c


„ The range of intensity levels to which the human visual system can adapt is enormous.The total range of distinct intensity le vels it can discriminate simultaneously is
rather small when compared with the total adaptation range. This phenomena is known as brightness adaptation.
It is important to note , however, that the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave required to see an object must be of the sa me size as or smaller than the object.
„Spatial resolution is the smallest discernible detail in an image. Gray-level resolution is the smallest discernible change in gray level and it is very subjective.
„Insufficent number of gray levels in smooth areas of a digital image causes false contouring.
„If the function is undersampled , then a phenomeno n called aliasing corrupts the sampled image.The corruption is in the form of additional frequency components
being introduced into the sampled function. Sampling rate in images is the number of samples taken in both spatial directions per unit distance.Ho wever it is
impossible to satisfy the sampling theorem in practice because we can only work with sampled data that are finite in duration . As a result aliasing effects is always
present. One way to reduce the aliasing effects on an image is to reduce its h igh frequency components by blurring image prior to sampling. The effect of aliased
frequencies can be seen under the right conditions in the form of so -called Moire patterns.
4-
. Two pixels p and q with values from are 4-adjacent if q is in the set 4(p).
8-
. Two pixels p and q with values from are 8-adjacent if q is in the set 8(p).


(mixed adjacency).Two pixels p and q with values from are m-adjacent if
G
 q is in 4(p), 
G
 q is in Œ(p)  the set N4(p)ŀ N4(q)has no pixels whose values are from 

Œ4 ve Œ8 distanceları path¶den bağımsızdır yani aralarında path olması gerekmez ama Œ m distance µ ı aralarındaki en kısa m path¶dir.

c
 
„Image negative technique is particularly suited for enhancing white or gray detail embedded in dark regions of an image, especially when the black areas are
dominant in size. p
„ Dog transformation maps a narrow range of low gray -level values in the input image into a wider range of output levels. The opposite is true of higher values of
input levels.We use this transformation to expand the values of dark pixels in an image while compressing the higher -level values.
„Power-law transformation is a flexible type of log transformation. It do the same thing more flexible than log tra nsformation. It is generally used for gamma
corrections.
„ Contrast Streching is used to increase the dynamic range of the gray levels in the image with piece wise linear transformatio n function.
„ Gray-level slicing is used to highlight the specific gray le vels in image by transforming this gray levels to another using piece -wise linear functions.
„ Bit-plane slicing is used to highlight contribution of the specific bits in the gray level values.
„ An image with low contrast has a histogram that will be narrow and will be centered toward the middle of the gray scale.For a monochrome image this implies a
dull,washed-out gray look.If the image is dark its histogram values will be toward the left, if th e image is bright its histogram values are toward the right , if the image
is high contrast its histogram values are spread to the entire gray scale level.
„ We can use local enhancements according to variance , mean of the constrained region of the image v ia masking.
„Image substraction is used generally in medical imaging , by injecting colorful medium into the patient¶s vessels and substra cting this image from the orginal.
„Image averaging is used to reduce the noise content by adding a set of noisy image s that has different variances.As the noisy image increases we approch the
orginal.Because expected value of the image depends on the orginal image but the variance of the image is inverse proportiona l to K which is the number of noisy
images.It is general ly used in aerospace imaging.
„Smoothing spatial filters are used for blurring and for noise reduction.Blurring is used to remove small details from an image. Averaging filter is a kind of them.
Order-statistics filters are used for noise reduction especia lly salt-and-pepper noise with less blur they are more powerful than avearing filter.
„Sharpening filters are used to highlight fine detail in an image or to enhance detail that has been blurred.
First order derivatives generally produce thicker edges in an image. Second order derivatives have a stronger response to fine detail, such as thin lines and isolated
points. First order derivatives generally have a stronger response to a gray -level step. Second -order derivatives produce double response at step ch anges in gray levels.
For similar changes in gray -level values in an image, their response is stronger to a line than to a step, and to a point than to a line.
„ Unsharp masking is used to sharpen images by substracting blurred version of an image from the image itself. High boost filtering is a generalization of unsharp
masking which gives more sharper images. f hb =Af(x,y) -ź2 f(x,y) aradaki işaret laplacedaki maskenin ortadaki değerine göre + veya -.
„ Gradient is used frequently in industrial inspection, either to aid jumans in the detection of defects or , what is more common, as a preprocessing step in automated
inspection.

 

*Œiscrete fourier transform and its inverse always exist.
*Magnitude of the fourier spectrum = |F(u)|=[R 2(u)+I 2(u)] 2 ;Power Spectrum = Spectral Œensity = P(u) = |F(u)| 2 ; ǻu=1/(Mǻx);
ೠೣ ೡ೤ ೠೣ ೡ೤
ଵ
‫ܨ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ǡ ‫ݒ‬ሻ ൌ σெିଵ σேିଵ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ݁ ି௝ଶగሺ ಾ ା ಿ ሻ ; ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ ൌ σெିଵ ேିଵ
௨ୀ଴ σ௩ୀ଴ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ݁
௝ଶగሺ ା ሻ
ಾ ಿ
ெே ௫ୀ଴ ௬ୀ଴
x+y
*It is common practice to multiply input image function by ( -1) prior to computing the Fourier transform.This operation corresponds to F(u -M/2,v-N/2).
*In practice , the inverse ŒFT generally has parasitic imaginary components due to computational round -off errors. These components are ignored.
*Dow frequencies in the Fourier transform are responsible for the general gray -level appearance of an image over smooth areas, while high frequencies are
responsible for detail, such as edges and noise.
„        
Ideal filters are not suitable for filtering in frequency domain because they causes more blurring and ringing due to the reciprocal property of fourier transfo rm( i.e: In
frequency domain very narrow filter causes very wide filter in spatial domain this is the main source of the ringing)
Butterworth lowpass filter is suitable for tight control but it can cause ringing effect as the order increases. Gaussian has no ringing effect but it gives less tight control
over the frequency transition.
„        
Hhp(u,v)=1-Hlp(u,v)
Ideal high pass filters are not suitable because of the ringing effect same as ideal DPF.Butterworth High pass filters behave smoother than Ideal high pass filters. All
properties are the same as lowpass filters.
„     
Daplacian in frequency domain is implemented by using the filter H(u,v)= -((u-M/2)2+(v-N/2) 2). In frequency domain we substract F(u,v)*H(u,v) from F(u,v) to obtain
laplacian filtered image as in case of spatial domain. High boost and unsharp masking filterings a re the same as in case of spatial domain.
„     
Sometimes it is advantageous to accentuate the contribution to enhancement made by high -frequency components of an image. In this case H hfe=a+bHbp(u,v) can be
used. Here the offset a is used for not eliminating low frequency components of image.
„      
It splits image into two components illumination and reflectance and applies filtering seperately. It can give the same resul ts as high frequency emphasis filter.
„        
Translation: f(x,y)*e j2ʌ(u0x/M+v0y/N) L F(u-u0,v-v0)
Œistributy and Scaling: F(f 1(x,y)+f2 (x,y)) = F(f 1(x,y)) + F(f 2(x,y)) a*f(x,y) La*F(x,y) f(ax,by)=(1/|ab|)*F(u/a,v/b)
Rotation: If we rotate f(x,y) by an angle c , we rotate F(u,v) with the same angle.
Periodicity and conjugate symmetry: F(u,v)=F(u+M,v)=F(u,v+N)=F(u+M,v+N) and F(u,v)=F*( -u,-v) |F(u,v)|=|F(-u,-v)|
Seperability: We can take 1Πtransform of rows and then coloumns.
*Inverse fourier transform can be calculated using forward transform. We simply put the F*(u) into forward transform then multiply the resulti ng transform by M and
taking conjugate again.
„        ^
Œiscrete fourier transform automatically takes input functions as periodic.In other words, using the ŒFT allows us to perform convolution in the frequency domain,
but the functions are treated as periodic with a period equal to the length of the functions.
For this reason with considering convolu tion theorem , we have to add zero to fourier transform of the images (image and filter) to M+N -1 then we apply required
filtering operation and taking inverse fourier transform gives us a M+N -1 x M+N-1 image we simply crop the image from the resulting big image. We have to do this
there is no escape even if the both are the same size , we have to add zeros to M+N -1.
„  
Correlation is similar to convolution except the second function is not mirrored about the origin and we put the complex conj ugate of the first function as follows:
ଵ
f(x,y) ƕ h(x,y) = σெିଵ σேିଵ ݂ ‫ כ‬ሺ݉ǡ ݊ሻ݄ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݉ǡ ‫ ݕ‬൅ ݊ሻ L F*(u,v)H(u,v)
ெே ௠ୀ଴ ௡ୀ଴
Cross correlation: If images being correlated is different. Autocorrelation: If the correlated images are identical.
Correlation is used to match given image and template.
„     
Computing 1-Πfourier transform of M points requires M 2 additions and multiplications. FFT requires only Mlog 2 M operations. In FFT we split F(u) by F even(u) and
Fodd(u) then combining them to complete transform.

  
Restoration attempts to reconstruct or recover an image that has been degraded by using a priori knowledge of the degradation phenomenon.Thus restoration
techniques are oriented toward modeling the degradation and applying the inverse process in order to recover the orginal image.By contrast enhancement techniques
basically are heuristic procedures designed to manipulate an image in order to take advantage of the psychophysical aspects o f the human visual system.
When the Fourier spectrum of noise is constant, the noise usually called white noise.Since while light contains all frequenci es in visible spectrum. Gaussian noise
arises due to electronic circuit noise and sensor noise. Rayleigh noise is useful for charac terizing noise phenomena in range imaging. The exponential and gamma
densities find application in laser imaging. Impulse noise is found in situations where quick transients, such as faulty swit ching, take place during imaging.
Periodic noise in an image arises typically from the electrical interference during image acquisition.It is spatially dependent noise.
!"!#       
The parameters of     typically are estimated by inspection of the Fourier spectrum of the image. Periodic noise tends to produce frequency spikes that
often can be detected even by visual analysis. Other kinds of noises can be estimated from small patches of reasonably consta nt gray level of the image. After taking
this small patches , histogram can tell u s what kind of noise it is and we can find the noise parameters from the histogram.
!$!%        &    
Spatial filtering is the method of choice in situations when only additive noise is present.
!$!"'     It achieves smoothing comparable to arithmetic mean filter but it tends to lose less image detail.
!$!$      Harmonic mean filter works well for salt noise, but fails for pepper noise. It does well with another noise like Gaus sian noise.
!$!(        This filter is well suited for reducing salt and pepper noise. For positive values of Q it eliminates pepper noise and for negative
values of Q it eliminates salt noise.It can not do simultaneously!
In general, the arithmetic and geometric mean filters are well suited for random noise like Gaussian or uniform noise. The contraharmonic filter is well suited for
impulse noise, but it has the disadvantage that it must be known whether noise is pepper or salt.
!(!)  &     
!(!"   : They are particularly effective in the presence of both bipolar and unipolar impulse noise.
!(!$*    Max filter is useful for pepper noise , min filter is useful for salt noise.
!(!(    : This filter works best for randomly distributed noise, like Gaussian or uniform noise.
!(!
+&    This filter is useful in situations involving multiple types of noise, such as salt and pepper + Gaussian.
!
!+ ,  
Adaptive filters  changes its behaviour based on statistical characteristics of the image inside the filter region. They are superior to Order -statistics and Mean filters.
!
!" + ,-        The mean gives a measure of average gr ay level in the region , variance gives a measure of average contrast in that
region. If the noise variance and subimage¶s variance is equal , the filter averages this subimage of overall image.The other cases p ixels remains constant.
!
!$+ ,   It contains algorithm instead of formula which can change subimage size S xy, it is superior for reducing impulse noise.
!    % .      
! !"/ 0   It is useful for reducing noise component of the image if the noise is periodic and noise component is known in frequency domain.
! !$/   It is not directly applicable to image  since it removes too much details instead of this , it is used for obtaining noise pattern of the image.
! !(    A notch filter rejects (or passes) frequencies in predefined neighborhoods about a center frequency.
! !
)     When several interference components are present, optimum notch filter is suitable and unavoidable method.
!1#  2    
There are three principal ways to estimate the degradation function for use in image restoration: observation,experimentation , mathematical modeling.
!1!" #   . 3 ). ,  In this method we take subima ge and we try to reconstruct orginal subimage(f(x,y)) from the degraded subimage
taken(g(f,x)). Then we use H s(u,v)= Gs(u,v)/ ‫ܨ‬෠ s(u,v) and we spread our H s (u,v) to the larger scale.
!1!$#  .#*   In this method we obtain the impulse response of the degradation by imaging an impulse(small dot of light) using the same
system settings for acquiring image.
!1!(#  .   In some cases degradation function can be estimated by mathematical models such as atmospheric turbulanc e or motion blurring.
ீሺ௨ǡ௩ሻ ேሺ௨ǡ௩ሻ
!4 3,     ‫ܨ‬෠ ሺ‫ݑ‬ǡ ‫ݒ‬ሻ ൌ ൌ ‫ܨ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ǡ ‫ݒ‬ሻ ൅   ! `ven if we know the degradation function we can not recover the undegraded image exactly because
ுሺ௨ǡ௩ሻ ுሺ௨ǡ௩ሻ
N(u,v) is random function whose Fourier transform is not known and If the degradation has zero or very small values, then the ratio N(u,v)/H(u,v) could easily
dominate the estimate.If we limit the analysis to frequencies near the origin , we reduce the probability of encountering zer o values.Whatever , it is the very poor
method.
!5       # G6  
    This method removes the probable dominating results as in case of inverse filtering. But it requires the
power spectra of the undegraded image and noise. This is seldom known and for this rea son this ratio is approximated by a constant K.
!7       : This is the powerful filter than inverse and wiener. This method requires only the mean and variance of the noise that can
be calculated from degraded image itself.
!"8'     This isthe generalization of the Wiener filter. If alpha = 1 filter reduces to inverse filter and if alpha =0 filter reduces to wien er filter.
!"" '       Geometric transformations modify the spatial relationsh ips between the pixels in an image.It consist of rwo operations: (1) a
spatial transformation which defines the rearrangement of the pixels on the image plane and (2) gray -level interpolation , which deals with the assignment of gray
levels to pixels in t he spatially tranformed image. If transformation functions are known , the image is recovered without error.
Gray level interpolation techniques: Nearest neighbor approach is called zero -order interpolation. But it can cause distortion of straight edges in images of high
resolution. Cubic interpolation is used for escaping this problem via using a much larger number of neighbors. Bilinear inte rpolation approach is generally used in
image processsing which uses 4 neares neighbors gray level values.

 1
*Chromatic light has three component : Radiance is the total amount of energy that flows from the light source(W) , Duminance; measured in lumens gives amount of
energy an observer perceives from light source, Brightness; embodies the achromatic notion of intensity and is one of the key factors in decribing color sensation.
*Primary colors: red blue green Secondary colors: magenta(red+blue) , cyan(green + blue) , yellow(red+green).
Characteristics used to distinguish one color from another are brightness,hue and saturation. Brightness embodies intensity , Hue is an attribute of dominant color
perceived by an observer. Saturation refers to the relative purety or the amount of white light mixed with hue.       ,     
    9   &! Hue and saturation taken together are called chromaticity and therefore color may be characterized by its brightness and
chromaticity
„%'/  .     .     3    , !
*Pseudo color processing is used on gray scale images because perception of color is more than gray. There are two methods of pseudo color processing : Intensity
slicing and Gray levelt to color transformations which uses different bands such a s infrared ultraviolet and use intensity slicing.
„    The hues are directl opposite one another on the color circle. They similar to gray scale negatives. Color complements are us eful for enhancing
detail that is embedded in dark regions of a color image.
„      Histogram processing is done in HSI color space. Just histogram equalizing the intensity component of the image enough.
„       is suitable in HSI color space just smoothing the intensity component acco mplish this task.But it can be done in rgb space too taking
average of R G B components independently.
„       It is suibtable in HSI space. But just sharpening intensity component. But it can be done in rgb space by taking laplace of R G B
components independently.
„    Is a process that partitions an image into regions. 3  . %'/.    *3! In HSI space first saturation
component of the image is thresholded. Then thresholded saturat ion component is multiplied by hue component of the image. Finally the result is thresholded again to
complete segmentation process. In RGB space, covariance matrix calculated. Then using ecludian distance formula etc...
„  #2  RGB space is used generally. Taking individual image components (R,G,B)¶s gradient and combining them can be used for detecting edges.
But it sometimes gives errornous result so another formula is used for calculating gradient.
      R,G,B components individually used for noise reduction. HSI spreads the noise over the all components so it is generally used RGB space.
Median filtering and these kind of operations needs special treatement and not suitable for RGB space.s

 4
„ Wavelet transforms are based on small waves called wavelets on the other hand fourier transform based on sinusoids.
„ Multiresolution theory concerned with the representation and analysis of signals at more than one resolution and this approac h based on the fact that some fea tures
might be undetected at one resolution.If both small and large objects ± or low and high contrast objects ± are presented simultaneously, it can be advantegous to study
them at several resolutions. This is fundemantal of multiresolution processing.
„3   They are used to represent images at more than one resolution. In this scheme the image is first approximation filtered (without a pproximation
filter, downsampling causes aliasing effects) , then the image is subsampled to construct approximation pyramids. To construct the prediction residual pyramids ,
subsampled image is first upsampled and interpolate filtered(without interpolation filter , blocking effects will be more vis ible) and finally this upsampled image
substracted from the level j approximation ima ge. Devel j prediction residuals used to reconstruct image from lower resolutions to orginal resolution.
*..   In this technique image is decomposed into a set of band limited components called subband which can be reassembled to recons truct the orginal
image without error. Since the bandwidth of the resulting subbands is smaller than that of the orginal image subbands can be downsampled without loss of
information. Analysis and synthesis filters are cross -modulated that is , diagonally opposed f ilters in the block diagram. The one -dimensional filters can be used as
two dimensional seperable filters for the processing of images. Seperable filters are first applied in one dimension(e.g vert ically) than in the other(e.g horizontally).
Finally the re sult of filter outputs contains approximation of image at smaller resolution, vertical detail , horizontal detail and diagona l detail.
„    It is importance stems from the fact that its basis functions are the oldest and simplest known orth onormal wavelets.The transform itself is
both seperable and symmetric and can be expressed in matrix form: :where F is NxN image matrix H is haar transformation matrix. Unlike pyramid structure
haar transformed image contains the same number of pixel as the orginal image.(DD is approximated image,DH is vertical detal etc.) and can be seperated easily via
cropping.
࢐
4!$!" #*  ]ሺ࢞ሻ ൌ σ࢑ ࢻ࢑ ࣐࢑ ሺ࢞ሻ-4!$!$!   ࣐࢑ǡ࢐ ൌ ૛૛ ࣐ሺ૛࢐ ࢞ െ ࢑ሻ- increasing j increases the size of V j allowing functions with smaller
variations or finer detail to be included in the subspace.If f(x) is an element of V 0 it also and element of V 1.Because ࣐࢐ǡ࢑ ሺ࢞ሻ ൌ  σ࢔ ࢻ࢔ ࣐ࡶା૚ǡ࢔ ሺ࢞ሻ
૚
ൌ  σ࢔ ࢎ࣐ ሺ࢔ሻ૛࢐ା૛ ࣐ሺ૛࢐ା૚࢞ െ ࢔ሻ where ˆ௡ ݅‫݄݄ݐ݅ݓ݈݀݁ܿܽ݌݁ݎݏ‬ఝ ሺ݊ሻ and called scaling function coefficents.Scaling functions must obey the four MRA requirements.
࢐
4!$!( 6,   : The difference between two adjacent scaling subspaces is expressed wavelet functions. œ ࢐ǡ࢑ ሺ࢞ሻ ൌ ૛૛ œሺ૛࢐ ࢞ െ ࢑ሻ. Scaling functions and
wavelet functions are orthagonal to eachother. œሺ࢞ሻ ൌ σ࢔ ࢎœሺ࢔ሻξ૛࣐ሺ૛࢞ െ ࢔ሻ this formula shows the relationship between wavelet function and scaling function.
There is also a relationship between the scaling function coefficents and wav elet function coefficents. ࢎœሺ࢔ሻ ൌ ሺെ૚ሻ ࢔ ࢎ࣐ ሺ૚ െ ࢔ሻ.
4!(!" 6,   *   )     G*
:σ࢑ ࢉ࢐૙ ሺ࢑ሻ࣐࢐૙ǡ࢑ሻ ሺ࢞ሻ ൅  σஶ ࢐ୀ࢐૙ ࢊ࢐ ሺ࢑ሻ࣒࢐ǡ࢑ ሺ࢞ሻ where j 0 is an arbitrary starting scale , c j0(k) is called the
approximation coefficents or scaling coefficents and d j(k) is called detail coefficents or wavelet coefficents both of them are related with Į k. They are calculated as 
ࢉ࢐૙ሺ࢑ሻ ൌ  ‫] ׬‬ሺ࢞ሻ࣐࢐૙ǡ࢑ ሺ࢞ሻࢊ࢞ࢊ࢐ሺ࢑ሻ ൌ  ‫] ׬‬ሺ࢞ሻ࣒ ࢐ǡ࢑ ሺ࢞ሻࢊ࢞!
4!(!$2  6,   If the function being expanded with wavelet series expansion is a sequence of numbers like samples of continous function
૚ ૚
f(x), the resulting coefficents are called the discrete wavelet transform of f(x) and calculated as; k࣐ ሺ࢐૙ ǡ ࢑ሻ ൌ σ࢞ ]ሺ࢞ሻ࣐࢐૙ǡ࢑ሺ࢞ሻk࣒ሺ࢐ǡ࢑ሻ ൌ σ࢞ ]ሺ࢞ሻ࣒ ࢐ǡ࢑ሺ࢞ሻ!
ξࡹ ξࡹ
૚
Inverse discrete wavelet transform is calculated as: ]ሺ࢞ሻ ൌ σ k࣐ ሺ࢐૙ ǡ ࢑ሻ࣐࢐૙ǡ࢑ሻ ሺ࢞ሻ ൅  σஶ
࢐ୀ࢐૙ σ࢑ k࣒ ሺ࢐ǡ ࢑ሻ࣒ ࢐ǡ࢑ ሺ࢞ሻ . Where M=2 , x=0,1,2...M-1, j=0.1,2,....J -1 ,
J
ξࡹ ࢑
j
k=0,1,2,....2 -1.
ŽŽ  ,    .   !ŽŽ! 

4!
  6,     It is implementation of the discrete wavelet transform (ŒWT) that exploits a surprising but fortunate relatinship between the
coefficents of the ŒWT at adjacent scales. 
2  .99,        FWT needs less computational complexity O(M) for FWT to O(MlogM) for FFT. FFT
uses sinusoidal basis functions that guarantee the existance of the FFT , on the other hand existance of FWT depends on scaling function for wavelets being used , as
well as the orthagonality of the scaling function and corresponding wavelets.Finally FFT gives only frequency information but FWT gives both time and frequency
information.

4! 6,   9 2   In two dimensions , a two dimensional scaling function , ™ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ and 3 two dimensional wavelets ߰ ு ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ , ߰ ௏ ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ
and ߰ ஽ ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ are required. And they are formulized as follows: ™ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ ൌ ™ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ‫™ כ‬ሺ‫ݕ‬ሻ, ߰ ு ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ ൌ ߰ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ™ሺ‫ݕ‬ሻ , ߰ ௏ ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ ൌ ߰ሺ‫ݕ‬ሻ™ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ , ߰ ஽ ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ ൌ ߰ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ߰ሺ‫ݕ‬ሻ.
࢐ ೕ
࣐࢐ǡ࢓ǡ࢔ ሺ࢞ǡ ࢟ሻ ൌ ૛૛ ࣐ሺ૛࢐ ࢞ െ ࢓ǡ ૛࢐ ࢟ െ ࢔ሻ! ߰ ௜௝ ǡ௠ǡ௡ ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ ൌ ʹమ ߰ሺʹ ௝ ‫ ݔ‬െ ݉ǡ ʹ ௝ ‫ ݕ‬െ ݊ሻ where i={H,Œ,V}. The resulting two dimensional ŒWT transform is ;
૚ ૚
k࣐ ሺ࢐૙ ǡ ࢓ǡ ࢔ሻ ൌ σࡹି૚ σࡺି૚ ]ሺ࢞ǡ ࢟ሻ࣐࢐૙ǡ࢓ǡǡ࢔ ሺ࢞ǡ ࢟ሻ ൅ σࡹି૚ σࡺି૚ ]ሺ࢞ǡ ࢟ሻ࣒ ࢏ ࢐ǡ࢓ǡǡ࢔ ሺ࢞ǡ ࢟ሻwhere i={H,Œ,V}.
ξࡹࡺ ࢞ୀ૙ ࢟ୀ૙ ξࡹࡺ ࢞ୀ૙ ࢟ୀ૙

4!1 6,; Result of FWT , Dow frequencies are grouped into narrow bands, while high frequencies are grouped into wider bands. If we want greater
control over the partitioning of the time -frequency plane(e.g smaller bands at the higher frequencies) , the FWT must be generalized to yield a more flexible
decomposition called a wavelet packet. The cost of this generalization is an in crease in computational complexity from O(M) for the FWT to O(MlogM).

Image Compresion
Œata Compression : Reducing the amount of data required to represent a given quantity of information. Œata: Way of conveying information. One can define the same
information in various ways, i.e. amount of data. Therefore, this amount is comparable and reducable tosome extent.
In digital image compression, three basic data redundancies can be defined and exploited:
coding redundancy :    Histogram of an ima ge can provide means to construct codes to reduce the amount of data to represent it.
Œaha sık gerçekleşenlere daha kısa kod., daha az gerçekleşenlere daha uzun kod veriyoruz bu sayede avarage bit uzunluğu azalm ış oluyor ve yaklaşık %10 gibi
kazanç elda ediyoruz. Ayrıca kodlar uniqly decodable şekildedir yani soldan sağa doğru okunduğunda hiçbir zaman karışmazlar.
interpixel redundancy: <6   Information carried by individual pixels is relatively smaller than the one for group of pixels.Thus, th e value of a given pixel
can be predicted from the values of its neighbours. This redundancy can be used in the form of diferences between adjacent pi xels to represent an image. Bu
kodlamayı birbiri ardına gelen pixellere bakarak yapıoruz.
psychovisual redundancy: This kind of redundancy is based on the fact that human eye does not respond with equal sensitivity to all visual information .Certain
information has less importance than other information in normal visual processing, so can be eliminated. Quantization works in a similar way as human eye in
eliminating
psychovisual redundancy.By its nature, removal of redundancy is not recoverable. On the other hand, quantization brings the p roblem of false contouring in case of
high levels of compression. S olve this problem, improved gray scale (IGS) quantization is proposed. It brings a randomness from the neighbouring pixel v alues
before quantization.
Image Compression Model: Source encoder: Removes input redundancies. Channel encoder: Increases noise im munity of the output of source encoder.
The Source `ncoder and Œecoder : Source encoder eliminates coding, interpixel and psychovisual redundancies in a blockwise operation:
Mapper transforms the input data into a form that is suitable for reducing interpi xel redundancies. It is a reversible operation. Run-length coding is an example to
mapper.
Quantizer stage eliminates psychovisual redundancies within the data. As diferent from the mapper, it is not reversible. Resulting comp ression would be lossy.
Symbol encoder generates fixed or variable length codes to represent the output of the quantizer.
Channel `ncoder and Œecoder: The channel encoder introduces a controlled amount of redundancy into the output of source encoder to make it robust agains t the
channel noise.Without channel coding, the output of source encoder would be prone to the noise.
`lements of Information Theory: A random event ` that occurs with a probability of P(`) contains I (`) = log 1/P(`) = -log P(`) units of information.
`x: If P(`) = 1, I (`) = 0 and no information is attributed to it. When the base of log is 2, then the unit of information is bits.
entropy :average information per source output becomes H(z) = -™j=1j P(aj )logP(aj ).`ntropy defines the amount of information obtaine d by observing a single
source output.`ntropy gets its maximum when all source symbols are equiprobable. `ntropy kanynağın bize verdiği bilgi miktarıdır.Hehangi bir kaynak için entropy
bütün olasıklar eşit olduğunda maximum olur. Minimum kaynak codlamasın ı entropy e kadar indirebiliriz. Codelamayı entropyden az yaparsak rate distortion
meydana gelir. Bazı bilgiler kaybolur.
Channel Capacity:In other words, the capacity is the maximum amount of information in bits that can be transmitted reliably through this chann el. Capacity of a
channel does not depend on the input probabilities of the source but is a function of the conditional probabiliti es defening the channel.`x: Consider a binary source
with the alphabet A = (0, 1)Det's assume that probabilites that the source will produce these symbols are P(0) = p and P(1) = 1 -P(0) = 1 - p
Therefore, entropy of the source is H(z) = -p log p - (1 - p) log(1 - p) Indeed, H(z) attain its maximum at p = 0:5 and it is equal to 1bit.
`rror-free Compression: Variable Dength Coding Huffman Coding : is the most popular technique for removing coding redundancy. Huffman coding gives the
smallest number of code s ymbols per source symbol. The first step in Huffman coding is to perform source reduction by ordering the probabilities of sy mbols and
combining the probabilities of the lowest probability symbols into a single symbol that replaces them in the next source reduction. The average length of this code is,
Davg = 2:2 bits/symbol whereas the entropy of the source is 2:14 bits/symbol. Thus, there is a coding effciency of 0:973. Huffman coding yields the optimal code
subject to the constraint that the symbols are c oded one at a time.
The code is instantaneous, uniquely decodable, block code . Instantaneous codes can be decoded without referencing succeeding symbols. Uniquely decodable codes
can be decoded in only one way, i.e.from left to right. block codes map each source symbol into a fixed sequence of code symb ols.
Dempel-Ziv-Welch (DZW) coding This coding is integrated to GIF, TIFF, and PŒF formats. Before the coding process, a codebook for the source symbols is
constructed. As an example, for 8 -bit monochrome images, gray levels from 0 to 255 are assigned the first 256 code words from th e codebook. When the coding
starts, image pixels are sequentially considered and additional code words are attributed to sequences of pixels. Resimde ark a arkaya gelen değerlere 256 dan
başlayarak yeni değerler veriyoruz. Bu sayada avarage bit uzunluğu aza ltmış oluyoruz. Kısaca 24 bit yerine 9 -bitle ifade edebiliyoruz. Although this would require an
increase in the number of code words required to represent the source, the overall efficiency is 9 bits instead of 24 bits to represent 39 -39 - 126.Unique property of
DZW coding is that code book is created while the data are being encoded.
Dossy Compression: Compared to error-free compression, they include a quantizer block. At the price of a distortion, they allow a further reduction in the
compression ratio.
Dossy compression methods can be classiffied into 1-spatial domain methods,2 transform domain methods.(Mutlaka Quantization var bu yüzden geri dönüş yok ama
`rror free lerde phsycovisiul(quantization kullanılır) hariç geri dönüş var.)
Among transform domain methods, one can give compression in 1 Œiscrete Fourier Transform (ŒFT),2 Œiscrete Wavelet Transform (ŒWT),3 Œiscrete Cosine
Transform (ŒCT)
Among these transforms, ŒCT has the highest information packing capability. Although Karhunen -Doeve Transform (KDT) has a higher information packing
capability than ŒCT, since it is data dependent, it is not possible to generalize it. Most transform domain methods are based on ŒCT. In image compression, images
are subdivided into subimages so that the correlation i n between is decreased to some extent. ( bu üç tanesinin basis fonksiyonları resimden bağımsız ) ŒCT de kendi
içinde orthonalmal bunun avantajıda belli yerlerdeki detayların fazla olması. Ayrıca ŒCT de daha fazla detayı daha küçük pixe llerde toplayabiliyor uz. ŒCT de hangi
katsayıları seçeceğimiz çok önemli. ŒCT resmi parçalara ayırıyor(subblock) ve her parçada ŒCT alıyor.Bu yüzden düşük frekans bileşenleri sol üst köşede yüksek
frekans bileşenleride sağ alt köşede oluyor. KDT de ise basis fonksiyon resme b ağlı. Ve daha az detayı daha çok bilgide gösteriyor. Selection of coefficients that are
to be retained can be based on maximum variance, or zonal coding, maximum magnitude, or threshold coding In zonal coding, transform coefficients with maximum
variance are kept since they contain most image information. Usually, the result of threshold coding contains less error than zonal co ding. Compared to zonal coding,
the locations of maximum coefficients vary from one subimage to another in threshold coding
Œr If one would perform the compression in ŒWT, most of the steps are the same.The main difference is that subimages are not required in compression at ŒWT
since its basis functions are time limited. Thus, compression in ŒWT is robust to blocking artifacts that one may encounter with during compression in ŒCT at high
compression ratios.(waveletlerde kullanılır.)
Selection of the appropriate wavelet function is important since it impacts 1- Its properties of decorrelating coefficients and packing information to sm all number of
coefficients, 2-Computational complexity of the transformation, 3 - Amount of distortion after compression. If wavelet function has an accompanying scaling function,
then, it can be implemented with Fast Wavelet Transform.In fact, when computational complexity increases, the information packing capability increases as well.