Kinematics (Study of Motion)

In this section, we introduce equations that describe the motion of an object. We start by
establishing standard interpretations for our variables.
Notation: Let t be the current time, x the current position, and v the current speed. Let
x0 and v0 be the position and speed, respectively, when t = 0.
To simplify our equations, we will take x0 = 0 and assume that the acceleration a is
constant.
By starting both position and time at 0, we can usually avoid the symbols ∆t and ∆x
because in most cases we will have ∆t = t and ∆x = x.
Here is a time line for our object in motion.

x = x0 = 0 x
v = v0 v
time
t=0 t

If the velocity of the object is constant, then, from the equation “distance equals speed
times time,” we have

x = vt

If the velocity is not constant but the acceleration is constant, then

v0 + v
x= ·t
2

Example A baseball moves with a speed of 3.0 m/s for 4.0 s. How far does the ball
move?

x = vt = (3.0)(4.0) = 12 m

Example A baseball increases its speed from 2.0 m/s to 3.0 m/s in 4.0 s at a constant
acceleration. How far does it move?

v0 + v 2.0 + 3.0
x= ·t= · 4.0 = 10 m
2 2

Acceleration determines how quickly velocity is increasing or decreasing. Under constant

acceleration we have ∆v = at.
Example If an object moving at 30 m/s experiences a constant acceleration of −1.0 m/s
per second then the speed of the object 20 seconds later will be v = 30 + (−1.0)(20) =
10 m/s.

We can generalize the previous example. For constant acceleration, v = v0 + at.

Returning to our equation x = 21 (v0 + v)t, we will replace v with v0 + at:
x = 21 (v0 + v0 + at)t = 21 (2v0 + at)t = v0 t + 21 at2 . So we have another important equation:

x = v0 t + 21 at2

Example A baseball has an initial velocity of 2.0 m/s and accelerates a constant
0.50 m/s2 for 4.0 s. How far does the ball move?

x = v0 t + 21 at2 = 2.0 · 4.0 + 12 (.50)(4.02 ) = 12 m

Starting with the equation v = V0 + at we can deriver another important equation. First,
square both sides:

v 2 = (v0 + at)2
= v02 + 2v0 at + a2 t2
= v02 + 2a(v0 t + 21 at2 )

Using the identity x = v0 t + 21 at2 , we get

v 2 = v02 + 2ax

Example A baseball accelerates a constant 2.0 m/s2 from an initial velocity of 1.0 m/s
to a final velocity of 3.0 m/s. How far did the ball move?

Rewrite the equation v 2 = v02 + 2ax as

v 2 − v02 3.02 − 1.02

x= = = 2.0 m
2a 2 · 2.0

We now summarize the kinematics equations. These are the equations that will be given
to you on the first test. Remember that they only work when acceleration is constant.

x = 21 (v0 + v) t
v = v0 + at
x = v0 t + 21 at2
v 2 = v02 + 2ax
Free Fall

We now consider the motion of an object under the influence of a constant gravitational
force without resistance. These conditions are approximately in place for objects falling
near the surface of the earth at small speeds. In this situation, we will take the acceleration
of the falling object to be constant. Experimentally, the acceleration is 9.80 m/s2 and is
represented by the letter g.

Example A rock dropped with an initial speed of 0.00 m/s will have a speed of 9.80 m/s
after one second and a speed of 19.60 m/s after two seconds. In general, the speed of the
rock will increase by 9.80 m/s for every second that the rock falls.

Example Due to continental drift, the North American and European continents are
drifting apart at an average speed of about 3 cm per year. At this speed, how long (in
years) will it take for them to drift apart by another 1500 m (a little less than a mile)?

Since the acceleration is zero, we have x = vt. Solving for t gives us

x 1500
t= = = 50000 years
v .03

Example A car makes a 60.0-km trip with an average velocity of 40.0 km/h in a direction
due north. The trip consists of three parts. The car moves with a constant velocity of 25
km/h due north for the first 15 km and 62 km/h due north for the next 32 km. With what
constant velocity (magnitude and direction) does the car travel for the last 13-km segment
of the trip?

Since average velocity is given by v̄ = x/t, we can solve for t:

x 60.0
t= = = 1.5 h
v̄ 40.0

This is the total time of the trip. For the first segment of the trip, the time is

x 15
t1 = = = .60 h
v 25

For the second segment, the time is

x 32
t2 = = = .516 h
v 62

Since the three time segments add to 1.5 h (t1 + t2 + t3 = 1.5), the time for the third
segment is
 t3 = 1.5 − t1 − t2 = 1.5 − .60 − .516 = .384 h

Since the distance of the third segment is 13 km, the velocity must be

x 13
v= = = 34 km/h due north
t .384