A

SEMINAR REPORT

ON

BIOCHIPS
Submitted By
U.SIVA NAGU
(07X21A0552)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

PRIYADARSHINI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES

(Affiliated to J.N.T.U Kakinada, Chintalapudi-522 306)

TENALI

2010-2011
CONTENTS

1. DEFINITION
2. IN WHAT WAY THEY WORK
• GETTING UNDER THE SKIN
• THE S4MS CHIP
BIOCHIPS USED TO DETECT AND MONITOR DISEASES
• CHIPS THAT FOLLOW FOOT STEPS
• OXY SENSORS
• BRAIN SURGERY WITH AN ON AND OFF SWITCH
• ADDING SOUND TO LIFE
• ‘CLRION’ AND ‘NUCLEUS’
• EXPERIMENT WITH LOST SIGHT
• FENDING OFF DRUG RESISTANT TB WITH BIOCHIP
TECHNOLOGY
5. BIOCHIPS RAISE CRITICAL ISSUES OF PERSONAL

PRIVACY

6. IMPLANTABLE BIOCHIPS THE END OF HUMAN

FREEEDOM AND DIGNITY

7. TRULY EMBEDDED CHIPS.

8. ADVANTAGES

9. DISADVANTAGES
INTRODUCTION
Biochips were invented 9 years ago by gene scientist Stephen Fodor . In a flash of
light he saw that photolithography, the process used to etch semi conductor circuits in
to silicon could also be used to assemble particular DNA molecules on a chip.

The human body is the next biggest target of chip makers . medical
researchers have been working since a long period to integrate humans body
and chips . In no time or at maximum within a short period of time Biochips
can get implanted into the body of humans . So integration of humans and
chips is achieved this way .

Money and research has already gone into this area of technology
.Anyway such implants are already being experimented with animals . A

simple chip is being is being implanted into tens of thousands of animals

especially pets.

DEFINITION:-
A biochip is a collection of miniaturized test sites (microarrays) arranged on
a solid substrate that permits many tests to be performe At the same time
inorder to achieve higher throughput and speed . Typically a biochips surface
is no larger than a finger nail . Like A computer chip that can perform
millions of mathematical operations In one second , a biochip can perform
thousands of biological reactions Such as decoding genes , in a few seconds .

A genetic biochip is designed to “freeze” into place the structures of

many short strands of DNA ( deoxyribo nucleic acid ) , the basic chemical
instruction that determines the characterstics of an organism . effectively , it is
used as a kind of “ test tube “ for real chemical samples. A specially designed
microscope can determine where the sample hybridised with DNA strands in
the biochip.
IN WHAT WAY THEY WORK:-

The chips are of the size of an uncooked grain of rice small enough
to be injected under the skin using a syringe needle . They respond to a
signal from the detector , held just a few feet away by transmitting an
identification number . This number is then compared with a database listing of
registered pets .

GETTING UNDER THE SKIN :-

Hausdorffs chips are external , but another chip currently under

development will be injected under skin . The chips will allow diabetics to
monitor the level of sugar glucose in their blood . Diabetics currently use a
skin prick and a handheld blood test and then medicate themselves with insulin
, depending on the result . The system is simple and works well , but drawing
blood each time is pain full so patients donot test themselves as often as it is
needed .

THE S4MS CHIP:-

The new s4ms chip will get underneath the skin sense the glucose
level and send the result back by radio frequency communication. A light
emitting diode starts of the detection process . The light that it produces hits a
fluorescent chemical : one that absorbs incoming light and re emits it at a
longer wavelength . The longer wavelength of light is then detected , and the
result is sent to a control panel outside the body . Glucose is detected, because the
sugar reduces the amount of light that the florescent chemical re emits . the more
glucose there is the less light that is detected.

S4MS is still developing the perfect fluorescent chemical, but

the key design innovation of the S4MS chip has been fully worked out. The idea is
simple : the LED is sitting in a sea of the fluorescent molecules. In most detectors the
light source is far away from the fluorescent molecules, and the inefficiencies that
come with that mean more power and larger devices. The prototype S4MS chip
22µ W LED, almost 40 times less powerful than the tiny power on buttons on a
computer keyboard. The low power requirements mean that energy can be supplied
from the outside, by the process called induction. The fluorescent detection itself does
not consume any chemicals or proteins, so the device is self – sustaining.

BIOCHIPS USED TO DETECT AND MONITOR DISEASES:-

CHIPS THAT FOLLOW FOOT STEPS : -

The civil debate over biochips has obscured their more ethically
benign and medically useful applications . Jeffery housdoff of the Beth Israel
deaconess medical center in Boston has used the type of pressure sensitive
resistors found in the buttons of a microwave oven as stride timers .He places
one sensor in the heel of a shoe and other in the ankle and adds a computer
to the ankle to calculate the duration of each stride(step).

Young healthy people can regulate the duration of each step very
accurately , but elderly patients prone to frequent falls have extremely variable
stride times . by using this information doctors can change their medication and
ask them to do exercises . Hausdorff is also is also using the system to
determine the success of treatment of congestive heart failure . By monitoring
the number of strides that a person takes , he can directly measure the
patients activity level , by passing the often flawed estimate made by patient .

Oxy sensors

The working model of an oxygen sensor uses the same layout.

With its current circuitry it is about the size of a large shirt button, but the final silicon
wafer will be less than a millimeter square. The oxygen sensor will be useful not only
to monitor breathing in the intensive care units, but also to check that packages of
food or containers of semi conductors stored under nitrogen gas, remain air tight.

Another version of an oxygen sensing chip currently under

development sends like pulses out into the body. The light is absorbed to varying
extends, depending on how much oxygen is being carried in the blood, and this chip
detects the light that is left. The rushes of blood pumped by the heart or also detected,
so the same chip is pulse monitor. The number of companies already make large scale
versions of such detectors.

This oxygen chip is perhaps about two years away, but the dimensions of
another temperature – sensing chip has been reduced to 3mm per side. The transition
of certain semi conductors to their conducting state is inherently sensitive to
temperature, so designing the sensor was simple enough. With some miniature radio
frequency transmitters, and foam rubber earplugs to hold the chip in place, the device
is complete. Applications range from sick children, to chemotherapy patience who
can be plagued by sudden raises in body temperature in response to their anti cancer
drugs.

Brain Surgery with an on off switch

Sensing and measuring is one thing, but can we switch the body on and off?
Heart pace makers use the crude approach : large jolts of electricity to synchronize the
pumping of the heart. The electric pulses of the Activa implant, made by US – based
medtronics or directed not at the heart but the brain, they turn off brain signals that
cause the uncontrolled movements, or tremors, associated with diseases such as
Parkinson’s.

Drug therapy for Parkinson’s disease aims to replace the brain messenger,
dopamine, the product of the brain cells that are dying. But eventually that drugs
affects wear off, and the erratic movements come charging back.

The activa implant , cleared for use in the US in AUG, 1997 is a new
alternative that users high frequency electrical pulses to reversibly shut off the
thalamus. The implementation surgery is far less traumatic than thalamotony

And if there are any post operative problems the stimulator can simply be turned off.
The implant primarily interferes with aberrant brain functioning.

Adding Sound To Life

The most ambitious bio engineers are today trying to add back brain functions,
restoring sight and sound where there was darkness and silence.
 The success story in this field is the cochlear implant. Most hearing aids are

Glorified amplifiers, but the cochlear implant is for patients who have lost the hair
cells that detect sound waves. For these individuals no amount of amplification is
enough.

The cochlear implant delivers electrical pulses directly to the nerve cells

In the cochlea, the spiral-shaped structure that translates sound into nerve pulses. In
normal hearing individuals, sound waves set up vibrations in the walls of the cochlea,
and hair cells detect these vibrations. High frequency noises ( deep notes) vibrate the
base of the cochlea, while low frequency notes vibrate nearer the top of the spiral.
The implant mimics the job of the hair cells. It splits the frequencies of incoming
noises into a number of channels ( typically eight)

And then stimulates the appropriate part of the cochlea.

‘Clarion ‘ and ‘Nucleus’

The two most successful cochlear implants are the clarion ( developed at the
university of California at San Francisco (UCSF) and Advanced Bionics Corporation
of Sylmar in California) and the Nucleus ( developed at the University of
Melbourne,Australis, and made by cochlear of Sydney, Australia).

Upgrades largely focus on improving the speech processing software, which is

operated by a minicomputer worn on the patient’s belt. Theoretically, increasing the
number of channels( and electrodes) could improve sound perception.

But speech is perceived in an area of the cochlea only 14mm long, and spacing the
electrodes too close to each other causes signals to bleed from one channel to another.

The result is a broad brush version of hearing.while some recipients of the

devices report speech like sounds,many characterise their new world as being
populated with quacking ducks or banging garbage cans. But the success is
undeniable.currently two thirds to three quarters of patients (with more recent models)
can understand speech without lip reading says Steve Rebscher,a member of UCSF
team.”its pretty amazing , and certainly better than a lot of people anticipated these
devices would do”.
EXPERIMENTS WITH LOST SIGHT:-

With the ear atleast partially conquered , the next logical target is the eye.
Several groups are working on implantable chips that mimic the action of photo
receptors , the light sensing cells at the back of the eye. Photo receptors are lost in
retinitis pigmentosa , a genetic disease,and in age related macular degeneration , the
most common cause of lost sight in the developed world. Joseph Rizzo of the
Massachusetts eye and ear infirmary , and john Wyatt of the Massachusetts institute
of technology have made a twenty electrode,1mm square chip,and implanted it at the
back of rabbits eyes.

The original chip,the thickness of human hair,put too much stress on the eyes
the new version is ten times thinner. The final set up will include a fancy camera
mounted on a pair of glasses.The camera will detect and encode the scene,then send it
in to the eye as a ;laser pulse,with the laser also providing the energy to drive the chip.

Rizzo has confirmed that his tiny array of light receivers(photo diodes) can
generate enough electricity to run the chip.He has also found that the amount of
electricity needed to fire a nerve cell into action is about hundred fold lower in the eye
than in the ear,so the currents can be smaller,and the electrodes more closely spaced.

For now,the power supply comes from a wire inserted directly into the eye
and ,using this device , Rizzo has detected signals reaching the brain. Eugene de Juan
of Johns Hopkins Wilmer eye Institute is trying to answer that question by using
human subjects.His electrodes , inserted directly in to the eye , are large and some
what crude .But his results have been startling . Completely blind patients have seen
well defined flashes, which change in position and brightness as De Juan changes the
position of the electrode for the amount of current.

In his most recent experiments , patients have identified simple shapes out
lined by multiple electrodes . With as little as an 8x8 array , de Juan believes he could
approximate character recognition, and a 25x25 array might give a crude image.

The big money in eye implant is in Germany , where the government has
pledged millions of US$.One is similar to the US projects in which chips are
implanted on the surface of the retina,the structure at the back of the eye.the other
project is putting its implants at the back of the retina where the photo receptors are
normally found.These “subretinal” chips may block the transport of oxygen and food
to the overlying nerve cells, so Everhart Zrenner of the university of Tubinger of
Germany is developing ‘chain mail’ electrode arrays, with plenty of holes for the
delivery of supplies.

FENDING OFF DRUG RESISTANT TB STRAINS WITH

BIOCHIP TECHNOLOGY:-

As tuberculosis threatens to make its come back shrouded in a drug

resistent form ,a new biochip technology developed by Argonne National Laboratory
and the Russian Academy of Sciences’ Englehardt Institute of Microbiology, may
help stem a global epidemic.

In October, Argonne will begin testing its biochip’s ability to distinguish

between different TB strains.l The tests will be done on harmless segments of genetic
material removed from TB bacteria.

The biochips are designed to carry out thousands of biochemical reactions

simultaneously, and have performed well in laboratory tests. “But this will be their
first test in the realm of real-world medical diagnostics.

They chose TB for the test because new drug resistant strains have
sprung up in Russia and can easily spread to the whole world, including US.If they
can quickly identify specific strains, it will help doctors prescribe the best

Treatments quickly and possibly help prevent a world wide academic.

According to World Health Organization, TB kills more youth and adults

than any other infectious disease, including AIDS and malaria combined.

Every year, 7 to 8 million people become sick with the disease.

Today, TB patients are often prescribed several antibiotics

simultaneously because it takes weeks or months to identify specific TB strains, and
patients can die during this time. “If our biochip can do the job,” “physicians can
prescribe the most effective treatment without delay.”
 If successful, these initial studies will set the precedent for similar
evaluations of other bacterial and viral diseases.

DRUG-RESISTANT TB

Antibiotic resistance results from the natural selection of stronger

bacteria over weaker ones. Stronger bacteria have mutated genes that confer
antibiotic resistance.

Because TB cells grow slowly,antiobiotics must be taken daily for atleast

six months to ensure that all the bacteria are eliminated.If treatment is shortened or
inconsistent, surviving bacteria-those most resistant to the treatment-can reproduce,
passing their resistance on to their offspring.

In impoverished nations, where people cannot afford months of

medication, victims effectively become incubation chambers for new drug-resistant
strains. In some Russian institutions, roughly 80 percent of the TB patients were
found resistant to atleast one antibiotic, and 50 percent showed multiple resistance.

Although airborne, TB is not remarkably contagious compared to other

viral and bacterial infections. With only one exposure, the body’s defenses normally
keep the bacteria at bay, unless the immune system is weakened by a disease such as
AIDS. However,with continued exposure, as when living with a person with active
TB, someone can develop the disease quickly.

BETTER, CHEAPER, FASTER

Like computer chips, which perform millions of mathematical operations

a second, Biochips can perform thousands of biological reactions in a few seconds.

The Argonne/Englehardt biochip is essentially a glass side containing up

to 10,000 tiny gel pads, each serving as a mini test-tube. Attached to each gel pad is a
short strand of DNA, the unique set of blueprints that determine the building blocks of
every living species. The information in DNA is encoded in long sequences of four
molecular units, or bases – adenine(A), cytosine(C), guanine(G) and thymine(T). The
precise pairing of A on one strand with T on another strand and G with C, allows
DNA to form it’s “double helix”.

By fixing only one strand of the double helix to each gel pad, the chip
employs the natural tendency of each DNA base to pair with it’s complementary base.
When tests begin, a sample of unknown single strands of TB DNA will be spread on a
chip and allowed to naturally pair up with single strands of known TB DNA already
in the gels. A direct match will identify drug resistant TB strains.

By changing the DNA samples in the gels, scientists can also use this
technique to diagnose a unlimited range of other diseases quickly and efficiently.

One of the biggest advantages of Argonne’s Biochips, over

conventional Biochips, is that they can be cleansed and reused up to 50 times,
making them more economical than conventional biochip technology . Also, the gel’s
greater size allows them to hold up to 1,000 times the material, making them more
sensitive than any other biochip.

In standard TB diagnostics, a patient must endure a number of tests.

First, a skin test is done to determine if they had ever been exposed. Second, a chest
X-ray is done to determine if TB has damaged any lung tissue. Finally, a throat
culture is done to determine if the TB is still growing and what antibiotics it resists.
Results from the throat culture alone can take a month.

“With the advanced biochip technology, we’d be able to get all

information we need in a couple of hours”, “Without any false positives.”

EVIDENCE OF SUCCESS

The researchers have reason for being optimistic about this project. “The fact
that it has worked in one sample and it wasn’t difficult to perform, shows us that this
has a lot of potential,” . “The current round of tests will tell us more.”
 However, bringing the test into the clinical setting is another giant
leap. “We’re using DNA , not actual fluid from patients,” “But it does give us a good
idea of the direction we want to go.”

If successful, they would move to a larger scale study with more patients and
more conditions and then try to get it to work using fluid samples from active TB
patients.

“We’ll be doing a full scale clinical diagnosis bit it’ll take years to get to the
market,” “Considering that TB is becoming a global epidemic, some urgent steps
must be taken to speed up the process. The first step is to figure out if this has a
chance to work.”

BIOCHIPS RAISE CRITICAL ISSUES OF PERSONAL PRIVACY

DNA microchips will soon be able to reveal to anyone an accurate profile of

your personality and potential.

In the new millennium there is a chance of loss of individual privacy, not in

the sense of listening through key holes or reading my e-mail.Everyone’s mind has
much more personal things. What everyone fears to lose in the coming decade is their
private sense of self, that unique collection of foibles and strengths that make them a
particular person. Before this decade ends, a simple sample of anyone’s blood, tested
with a biochip, will quickly and cheaply yield a computer characterization of his
genes, a summary that can reveal to any stranger the secrets of his innermost self.

A biochip, also called a gene microarray, is a square of glass smaller than a

postage stamp, covered with millions of strands of DNA like blades of grass. Think of
the chip surface as a field of assembly sites, much as a TV screen is a field of colored
dots. Just as a scanning beam moves over each individual TV dot instructing it to be
red, green, or blue, so a scanning beam moves over each biochip spot, commanding
the addition there of a base to a growing strand of DNA. A computer, by varying the
wavelength of the scanning beam, determines which of four possible units, called
nucleotides, is added to the growing DNA strand anchored to each spot. When the
entire chip has been scanned, each DNA strand has been lengthened one nucleotide
unit. The computer repeats the process, layer by layer, until each DNA strand is an
entire gene or gene fragment. One biochip made in this way contains hundreds of
thousands of specific gene sequences.

How could you use such a biochip to delve into my genes? All you
would have to do is to obtain a little of my DNA, say from a blood sample or even a
bit of hair. Flush fluid containing my DNA over the biochip surface. Every place my
DNA has a gene matching one of the biochip strands, it will stick to it in a way the
computer can detect.

Now here is where it gets interesting – and scary. The mad rush to
sequence the human genome is over. The gene research firm Celera announced
Monday it has essentially completed the sequence, with over 90% of genes done.
Already the researchers are busily comparing their consensus “reference sequence” to
the DNA of individual people, and noting any differences they detect.

Called single nucleotide polymorphism’s, or snps, these spot

differences in the identity of particular nucleotides record every way in which a
particular individual differs from reference sequence. Some single nucleotide snips
cause diseases like cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia. In my case, particular snps
give me red hair and elevated levels of cholesterol in my blood.

Everything genetic about me that is different from you is caused by a few thousand
snps; otherwise you and I are identical.

The scary part is snps on chips.researchers planned to have identified some

300,000 different snps by year’s end all of which could reside on a single
biochip.when anyone’s DNA is flushed over a snp biochip , the sequences that light
up will instantly reveal his snp profile.Every thing about him that makes him,every
gene that might affect his health,my behavior ,his future potential –all are there to be
read by any stranger clever enough to interpret his profile.That much of what he is
strongly affected by his genetic makeup.researchers have proved beyond any real
dispute that intelligence and major personality traits like aggressiveness and
inquisitiveness are about 80% inheritable.

Ones snp profile will reflect all of this variation ,a table of contents of my
chromosomes, a molecular windows to my soul. When millions of such snp profiles
have been gathered – and we’re talking years, not decades – any computers worth
keeping will be able to identify other individuals with profiles like mine, and, by
examining health records, standard personality tests, and the like, correlate parts of
my profile with particular traits.

There is no place my identity can hide. Even behavioral characteristics

involving many genes, which until now have been thought too complex to ever
analyze, cannot resist a determined assault by a computer comparing snp profiles.

All this lies in the future, but no far, I’d wager.

IMPLANTABLE BIOCHIPS END OF HUMAN FREEDOM AND

DIGNITY:-

Will every American citizen soon be forced to receive a programmable

biochip implant in their bodies? Will the biochip implant make possible the
surveillance and tracking of people by ground sensors and satellites in the sky, linked
together with a massive, super computer system?

Texe Marrs documents that the United States government is working on such a
system at this very moment. By the year 2000 it will be fully implemented. Many
animals and some human beings are already having Biochips implanted. Almost all
of the people with implants are unsuspecting victims. Biochips were surgically
inserted in their arms, hands, foreheads, ears, brains, or buttocks without their
knowledge.

But U.S. and foreign intelligence agencies are taking this technology one giant
step further. They fully intend to use Implantable Biochips to turn every man,
woman, and child into a controlled slave. Through cybernetic, biochip brain implants,
people will think and act exactly as pre-programmed. What a tremendous bonanza for
the coming Antichrist ! Inject the chip into a man or woman’s brain and he or she
instantly becomes a living vegetable and a subservient, New World Order Slave !.

Implantable Biochips are getting smaller and more powerful(left). At right, a

laboratory mouse has a biochip injected into its body.

Implantable Biochips and The End of Human Freedom and Dignity exposes the
government plot to wield this invasive, life destroying technology. Texe Marrs quotes
an executive officer of the World Future Society ( 27,000 influential members) as
saying : “A biochip implant could be used in a variety of human applications… A
number could be assigned at birth and follow that person throughout life ..It would be
implanted on the back of the right or left hand so that it would be easy to scan at
stores. The biochip implant could also be used as a universal type of identification
card”.

A top White House official addressing a high tech conference sponsored by

IBM, stated : “The smart card is a wonderful idea, but even better would be a chip in
your ear.. We need to go beyond the narrow conceptualization of the smart card and
really use some of the technology that’s out there”.

Science News, an authoritative scientific journal, reports that, “New electronic

techniques have been developed to eavesdrop on the brain. The technique allows
outsiders to influence the person’s brain cell conversations and to talk directly with
the individual’s brain neurons”.

The Wall Street Journal says that a U.S. Naval research laboratory, funded by
intelligence agencies, is now able to unite living brain cells with microchips.; some
authorities fear that the Defense Departments intend to produce an “army killer
zombies !” One army expert alarmingly calls the new biochip implant a “Frankenstein
_ type weapon”.

TRULY EMBEDDED CHIPS:-

Media Medical And Industrial Complex had a long term plan to implant
subcutaneous microprocessor for a variety of help , entertainment and
communication purposes by acclimating a generation of prospective customers to
such skin altering conditions.companies are seeding the market for their future
offerings.

This is the stuff of science fiction,but serious medical researchers are

developing chips with tiny doses of medication that can be dispensed
automatically,without the patient having to measure a dose or remember to
take it at regular intervals.

Talk about embedded software!

The recent attention to bioinformatics rekindles the imagination about where
such blend of bioscience and infotechnology may take us. Adrenaline and
BMSG will provide a due diligence service for investors and biotech
companies ,offering independent analysis of ventures into bioinformatics,which
they define as the art and science of using computational tools to find answers
to biological questions.In other words they are looking at near term projects
such as Genome and Molecular biology research as well as individualized
medicine.Their collaborative work will help scientists and it professionals use
data mining and knowledge management and process management to investigate
biological frontiers. Vital stepping stones but not wondrous or delicious as the
future potential applications of bioinfotech.

Looking future ahead when implanted chips are programmed with

telecommunications capability they can open new connectivity and

entertainment options . Preserving that the first chips are ‘receive only’.They
would become the ultimate pagers : delivering a unification or internal ‘ping’
directly to human neurons.

Eventually entertainment providers will begin to exploit this capability

,sending music or visceral experiences directly through chip.some programming
may be tied to video shows , giving you the mosh-pit experiences while
watching MTV or feeling the polar freeze while a discovery documentary
about Antarctica.More probably porn merchants will be the first to capitalize on
such in body experiences.So that watching a playboy channel show could also
trigger the appropriate internal response among chip equipped viewers.

Later the implemented microprocessor will be upgraded to two way

capacity transmitting internal data back in the appropriate network through a
wireless feed.The medical monitoring opportunities are immense but so are the
tracking capabilities.It is the ultimate loss of personal privacy when your body
is sending signals about where you are and what you are sending.?

Several other roots towards bioinfotech connection are already being

followed.Predictive network of Cambridge is developing biometric system used
to identify which individuals interface with computer and media
devices.Predictive networks is monitoring personal usage patterns (how
individuals use specific keys and buttons ,including the speed and measure of
finger close) to identify and categorize customer.Although it’s a major leap from
such tracking of external behaviors to inserting a microprocessor under the
skin, the eventual outcome could be the same:data gathering and response based
on physical connection and the response.

Bio-infotech seems to be a promising sector for the region-even across-

river opportunity that would combine the bio-medical resources in Mary land
with the Infotech strengths of Virginia .

FUTURE:-

If people feel that they loose their privacy because of Biochips, they
may resist use of it.But if they feel that it could help in a lot of ways like
detecting,minitoring and curing of diseases they can use them intensively.

So it is users of chip who determine its future .

ADVANTAGES OF BIOCHIPS:-

1. TO RESCUE THE SICK

2. TO FIND LOST PEOPLE.

3. TO LOCATE DOWNED CHILDREN AND WANDERING ALZHEIMER’S

PATIENTS.

4. TO IDENTIFY PERSON UNIQUELY.

5. THEY CAN PERFORM THOUSANDS OF BIOLOGICAL
REACTIONSOPERATIONS IN FEW SECONDS.

6. IN MONITORING HEALTH CONDITION OF INDIVIDUALS IN WHICH

THEY ARE SPECIFICALLY EMPLOYED.

7. THEY CAN PERFORM THOUSANDS OF BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS.

SIMULTANEOUSLY.

DISADVANTAGES:-

1. THEY RAISE CRITICAL ISSUES OF PERSONAL PRIVACY.

2. THEY MARK THE END OF HUMAN FREEDOM AND DIGNITY.

3.THEY MAY NOT BE SUPPORTED BY LARGE % OF PEOPLE.

4.THERE IS A DANGER OF TURNING EVERY MAN ,WOMEN,AND

CHILD INTO A CONTROLLED SLAVE.

5.THROUGH CYBERNITIC BIOCHIP IMPLANTS PEOPLE WILL THINK

AND ACT AS EXACTLY PRE-PROGRAMMED.

6.THEY CAN BE IMPLANTED INTO ONES BODY WITHOUT THEIR

KNOWLEDGE.