example of Climate Zone
Source:Hideo Suzuki 1962, Nakamura et al. 1986
b. Vegetation and Artificial Topsoil Land
According to the National Survey on the Natural Environment analyzing in 1988 the areas covered by some kind of plants,
such as natural vegetation or cultural land account for 92.7% with the share of forest vegetation at 67.5% (Table 1-2-1).
Generally, vegetation changes with time, eventually forming stable ecosystems. They are ecologically known as climax. As
typical climate climax vegetation in Japan, broad-leaved evergreen forests dominated by Machilus thunbergil, Castanopsis
sp., Quercus sp. or others distribute from the southern part of Kyushu to that of Eokkaido, broad-leaved deciduous forests
dominated by Fagus crenata or others distribute in colder areas than the former forests, forests composed of coniferous
evergreen species and broad-leaved deciduous species distribute in Hokkaido and coniferous evergreen forests distribute in
subarctic zone. Besides, there are various other climaxes, depending on topographical and geological features. In areas
with an abundance of natural features which represent Japan, such climaxes of vegetation are observed but their number is
comparatively small.
Table 1-2-1 Degree of human disturbance of vegetation
Source : Environment Agency, Vegetation Survey on the 2nd and 3rd National
Survey on the Natural Environment
In Japan which features much precipitation, vegetation is significantly regulated by temperature. Fig. 1-2-2
illustrates relations between Japan's representative natural vegetation and indices of warmth (warm index: computed by
adding the values gained by subtracting 5 from the average temperature of months when it exceeds it. Consequently, it
follows that the higher the average temperature of each from 5 or the greater the number of months when the average
temperature exceeds 5 the greater the index). Nonetheless, the figures show that Picea jezoensin and Abies sachalinensis
forests, Fagus crenata forests and Castanopsis cuspidata var. sieboldii forests which represent forests of broad-leaved
evergreen species are distributed in areas basically different in warmth.
Fig. 1-2-2 Distribution of Vegetation Types with High
Degrees of Naturalness by Warm Index

Source: Environment Agency, Comprehensive Report on the third National Survey on the Natural Environment
There is concern that changes in temperature by global warming and other factors significantly affect vegetation.
According to an IPCC report, it is projected that the average temperature would rise by about it by 2025 and by about 3
degree C by the end of the 21st century. If it is simply hypothesized that the monthly average temperature would rise by 1
degree Cand 3 degree C respectively, the warm index of Sapporo, situated in the same climate conditions as along the
southern borderline of the distribution of Picea jezoensis and Abies sachalinensis forests, say, with the present warm
index at 69.4 degree C/month, would rise to 76.7 degree C by 2025 and 92.7 degree Cby the end of the 21st century. That
means that Sapporo would be detached by 2025 from the climate which made it possible for that forests to appear, and that by
the end of the 21st century, the climate would be too inappropriately warm even for the appearance of Fagus crenata forests
by the end of the 21st century. Naturally, it is presum- able that changes in temperature will greatly vary, depending on
the region and the season, so that a simple conclusion may not be drawn, but the possibility is undeniable of climate
warming producing a significant impact of Japan's vegetation.. Trends in the average temperature in Japan since the
beginning of the 20st century reveals that there have been signs of a rise since the 1980s and that there have signs of a
drop in precipitation since the 1970s (Fig. 1-2-3).
Fig. 1-2-3 Changes in Average Temperature and Annual Precipitation in Japan in 1898-1991
The means of those 16 points' values f or the whole nation.

Points:Northern Japan (Abashiri, Nemuro,Yamagata, Ishinomaki)
Eastern Japan (Fushiki, Mito, Iida, Hamamatsu)
Western Japan (Sakai, Hamada, Hikone, Izuhara, Miyazaki, Tadotsu)
Southwestern Islands (Naze, Ishigakijima)
Actual vegetation in Japan indicates that natural vegetation in Alpine Zone, Vaccinio-Piceetea Regior, Fagetea crenatae
Regior, Camellietea japonicae Regior, River-side, Moor, Salt marsh and Dune cover 19.3% of the national land. Nearly 60% of
such natural vegetation is distributed in Eokkaido.It is also distributed in limited areas, such as steep mountains,
peninsulas and offshore islands. Forests are so capable of cultivating water sources that they are known as green dams, and
natural forests are particularly invaluable for the habitat of numerous wildlife.
Areas close to our activities, such as flatlands and hills, there are many secondary forests as substitutional plant
communities affected by the gathering of firewood and charcoal materials and other human activities, and reforested and
cultivated areas with artificial vegetation. The secondary forests consist of Quercus mongolica forests in areas with
Fagatea crenatae Regior Quercus serrata, and Quercus acutissima forests, pine forests, and oak sprout forests in areas with
Camellietea japonicae Regior, and all of them account for about one-fourth, or 24. 6%, of the national land. Many of the
second forests are those which have been maintained as they are by means of the gathering of firewood and charcoal
materials, the collection of liters for fertilizer arid other uses and other activities for man's life. Close to our abode,
they turn out to be invaluable green of the sort with which residents broadly have communion as familiar nature, but the
decrease in the use of secondary forests and depopulation of villages in the mountains, among others, have led to a rapid
decrease in intervention by people who have maintained them so that the secondary forests are being transformed.
While reforested and cultivated lands with artificial vegetation account for nearly half, or 47.4%, of the national land.
Many of the ref orested areas are those of Cryptomeria japonica and Chamaecyparis obtusa rapidly replanted after World War
II.
Trends in vegetation from the first National Survey on the Natural Environment performed in 1973 to the third Survey
conducted from 1983 to 1986 indicates that though there was a little change in the total area of forests, primary and
secondary forests decreased by 3..5 percent points and reforested areas increased by 41 percent point (Table 1-2-2).
On the other hand, artificial surface soil areas with scarce nature, such as plots for dwellings, buildings, factories
and other structures, and roads increased by 1.5 percent points from 4.3% to 5.8%. In terms of the circulation of substances
in nature, artificial surface soil lands are typical. For example, the permeating capacity of forest lands is 258.2 min/hr,
about 20 times that of pavements suggesting that artificial surface soil lands are less penetrable by rainwater than forest
lands. The transpiration capacit of tree serve to prevent a rise in temperature by means of heat consumption in evaporation
supply moisture to the air and prevent desiccation. Besides, forests provide a wide variety of functions, such as sound
arresting and the absorption of pollutants, but surface soil lands with few trees are not expected to provide those
functions. By a wide variety of human activities, artificial heat is generated. Given those factors, there are signs that
surface soil lands are higher in temperature and drier than the natural climate, so that there is concern that they might
affect the natural environment of the national land.
Table 1-2-2 Changes in Vegetation by Degree of human disturbance of vegetation
Notes:
*1 The urban district, etc., include residerntal area with abundant trees (degree:2)
*2 Excluding open water
As open water was not covered in the 1st Survey, the open water was excluded in calculating component ratios in this
comparison of survey findings to check increases or decreases. Therefore, the component ratios of the degrees of human
disturbance of vegetation in the 2nd and 3rd Surveys are different from the aforementioned national rates.
Source:Environment Agency, Vegetation Survey, on the 1st, 2nd and 3rd National
Survey on the Natural Environment
c. Fauna
The distribution of animals which constitute part of Japan's ecosystems is characterized by various conditions, including
climate and vegetatiorn. For example, the Blakiston line which separates Honshu from Hokkaido, the Watase line which
detaches Yaku Island from the Amami Islands and several other lines are known (Fig. 1-2-4).
Fig. 1-2-4 Animal Distribution Borderlines of Japanese Archipelago
Source:Kawai et al. 1980
Vegetation is significantly affected by conditions for the habitat of animals as places for feeding and hiding and other
places. For example, the habitat of many Asian black bears and Japanese serows (Capricernis crispus crispus) in broad-leaved
deciduous. forests and particularly in Fagus crenata forests is confirmed, whereas that of many foxes (Vuqpes vulpes) in
cultural lands and secondary forests is ascer- tained (Fig. 1-2-5). Those animal species are closely tied in with vegeta-
tion.
Fig. 1-2-5 Vegetation Type on Habitat
Note:Analysis in done in a unit of meshes. Therefore, there is the need to construe here that "the habitat of each species
may readily be confirmed in areas where each vegetation is observed." For example, there is the need to construe that
"habitat is confirmed in areas where much cultural land is observed," rather than that "habitat was confirmed on the
culturalland."
Source:Comprehensive Report on the third National survey on the Natural Environment
Table 1-2-3 Distribution of Butterflies and Warm Index
Notes:* The unit of the Warm index is degree C•month.

* The number of meshes is given at left; the rate (%) to the total of each species is given at right.
Source:Environment Agency, Comprehensive Report os the 3rd National Survey on the Natural Environment
The climate also significantly affects fauna. A comparison of the warm index to which we have referred earlier with the
distribution of butterflies, which are familiar to people, reveals that the habitats of Elebia ligea, Nynphalis Vaualbum
Samurai, Parnassius glacialin and Graphium dosor are closely tied with temperature, though there might be factors which
regulate vegetation (Table 1-2-3). As is the case with vegetation, there is presumably the possibility that climate change
by warming would produce grave impacts on the habitat of fauna.
d. Natural Landscape
The topographical, geological and natural features which excel as scenic beauty such as falls, valleys and mountains
formed by the workings of nature have their own ecosystems and are valuable as local symbols, resources for tourism,
learning and places for inspiration and a recovery of humanity. The findings of the National Survey on the Natural
Environment which were compiled in 1988 indicate that there were 15,468 natural landscape resources across the nation. Falls
(1,488 places) came on top of the list, followed by volcanoes (1,158), gorges and valleys (996), non-volcanic solitary peaks
(993), lakes and marshes (871), sea-eroded cliffs (734), and sand beaches and shores (632), and those seven natural,
resources constitute almost half of the total.
Of those natural landscape resources, natural parks, wilderness areas, nature conservation areas, natural monuments and
other areas placed under some form of protection or the other accounted for 57.8%, and of other natural landscape resources,
some are protected as protection forests in scenic forest reserves and national forests and under the ordinances and other
regulations of local governments. Nonetheless, about two-thirds of natural landscape resources are artificially affected,
such as actions for development, and the greatest impact is brought about by the trespassing of people, followed by the
development of agriculture and forestry and that of tourism.
(2) Ecosystems at Present by District
a. Mountain
Japan is a mountainous country. Accounting for 60% of the national land, the mountains, covered by forests, are places
for the habitat and growth of wildlife and those which provide us with a wide variety of resources. They have also produced
significant impacts on the Japanese people's spiritual lives as subjects of religion and tourism, among others.
Most of the mountains are covered by forests in the mountains play an important role in preventing the erosior of soil
and other environmental damage. Of the forests which cover mountains, there are not a few artificial forests, and there are
signs that the more steep the slant, the smaller their rate. Even in areas with a steep slant of more than 30 degree C, the
rate of artificial forests exceeds 13%, suggesting that human activity has been done considerably deep in the mountains in
recent years.
In the mountains, there exist many of the natural ecosystems that remain in Japan. The third National Survey on the
Natural Environ- ment suggests that mountains accounted for most of the many areas where the distribution of highly natural
Japanese beech forests is conspicuous, and that areas with a significant distribution of broad- leaved evergreen forests are
maldistributed in the mountains of Kii, Kyushu and other districts. The mountains often have diverse ecosystems. A check
of areas with many species of butterflies indicates, for example, that many of them inhabit the Chichibu and other mountains
(Table 1-2-4). When it comes to high mountains, there remain atypical ecosystems in the cold and severe environment which
are made up of alpine plants and butterflies.
Table 1-2-4 Areas with High Degrees of Naturalness
Source:Environment Agency Comprehension Report on the 3rd National Survey on the Natural Environment
Mountains have from old played an important role in our spiritual lives, such as religious subjects and community
symbols. In recent years, they have also played an important role as places for tourism and recreation. In the Natural
Landscape Resource Survey (referred to earlier), which constituted part of the National Survey on the Natural Environment
the three top-ranking types often viewed as natural landscape resources (falls, volcanoes, gorges and valleys) are those
which are situated in the mountains.
With the depopulation of communities in the mountains in recent years, the utilization and control of the mountain
environment have been on the decline, to say the least of the control of artificial forests which requires manual labor, and
relations between the natural environment of mountains and their utilization are to change at a rapid pace.
b. Lake and Marsh
A wide variety of lakes and marshes exists in Japan, ranging those in the mountains to those on the plains, such as
inland sea-lakes created by the regression of seas, and to those which exist near the seacoast. The Environment Agency makes
it a practice to survey lakes and marshes (natural lakes and marshes with an area of more than 1 hectare), and the total
area of subject lakes and marshes is 2,380.08 km2 , accounting for 0.63% of the national land.
Reflecting land utilization on the lakeshore, lakes and marshes are undergoing a broad variety of modification. In the
Environment Agency's survey, the lakes and marshes with an artificial lakeshore rate of more than 50% and with the rate of
lakeshore areas used for built-up urban and industrial areas standing at upwards of 30% are classified as "lakes and marshes
with progress in transformation." The number of those classified as "lakes and marshes with progress in modification
increased from 19 to 27 from 1979 to 1985. All of them are inland sea-lakes on the plains. The number of lakes and marshes
where some form of inning and reclamation or the other has been done since 1945 is 57 with an aggregate area of about 344
km2 , suggesting that about 13% of the aggregate area of lakes and marshes has shrunken due to inning and reclamation. Lakes
and marshes have been converted for a broad variety of land uses, such as for industrial sites and built-up urban areas.
The lakes and marshes are important as a habitat of organisms. Lakes and marshes with the habitat of many fish species
are given in Table 1-2-5, suggesting that the fish variety of inland sea-lakes are abundant. by intrusion of brackishwater
and coastal fishes.
Table 1-2-5 Lakes and Marshes Inhabited by Many Fish Species
Source Environment Agency, Lake and Marsh Survey on the 3rd National Survey on the Natural Environment
On the other hand, black bass and other foreign immigrants are settling in many lakes and marshes so that it is necessary
to watch their trends in the future as one of the factors which change the fish fauna of lakes and marshes.
c. River
As regards the natural environment of river, the Environment Agency surveyed 113 rivers, including the trunk rivers
classified the 1st Class Rivers, in 1979 and 1985.
Of the surveyed riverbanks measuring 11,412.0 kin, the aggregate length of riverbanks with artificial structures (the
riverbakns which are in contact with river walls and other artificial structures at the normal water level) was 2,441.5 kin,
or 21.4% of the total length of riverbanks. In terms of length, artificial modifications have increased by 249.3 km from
1979, or up 2.2% in terms of the component ratio.
When it comes to the utilization of riverbeds, natural riverbeds account for one-third, and their uses are in the order
of culturalland and sites for facilities. Here again, the number of natural riverbeds is on the decline, whereas the rate of
riverbeds as culturalland and sites for facilities is on the rise.
Dams, weir and other across-the-river structures will sometimes cut habitats of fish into pieces, unless proper measures
are taken to help them to go upstream. Of the 113 surveyed rivers, those without across- the-river structures or without
factors to deter the going upstream of fish total 13, including Abashiri, Kushiro, Urauchi, Tokoro, Rumoi,
Shiribeshitoshibetsu, Omono, Tenjin, Takase, Natori, Tokachi, Kuji and Toki (Table 1-2-6). Besides those 13 rivers, there
are nine rivers where the section in which fish can go upstream from the estuary exceeds 90% of the total length, and they
include Ibo, Hino, Iwaki, Nagara, Mar- uyama, Shimanto, Mogami, Yoneshiro and Naka to a total of 22 rivers. They account for
19% of the surveyed rivers. On the other hand, the rivers where the rate does not exceed 10% total six, including Ashida.
The share of sections where fish can go upstream in the total length of the surveyed rivers averages 58.9%.
The rivers turn out to be the habitats of many organisms other than fish. The rivers with the habitat of many fish are
shown in Table 1-2-7. Many of them are situated in the Honshu island.
In terms of the environmental conservation of rivers, a variety of projects and surveys are under way.
Table 1-2-6 Rivers Ascendable by Fish (with the ratio of ascendable section at 100%)
Note : The figures in brackets represent the number of river structures/that of surveyed sections.
Source : Environment Agency, River Survey (FY 1985), on the 3rd National Survey on the Natural Environment
Table 1-2-7 Rivers with abundant Fish Species
Note : Living species observed and heard about

Source : Enrironment Agency, River Survey on the 3rd National Survey (FY 1985) on the Natural Environment
d. Wetland and Tideflat
Wetland and tideflat have atypical ecosystems in the natural environment, important as the habitats of aquatic organisms
and waterfowls.
Under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Wacterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention),
wetlands are taken up according to a broad concept, encompassing lakes and marshes, rivers, wetlands and tideflats. On
wetlands, the water quantity is larger than that of the general surface soil so that only those animal and plant species
which like such an environment may be able to inhabit, thereby leading to the formation of atypical ecosystems and offering
suitable habitats for aquatic organisms and waterfowls, among others. Particularly in recent years, attention has been
focused on wetlands important to the habitation of waterfowls, and a conferences of the Ramsar Convention will be held in
Kushiro City in 1993. For Japan, the Kushiro and four other wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention (as of the
end of March 1993).
In the sea environment, the tideflats turns out to be an important ecosystem as the living environment for atypical ocean
organisms, waterfowls and other organisms. In many tideflats, pollution generally tends to deteriorate, and as they are
located in inland seas where purification is difficult to proceed, attention is focused on the water purifying capacity of
tideflats. Some studies suggest, for example, that the water purifying capacity of natural tideflats is greater than that of
artificial ones.
According to the survey performed by the Environment Agency from 1989 to fiscal 1991, there existed tideflats with an
aggregate area of 51,462 hectares, and the biggest one is the Arao-Nagasu fore-beach situated along Ariake Sea at Kumamoto
Prefecture measuring 1,656 hectares in area. There remain many tidelands along the Ariake Sea, and their aggregate area is
20,788 hectares, or 40.4% of that of the nation's existing tideflats (Table 1-2-8).
Table 1-2-8 Area of Existing Tideflats by Sea Region
Note:The ratios represent the rates of existing tideflats across the nation.
Source:Environment Agency, Marine Biotic Environment Surrey cit the 4th National Survey on the Natural Environment
In some of the inland sea-facing districts where many tideflats exist, however, the socioeconomic activities are brisk,
and their development has been made by means of reclamation, whenever necessary. The tideflats which have disappeared
since 1978 across the nation measures 4,076 hectares, and the primary cause is reclamation, the share of which stands at
46.4% (Table 1-2-9).
Table 1-2-9 Reasons for Extinction of Tideflats (Replies Duplicated)
Source : Environment Agency, Marine Biotic Environment Surrey on the 4th National Survey on the Natural Environment
When it comes to the conservation of tideflats, it is stipulated that conservation and other measures be carried out
under the Basic Program for the Environmental Conservation of the Seto Inland Sea, whereas restrictions on reclamation and
other measures are done under the Special Measures Law for the Environmental Conservation of the Seto Inland Sea.
e. Coast Line
The total length of coast line in Japan is 32,472 km according to the survey performed in 1974. The coast line of the
main island account for 58.3% and coast line in the insular areas have a share of 41.7%. Incidentally, the aggregate length
of coast line has somewhat increased from 1978, when the previous survey was performed, as a result of reclamation. In ratio
of each coast line types across the nation, natural coast line account for 56.7%, followed by artificial coast line with
28.6% and semi-natural coast line with 13.9%. A comparison only on the main island, which excludes the insular areas, the
rate of natural coast line is 46.0% and that of artificial coast line 36.5% (Fig. 1-2-8). A check of changes from 1978 to
1984 indicates that natural coast line decreased by 565 km whereas artificial coast line increased by 696 km and semi-
natural coast line by 171 km. A breakdown of those increases and decreases reveals that sand beaches and rocky seacoasts are
on the downturn but reclaimed coast line on the upturn (Fig. 1-2-9).
Fig. 1-2-8 Alteration of Coast Line;
Notes:
1. Islands in this survey do not include those whose diameter is less than 100m. (Not including islands in the Northern
Territories, either)
2. The main islands Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu.
3. The coast line are classified into:
Natural: Those which have no artificial construction in the shore.
Semi-natural : Those which have no artificial construction in the shore buthave some just above the shore (directly
affected by the waves).
Artificial : Those which have artificial construction in the shore.
Source: Environment Agency, Coast Line Survey on the 3rd National Survey on the Natural Environment
Fig. 1-2-9 Changes in coast line
Source : Environment Agency, Coast Line Survey on the 3rd National Survey on the Natural Environment
The natural environment of coast line is conserved under the Natural Park Law and the Special Measures Law for the
Environmen- tal Conservation of the Seto Inland Sea.
f. Area Around Citys
The existence of vegetation, animals and plants familiar to our lives tends to be overlooked, but they constitute part of
the natural environment of the national land and an indispensable factor for everyday life of the sort which is in
communion with nature. The natural environment of areas around cities serves to mitigate the heat island phenomenon and
improve the climate conditions and environment of urban areas. They also play a role in showing the conditions of cities'
air, water and soil environments (see 6, Section 1, Chapter 4).
In the National Survey on the Natural Environment, vegetation is classified into 10 types, depending on the degree of
human impacts and surveyed. When it is classified into five types--natural vegetation, substitutional vegetation, planted
forest, cultural land and others and urban district for an analysis of the National Capital Region (Tokyo, Kanagawa
Prefecture, Saitama Prefecture and Chiba Prefecture), Aichi Prefecture and Osaka Prefecture, it comes to light that natural
vegeta tion is extremely less available in those areas than the national average and that the rate of urban district with
less vegetation cover is high (Fig 1-2-10). In suburban district, secondary vegetation forms familiar nature as grooves near
communities and a habitat for wildlife, but such vegeta tion is less available as a whole. Fig. 1-2-11 illustrates the
vegetation of the Kansai sphere which has been developed from old, suggesting that most of this region is made up of urban
district and the areas covered by vegetation are available only in the Ikoma, Rokko and other mountains. The artificiality
is more conspicuous than in the Tokyo sphere partly because the artificial pressure has been more powerful with this region
as a political and economic center.
Fig. 1-2-10 State of Vegetation in Three Major Urban Regions
Source : Vegetation Survey on the 3rd National Survey on the Natural Environment
Note : Surveyed in 1983-86
Fig. 1-2-11 Distribution of Vegetation and slant condition in Area Around Osaka-Kyoto Area
Fig. 1-2-14 Distribution of Vegetation and popular and familiar animal in Area Around Echigo-Plains, North-Central Japan.
As regards conservation of the natural environment of urban district and their peripheries, natural parks, reserved
forests, Green land conservation areas and so forth are designated. In those areas, environ mental alterations are regulated
and public projects, such as the development of parks and other facilities, are carried out (see 6, Section 1, Chapter 4).
It is pointed out that urbanization leads to the heat island phenomenon and desiccation, as the surface soil is covered
by concrete and other artificial substances and waste heat is on the rise to the increasing use of air-conditioning systems.
As a result, localized climate changes take place, affecting ecosystems. For example, there are cases in Tokyo where the
hemp palm (Psittacula krameri), essentially in the warmer area, grows wild. And the rose-ringed paraskeet (Trachycarpus
fortunei), a tropical bird, propagates as a pet on the run. As an impact of desiccation, there is a phenomenon in which
(Cryptomeria japonica) in the forests of Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples and those on farm- houses' compounds on the
Kanto Plains are on the wane. It is pointed out that the reason is presumably because the desiccation gives rise to an
atrophy of a Japanese cedar which is not good at absorbing water.
g. Rural Village
In agriculture, crops of the kind which is useful to us are cultivated and harvested by adding human agency to nature's
ecosystems, bringing about a wide variety of impacts on the natural environment. For example, materials and so forth are
necessary for agricultural production, but there is concern that the excessive reliance on them will increase loads on the
environment. In agriculture, which has been done for so many centuries, ecosystems of its own are formed on the cultural-
land and its periphery. Paddy-field cultivation, which represents Japan' s agriculture, has traditionally formed ecosystems
of its own which are made up of irrigation channels, reservoirs and ridges between fields and become habitats for organisms
familiar to man, such as frogs, loaches, fireflies and dragonflies (Fig. 1-2-12). The grooves around rural villages are
covered by the community grooves of "kunugi" (Quercus acutissima), "konara" (Quercus serrata), Japanese red pine (Pinus
densif1ora) and other forests, while the gathering of firewood and wood for charcoal production, the cutting of brushwood
for fuels and the gathering of fallen leaves for fertilizer are repeated. In those rural villages, the habitation of Chinese
little bitterns (Ixobrychus sinensis), brown hawk owls (Ninox scutulata japonica) and other birds and butterflies, including
"Gifuchou" (Luehdorfia japonica) and "usubashirocho" (Parnassius glacialis), and there are many cases in which their
environment forms ecosystems of its own, which are made up of organisms familiar to us. Fig. 1-2-14 illustrates the
vegetation confirmed in the Niigata Plains, one of Japan's representative rice growing belts. The figure shows that behind
the expanse of cultivated plots (paddy rice fields), there lie secondary and primary forests and there live organisms
familiar to us.
Fig. 1-2-12 Yatsu Fields and Places for Habitat of Dragonflies
The Yatsu fields consist of paddy fields (E), irrigation channels (D) and valley head ponds. The ponds include the portions
surrounded by forests (A), the shore where water extracting plants grow thick (B) and the vast central water, enabling a
wide variety of dragonflies to reproduct.
Source Hiroshi Roriyama, Anima No. 220
The depopulation of rural villages and the progress of mechaniza- tion for labor saving are to significantly alter their
natural environment. As firewood, charcoal and brushwood are no longer used as fuels, weeds under the trees are propagating.
This phenomenon may be taken as part of succession to more highly natural vegetation, but in order to conserve brushwoods in
communities the way it used to be, there is the need for the appropriate cutting of weeds under the trees. Of all paddy
fields, those in the dales have affluent ecosystems like peripheral forests, but as many of them are situated in the
mountains, they are apt to be abandoned in light of profitability and it is expected that they will undergo transformation
Future changes in agriculture are likely to bring about significant impacts on the natural environment of rural villages.
Efforts for conservation of the natural environment of rural villages are being made in the promotion of the
environmental conservation type with the lessening of loads on the environment taken into account, beside the designation
of natural parks, reserved forests and other areas.
(3) Natural Ecosystems in Developing Countries at Present
Many people in developing countries (roughly two-thirds of the population in terms of means for Asia and Africa) engage
in the primary industry, such as agriculture, forestry and fisheries, and are living on resources in the natural
environment. The natural environment including forests, wildlife and soils brings fuels, food, water, building materials
and cattle feeds, serves to prevent floods and adjust the climate, becomes a subject for economic activities and protects
people's lives and environment. Moreover, many developing countries have affluent natural-environment resources, which turn
out to be assets of global value. Nonetheless, while developing countries following the same process as developed countries
have lost natural-environment resources in conjunction with industrial development and industrialization. In the process
where natural-environment resources are excessively used against the backdrop of poverty and population increases in
developing countries, the stock of natural-environment resources is being lost. In the following, let us see the conditions
of natural-environment resources in developing countries, centering on those in Asia, in regard to forests and soils.
a. Forests
It is projected that 4,027,569,000 hectares of forests existed around the world in 1991. Of them, those which existed in
the developing world totaled 2,127,730,000 hectares, or 52.3% of the world's forests, including 555,894,000 hectares in
Asia, 892,806,000 hectares in Latin America and 635,093,000 hectares in Africa (Table 1-2-10).
Table 1-2-10 Present State of World's Forest Resources
Note : The area of forests is for 1990.

Source : FAO, Production Yearbook 1991
Many of the forests in the developing world are tropical forests, and their depletion is now a matter of worldwide
concern. In the report on the findings of the 1990 Forest Resource Assessment Project, released by the U. N. Food and
Agricultural Organization in March 1993, the area of forests and the rate of forest depletion from 1980 to 1990 were
assessed (Table 1-2-11). The report says that 15,400,000 hectares of forests were depleted in 90 surveyed countries on the
average a year with 0.8% of the total area of forests lost every year. In the 1980 forest resource assessment made public by
the FAO and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) in 1981, the forest depletion rate for the 1980-85 period. In
regard to 76 countries which were subjects in the 1980 assessment and the latest assessment, or the one in 1990, the forest
depletion ratio may be compared for the 1980-85 period. The rate stood at 0.6% in the 1980 assessment, but the in the phase
of the latest interim report, it rose to 0.8%. The forest deterioration in which the density of forests goes down though
the density of forests does not drop is being studied in the FAO project to which reference has earlier been made. It is
projected that the depletion of organisms in tropical forests by their deterioration goes on at a considerably faster pace
than the decrease in the area of forests.
Table 1-2-11 Estimates of Forest Cover and Deforestation by Geographical Sub-region
Source : FAQ, Final Report on 1990 Forest Resource Assessment Project (1993)
To cope with the depletion of forests--that of tropical forests, in particular, cooperation by the International Tropical
Timber Organiza- tion (ITTO), the FAO and other international institutions and bilateral cooperation are being rendered.
b. Soils
Soils form the basis for agriculture, stock-farming and other economic activities. If their conditions are aggravated and
soils are lost, not only will those economic activities be suspended, but significant impacts will be produced on man's life
itself. In Sahel and other African areas, the gathering of firewood and stock-farming are done to the point where they
exceed the regenerative power of tress and grass, and the cycle of migrant cultivation is often cut short, as measures to
assure substitute fuels and increase yields are not available due to poverty and other factors. Given this picture, soil
degeneration and loss tend to take place. People in those areas are not financially equipped to prepare for a drought, so
that once it occurs, they will drift to other places or cities as "environmental refugees." It might be said that
desertification is closely tied in with poverty.
The UNEP came out with the Report on the Status of Desertifica- tion and Implementation of the United Nations Plan of
Action to Combat Desertification. On the basis of this report, let us see land deterioration in arid areas in the following.
There exists 6.1 billion hectares of arid land in the world, accounting for nearly 40% of the earth's land. Of this
total, extremely arid areas measure 900 million hectares and constitute deserts. Some of the remaining 5.2 billion hectares
is being desertified due to human activities. In those arid areas, about one-fifth of the world's population are living. The
UNEP's 1991 assessment says that about 70%, or about 3,560 million hectares, of the farmland of arid areas is affected by
desertification. By region, the degeneration rate is high in the order of North America, Africa and South America, but in
terms of area, Asia comes on top of the list, followed by Africa (Fig. 1-2-15).
Fig. 1-2-15 World Drylands
The areas which are exposed to soil deterioration measure 1,138, 200,000 hectares, or 18.3% of the total area of arid
areas, including those extremely arid. The greatest form of soil deterioration is erosion by water, such as the washout of
soils by rainfall, and it is followed by erosion by winds, such as the bl owing away of top soil; chemical deterioration,
such as pollution by salinity and alkalifying; and the water-logging of soil and other physical deterioration. By continent,
the region affected to the greatest degree is Asia, followed by Africa and Europe. A check of the rate of soil deterioration
in the area of arid lands reveals that it is particularly high for Africa with 81.1%, suggesting that more than 80% of
Africa's arid lands are being deteriorated.
Let us see the conditions of China as an example. The deserts and the areas which are being desertified in the northern
part of China measure 1,496,000 hectares, 12% of which constitutes those which are in the process of desertification and
10.5% of which is in the process of mild desertification (Fig. 1-2-16). The washout of soils is yet another great problem.
Particularly in the east, the erosion of soils by rainwater is serious, and it is projected that 8,000 tons/km2 of soils are
washed out in 430,000 km2 of areas on the average a year. Presumably, the washout results from the increase in the area of
bare lands due to deforestation and other factors.
Fig. 1-2-16 Denerts and Distribution of Desertification in China
Source:China's National Environment Conservation Bureau, The Conservation Atlas of China, 1990
Source:Japan Environmental hygiene Center (commissioned by the Environment Agency), Survey on Support to Formulation of
Environment Conservation Programs in Developing Countries
As regards desertification, agreement was reached at the Earth Summit for the formulation of an accord for the prevention
of desertification, and preparatory work is under way. Cooperation is also rendered in the formulation of measures in
bilateral cooperation for its prevention.
1-2-2 Present Status of Wildlife
Ecosystems hold good, depending on relations between air, soil and other non-biological factors and fauna, flora and
other biological factors. In this section, an attempt will be made to analyze the conditions of nature with attention paid
to species, which are components of ecosystems.

When the conditions of species are to be analyzed, it is important to pay attention to their diversity. The existence of
a broad variety of species in an ecosystem is described as featuring a greater degree of responsiveness to changes in the
environment than an ecosystem the species composition of which is simple. The species may be counted as an important
component of the ecosystems which form the basis for mankind's existence. From old, mankind has selected useful species from
the wildlife species and produced food and medicines. The remaining of many species on the earth signifies the fact that
the possibility of such utilization exists both at present and in the future. From this perspective, the importance of the
diversity of species was recognized, and the Biodiversity Convention was prepared in 1992 for signing at the Earth Summit
held in the same year.
In the following, let us see the conditions of biological species in Japan and elsewhere in the world.
(1) Present Status of Wildlife Species
a. Present Status of Habitation and Growth of Endangered Wildlife Species in Japan
Reflecting its diverse climate, topography and geographical posi- tion, Japan's natural environment is affluent. Also
reflecting the diversity of conditions for habitation and growth, wildlife comes in a broad variety.
The existence of wildlife species itself is an important source of information about the history of evolution. As
ecosystem components, they take charge of the circulation of matter and the flow of energy and, their diversity makes it
possible to retain the balance of ecosystems. Mankind has utilized, and coexisted with, wildlife species as food, as
materials for various tools, and as subjects of science, education, recreation and art. Such activities sometimes led to
reckless hunting, and by the disruption of habitats due to the expansion of man's economic and social activities, the number
of wildlife species in existence is depleted, and they are threatened to come to extinction. Nonetheless, man cannot create
wildlife species, once they are gone. It is an urgent task to prevent the extinction of wildlife species not only for the
conservation of ecosystems but for the protection of various values equipped to wildlife species as well.
(a) Fauna Species
The Environment Agency has carried out the Survey on Fauna and Flora Species Urgently Requiring Protection to select
endangered fauna and flora species in Japan. On the basis of the findings, the agency has published the Red Data Book--
Endangered Wildlife in Japan in regard to animals in 1991.
According to this book, the number of species (including subspecies) the existence of which is confirmed in Japan,
including 188 in the mammals, 665 in the feather tribe, 87 in the reptiles, 59 in the amphibians, 200 in the freshwater fish
class, 28,720 in the insects, 192 spiders and other decapods, 24 in the land-freshwater shellfish class and 4,040 in the
invertebrates. Depending on the degree of danger for species, the "endangered species" which are on the verge of extinction,
the "vulnerable species" which will be on the verge of extinction if the present conditions continue, and the "rare species"
which will possibly be classified as "vulnerable species" or "endangered species," depending on changes in the conditions
for habitation. There are 110 "endangered species, including Japanese otters, Iriomote wildcats and others in Mammlaia,
albatrosses, "tanchou" (Grus japonensis), "noguchigera" (Sapheopipo noguchii), Blckston's fish owls and others in the
feather tribe, Hokuriku salamanders, Kikuzato and others in the amphibians and reptiles, Ryukyu sweetfish, "miyakotango"
(Acheilognathus morio- kae), Musashitromiyo" (Pungitius sp.) and others in the freshwater fish class, among others. The 114
"vulnerable species" include Tokyo shrew- mice, peregrines, Japanese marsh warblers, Yamal box turtles, Ishik- awa frogs,
"itou" (Hucho perryi) and others. The 415 "rare species" include Erabuta flying foxes, dormice, sea otters, green sea
turtles, Yuufutsuyatsume" (Lampetra tridentata) and others. The animal species the extinction of which is already confirmed
total 22, including Japanese wolves, Japanese hair seals, Rofous night herons and "Minamitomiyo" (Pungitius kaibarae) among
others (Table 1-2-12).
Table 1-2-12 Numbers of Endangered Species in Japan
Note:The figures include those of specis and subspecies. The figures in parentheses represent those of species. The numbers
of Japanese species and subspecies are those of scientifically named ones.
Extinct:Species or subspecies considered to have already extinguished in Japan.
Endangered:Species or subspecies on the verge of extinction
Vulnerable:Species or subspecies with an increasing danger of extinction
Rare : Species or subspecies for whose survival infrastructure is vulnerable.
A classified group-specific check of the total number of "extinct species," "endangered species," "vulnerable species"
and "rare species" indicates 55 species in the mammals, 132 species in the feather tribe, 16 species in the reptiles, 14 in
the amphibians, 41 species in the freshwater fish class, 206 species in the insects and 127 in the land freshwater fish
class. The share of endangered, vulnerable and rare species in the total number of species in each category exceeds 15% for
all except Insecta in which the number of species is overwhelmingly large. The aggravation or extinction of habitats, such
as by reckless hunting, changes in forests and vegetation and water deterioration, are pointed out as reasons for the
extinction of wildlife species or for their being on the verge of extinction, suggesting that the habitats in Japan for
wildlife are environmentally severe.
For endangered species, protection and propagation projects are under way in addition to restrictions on their capture
and trade. For example, the habitation of only 33 "tanchou" (Grus japonensis) in the Kushiro wetlands was confirmed in 1952,
but as a result of a subsequent protection and propagation project, the number of those whose habitation was confirmed
increased to 179 in 1970 and further to 611 in 1992. As for Shelter's albatrosses, which were regarded for some time as
having come to extinction, their habitation was confirmed on the island of Torishima in 1951, and it is estimated that about
600 Shelter's albatrosses are inbaiting there. The places for their propagation are endangered by the inflow of earth and
sand and other factors, and the Environment Agency began in 1992 a project in which decoys would be used to induce them to
safer places for their propagation.
(b) Flora Species
According to the Environment Agency's Selective Survey on Fauna and Flora Species Urgently Requiring Protection, the
total number of flora growing in Japan includes 8,118 species in the vascular plants, 1,850 species in the algae, 1,516
species in the thistles, 535 in the moss, 2,295 species in the lichen and about 10,000 species in the fungi (including
subspecies, variations and subvariations). According to the report prepared by the Japan Nature Protection Association and
the Japan Committee of the World Nature Protection Fund on the Present Status of Flora Species Important in Terms of
Protection in Japan, 147 species are on the verge of immediate extinction, 677 species are endangered, and 36 species are in
a state of danger though their actual state is unknown. Then there are 36 species which have already come to extinction,
according to the report. Those species account for 16.8% of about 5,300 wild plant species in Japan (this figure does not
coincide with the figure given in the Environment Agency's Selective Survey on Fauna and Flora Species Urgently Requiring
Protection, to which reference has been made earlier) (Table 1-2-13).
Table 1-2-13 Number of Endangered Plants
Source : Present Situation of Plant Species Important to Protection in Japan, 1989.

Edited by the Species Subcommittee of the Study Committee on Plant Species and Communities in Japan to Protect and
published by the Japan Nature Conservation Association (NACS-J) of the worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF-J)
It is pointed out that so many species are endangered because of the environmental aggravation of their habitats due to
development, extinction of places for their growth and reckless capture by fans and mountain grass dealers. Particularly
when it comes to disruption of the growth environment, it is taken up as an issue, but not just the physical disruption,
that full consideration is not given to the environment which encompasses places for their growth, or ecosystems.
b. Status of Habitation and Growth of Wildlife Generally Observed in Japan
As we have already pointed out, it is confirmed that the Japanese animals include 188 in the mammals, 665 species in the
feather tribe, 87 species in the reptiles, 59 in the amphibians, 200 species in the freshwater fish class, 28,720 species
in the insects, 192 species in the spiders and decapods, 824 species in the land freshwater fish class and 4,040 species in
the invertevrates (all those figures include those of subspecies), and that the Japanese plants include 8,118 species in
the vascular plants (including subspecies, subvariations, kinds and sub- kinds), 1,850 species in the the algae, 1,516
species in the thistles, 535 species in the moss, 2,295 in the lichen and about 10,000 species in the fungi. It is
discernible that those numbers are smaller than in countries of "mega-diversity" the number of wildlife species is greater
as will be elucidated later, but that the biological species are more abundant than in other developed countries,
particularly European countries. This is presumably because Japan's climate and topographical conditions make it possible
for a broad variety of ecosystems stretching from the subtropical zone to the subarctic zone exist in the nation, and
because the number of forests abundant with ecosystems is small in Europe as there is progress in the turning of the
national land into farmland.
In order to make clear the environment with the habitation of many wildlife species, a check of the number of species in
habitation in regard to broadly distributed species in the mammals, the feather tribe and the butterflies (nine species in
the mammals, 55 species in the feather tribe and 258 species in the butterflies) indicates, as shown in Table 1-2-14 and
Table 1-2-4, that many species are observed in the mountains, when it comes to the mammals and the butterflies, and in the
mountains and on the plains when it comes to the feather tribe. There are signs that the habitation of many species in the
mammals is found in the mountains broad in area and equipped with a wide variety of natural conditions, and that of species
in the feather tribe is found on the plains and hills with a diverse environment, including a secondary environment ranging
from waters to forests. When it comes to the butterflies, we have been able to know there are general signs that as they
have a history of living peculiar to a special environment, the habitation of many species is observed in the mountains
where the vegetation and forest structure are diverse.
Table 1-2-14 Classification of Landform and Areas with Diversified Fauna
Notes : The classification of areas where many index animals (nine mammalia species and 55 bird species) are observed is
indicated. As for mammalia, 38 areas where the largest number of species (eight species) are sampled. As regards birds, 30
areas where many species are observed are sampled.
The number of area and landform meshes serves as a yardstick for the width of the sampled areas.
Source : Analysis Section, Comprehensive Analysis Report, 3rd National Green Consensus
The habitation of species in Japan is not confined to Japan, some of them migrating across the national border. There is
no national- boundary wall for the natural environment. Japan is important for the destination of migratory birds from
Siberia and other places, and more than 60% of birds observed in Japan are migratory (including migration inside Japan). The
survey conducted in January 1993 on the habitation of birds in the family of wild geese and ducks reveals that the total
number of wild geese and ducks observed was 1,809,000 Of them, ducks account for 95.6%, followed by swans with 2.9% and
geese with 1.6%. At 434 places in 30 prefectures, 52,037 swans in four kinds were observed, and almost all of them were
found in each prefecture of the Tohoku region, Niigata Prefecture and Hokkaido. Observed at 61 places in 15 prefectures were
28,722 geese in four kinds, many in Miyagi Prefecture and Niigata Prefecture. Ducks were observed most frequently and in all
prefectures, totaling 1,728,526 ducks in 30 kinds. By district, many of them were observed in the prefectures of Niigata,
Yamagata, Aichi, Ibaraki and Shimane.
In order to contribute to international cooperation for the conservation of fly-in areas and the protection of
migratory birds by casting light on their migration routes, band surveys and follow-up satellite surveys on migration routes
are conducted. As a result, many migration routes have come to light, such as for Lathman's snipes from Australia and
swallows from Southeast Asia. The route from Korea and China for white-naped cranes and hooded cranes and the route from
Siberia for bewick swans were followed up on, thereby contributing to surveys and researches under the Bilateral Convention
for Protection of Migratory Birds.
As migratory birds come and go across national borders, so that unless all countries with fly-in areas take appropriate
protective measures, the number of migratory birds will decrease with the availability of protective measures taken only
by several countries. Therefore, the protection of migratory birds is an international obligation. Japan is making efforts
under the conventions and so forth it has signed with the United States, China and Australia.
c. Present Status of Habitation and Growth of BiologicalSpecies in Foreign Countries
As regards the number of wildlife species, relatively much is known about the number of species in the vascular plants
and vertebrates, but less findings are documented about that of insects and invertebrates, so that there is no choice but
to rely on estimates. The total number of species around the world is projected at five million species at the smallest and
50 million species at the largest. The number of species confirmed at present is about 1.4 million species.
In the tropical forests, many biological species live and grow. In the tropical forests, which accounts for only 6% of
the the total areas of lands in the world, more than half of all the species reportedly live and grow. In terms of the
species the existence of which is already known, countries with many species in the mammals, the feather tribe, the
amphibians and the reptiles, butterflies in the swallowrails and species in the angiosperms are enumerated in Table 1-2-15.
There are many countries with tropical forests, such as southern African countries, Indonesia and Zaire.
Table 1-2-15 Countries with Many Wildlife Species
Source : IUCN, WRI, Conservation International, WWF-US and World Bank, Conserving World Biodiversity
Source : International and many others
Notes : 1. Collins and Morris, 1985
2. Davis et al., 1986
The countries with many biological species or with many inherent species are sometimes called countries of mega-
diversity. If it is assumed that Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, Zaire, Madagas- car, Australia, China, India,
Indonesia and Malaysia are countries of mega-diversity, for example, it is reported that 60% to 70% of the world's
biological species may be found in those 12 countries. The number of species in Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia and Mexico is
abundant, whereas in Australia and Madagascar, the number of species per se is not great but that of inherent species is
large. There are countries, such as Brazil and China, where the national land is great in area and has many species, whereas
there are countries, Ecuador, Madagascar and Malaysia, where the national land is small in area but the diversity of species
is extremely high thanks to topographical and other factors. 'When it comes to those countries, it is necessary that not
only should they make efforts but international cooperation should be rendered to protect the diversity of extremely
abundant organisms.
Such abundant biota is to rapidly come to extinction as the places for their habitation and growth are disrupted.
According to the 1990 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals, the number of endangered species around the world is 2,250 in the
imvertebrates and 2,751 in the vertebrates, suggesting that the habitation and growth of numerous species are threatened.
Besides, it is to be noted that many unknown species are coming to extinction without man's awareness.
For the protection of those endangered wildlife, international efforts are being made, such as under the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), known also as the Washington Convention, and a
biodiversity convention is being prepared, such as for the comprehensive conservation of biodiversity.

Quality of The Environment in Japan 1993 (MOE)

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Quality of the Environment in Japan 1993 [MOE] 11/03/08 22:05

(1) General Wastes

Source:Ministry of Health and welfare

Table 1-1-11 Numbers of Empty Cans Dispersed

(2) Industrial Wastes

Table 1-1-12 Trends in Discharge of Industrial Wastes (National)

Source: Surveyed by the Ministry of Health and Welfare

Fig. 1-1-37 Trends in Illegal Dumping of Industrial Waste

No data available for 1986

(8) Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Matter

1-1-9 Environmental Pollution in Developing Countries

Table 1-1-13 Output of Primary Energy in China

Source:China Energy Statistical Yearbook, 1989

Source: China Environmental Yearbook 1992

Table 1-1-14 Trends in Pollution of China's Six Longest Rivers

Table 1-1-16 Values of Acid Rain Monitored in Chinese Cities

Source:According to a survey by the Chinese Environment Protection Bureau.

Source:Republic of Korea's National Report

Source:Republic of Korea's National Report

Table 1-1-20 Trends in Results of Monitoring of Sulfur Dioxide in Metropolitan Manila

Table 1-1-21 Water Quality of Lake Lagna's Water Quality

(3) Other Asian Countries

Table 1-1-22 Trends in Emission of Air Pollutants in Bangkok

Source:UNEP/WHO, Urban Air Pollution In Megacities of the World

Fig. 1-1-39 Trends in Concentration of Suspended Particulate Matter in Indonesia

Source:Vadan Metrorologi Dan Geofisika, 1988

Fig. 1-1-29 Simulated Distribution and Quantities of Sulfurous Fall in 1985

Source:Yuzuru Matsuoka, associate professor, Kyoto University

Source:Yuzuru Matsuoka, associate professor, Kyoto University

Fig. 1-1-34 Traffic Noise on Main Trunk Roads (Nighttime, 1991)

People living at a dumping ground

1-2 Natural Environment at Present

1-2-1 Natural Ecosystems at Present

(1) Natural Ecosystems in japan at Present

a. Climate and Topography

Fig. 1-2-1 An Example of Climate Zone

Source:Hideo Suzuki 1962, Nakamura et al. 1986

b. Vegetation and Artificial Topsoil Land

Table 1-2-1 Degree of human disturbance of vegetation

Fig. 1-2-2 Distribution of Vegetation Types with High

Degrees of Naturalness by Warm Index

The means of those 16 points' values f or the whole nation.

Table 1-2-2 Changes in Vegetation by Degree of human disturbance of vegetation

Fig. 1-2-4 Animal Distribution Borderlines of Japanese Archipelago

Source:Kawai et al. 1980

Fig. 1-2-5 Vegetation Type on Habitat

Table 1-2-3 Distribution of Butterflies and Warm Index

Notes:* The unit of the Warm index is degree C•month.

(2) Ecosystems at Present by District

Table 1-2-4 Areas with High Degrees of Naturalness

b. Lake and Marsh

Table 1-2-5 Lakes and Marshes Inhabited by Many Fish Species

Table 1-2-7 Rivers with abundant Fish Species

Note : Living species observed and heard about

d. Wetland and Tideflat

Table 1-2-8 Area of Existing Tideflats by Sea Region

Table 1-2-9 Reasons for Extinction of Tideflats (Replies Duplicated)

Fig. 1-2-8 Alteration of Coast Line;

Fig. 1-2-9 Changes in coast line

f. Area Around Citys

Fig. 1-2-10 State of Vegetation in Three Major Urban Regions

Fig. 1-2-12 Yatsu Fields and Places for Habitat of Dragonflies