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Abstract
Circulating fluidized bed gasifiers used in integrated gasification and combined cycle (IGCC) possess unique design and operational
features: high gas velocity, high solid loading, and a large amount of circulating chars. As a consequence, their performance is noticeably
different from the conventional fluidized bed gasifier operating at lower gas velocity. At the same time, limited information has been
published to show how to operate the circulating fluidized bed from the kinetic point of view.
In order to study these aspects, kinetic models are developed using kinetic data from previous literature and two concepts of operating the
circulating fluidized bed gasifier from the kinetic point of view are presented in this paper. The results of the kinetic analysis using Johnson’s
kinetic data of a constant specific gasification rate of char (0.001 1/s) show that all species approach their equilibrium values after travelling a
distance of 2.5 m, which is set as the height of the gasifier. The resident time of the char in the bed is 0.86 s and the required circulation rate of
char and lime are 11.8 and 4.5 kg/s, respectively. In addition to Johnson’s kinetic data, Wen’s kinetic model is also applied in the kinetic
analysis. It shows a way to operate the gasifier in the fast fluidization regime with a superficial velocity between 3.6 and 4.9 m/s and a solid
loading between 50 and 100 kg/m3, these operating conditions are recommended by industrial experience. It points out the necessity to
predict the performance of the gasifier from the kinetic point of view in order to design the optimal geometry and operating methods that will
allow the gasifier to play a successful role in the clean coal technology system such as IGCC, high-performance power system (HIPPS), etc.
D 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Circulating fluidized bed; Gasifier; Kinetic model; Solid loading; Circulating chars
1. Introduction solving the transport and storage problem of coal and for
aiming at displacing fuel oil completely, heavily loaded
The world has large coal reserves; in the US, in partic- coal –water slurries (f 70% coal by weight) treated with
ular, they constitute 90% of all known fossil energy resour- additives (f 1% by weight) have been developed. Several
ces in that country. Although natural gas-fired combined demonstration projects have already proven the feasibility of
cycles currently predominate the power generation market, such coal utilization schemes [2]. To cope with the pollution
and interest is increasing in renewable energy sources, coal problems caused by coal combustion, development pro-
will likely maintain its share of the power generation market grams for ‘‘clean coal technologies’’ have been adopted
simply because it has the largest reserves and no alternative worldwide [3]—such as the integrated gasification and
is foreseen to replace it in the foreseeable future [1]. combined cycle (IGCC), the pressurized fluidized bed com-
However, coal usage has been hampered by pollution bustor (PFBC) combined cycle, ‘‘British Coal topping
caused by its transport, storage, and combustion. Partly for cycle’’ in the U.K. [4], the low emission boiler system
(LEBS) and the high-performance power system (HIPPS)
by the U.S. Department of Energy [5], etc. One of the most
* Corresponding author. Department and Graduate Institute of Bio-
Industrial Mechatronics Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei,
important chemical processes in the clean coal technologies
Taiwan, ROC. Tel./fax: +886-2-23693159. is coal gasification converting solid coal into gaseous fuel
E-mail address: chwu@ccms.ntu.edu.tw (C.-H. Wu). used to power turbine and subsequently to power generator.
0032-5910/03/$ - see front matter D 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0032-5910(03)00060-3
168 H. Tsui, C.-H. Wu / Powder Technology 132 (2003) 167–183
An advanced gasifier is required in IGCC to accomplish such forced to move towards the wall by centrifugal force and are
work. Conventional gasifiers that operate in either a bubbling collected for recycling, whereas small solid particles are
or entrained mode are not suitable choices because they do carried over by the flue gas. Another advantage of tangential
not provide efficient solid – gas mixing. A novel gasifier injection is that the injected air stays close to the cylinder wall
consisting of a circulating fluidized bed and a cyclone and most of the oxygen in the air can be expected to react with
combustor, shown schematically in Fig. 1, as developed by the char instead of the flue gas that is relative far from the
Foster Wheeler [6], is one of the most promising choices cylinder wall. The energy released in the cyclone combustor
because it provides good contact efficiency between gas and will be carried by the circulating solids to the circulating
solids and reduces the size of gasifier. fluidized bed to provide the required heat for the endothermic
The air enters the circulating bed at velocities high enough chemical reactions of coal gasification.
for the fluidized bed to operate in the ‘‘fast’’ or ‘‘circulating’’ A three-level approach, which involves thermodynamic,
regime. At these velocities, solid entrainment increases sig- kinetic, and hydrodynamic models, was used to analyze the
nificantly, and circulation of solids becomes necessary to operation of the gasifier shown in Fig. 1 [7]. This paper only
preserve a constant solid inventory in the bed. Thus, a cyclone presents the kinetic analysis. The feed rates of materials, the
is introduced to collect solids from the flue gas and recycle generation rate of product gas, and the circulation rate of char
them into the circulating fluidized bed. The cyclone is also used in the kinetic analysis come from the thermodynamic
used as a combustor to supply energy for the endothermic analysis by balancing the mass and energy of the gasifier at
gasification reactions. Therefore, the cyclone is referred to as equilibrium. The kinetic analysis will predict how the
a cyclone combustor. When the flue gas enters the cyclone chemical reactions approach equilibrium in the gas and
combustor tangentially, large solid particles in the flue gas are provides an estimate for the required circulating rate of char.
Fig. 1. Sketch of a novel gasifier consisting of a circulating fluidized bed and a cyclone combustor.
H. Tsui, C.-H. Wu / Powder Technology 132 (2003) 167–183 169
Coal water slurry fuel is used to show its feasibility in this Table 1
Reaction mechanisms and rate expressions of char – steam reaction (source:
coal utilization scheme. Gasification of coal water slurry fuel
Lowry [15])
consists of three steps: evaporation, devolatilization, and the
Source Reaction Rate expression
following char gasification. As the rate of evaporation and
mechanism
devolatiliaztion are fast compared to gasification, the gas-
ification rate of char is considered as the factor that domi- Walker Cf þ H2 OðgÞ K!
1
K1 ðH2 OÞ
et al. K2 Rate ¼
nates the gasification time of coal water slurry fuel in this H2 ðgÞ þ CðOÞ 1 þ K 1 ðH2 OÞ þ K 2 ðH2 Þ
K3 K3
kinetic analysis [8]. CðOÞ K!
3
COðgÞ
K1 ðH2 OÞ þ Kd ðCO2 Þ
Ergun and Cf þ H2 OðgÞ K!
1
Rate¼
K2 K1 K2 K5
Menster 1þ ðH2 OÞþ ðH2 Þþ ðCOÞ
2. Problem formulation K3 K3 K4
H2 ðgÞ þ CðOÞ
K3
2.1. Kinetics of coal gasification CðOÞ ! COðgÞ
CðOÞ þ CO K!
4
Numerous experiments have been performed to study the K5
In the next section, the concentration of H2O, H2, CO and velocity are mainly due to the chemical reaction between
CO2 in Eq. (15) are related to X, Y, and Z in the small- char and steam.
compartment scheme. Thus, (Eqs. (11), (12) and (15) are the
governing equations, which can be solved for X, Y, and Z
Wc ¼ Wc0 þ Nc Dt ð17Þ
when Nc is known and a small-compartment scheme is used
in the next section.
0
WCO ¼ WCO þY ð18Þ
k1 ½CO ½CðoÞ
K1 ¼ ¼ ð13Þ
k1V ½CO2 ½Cf
WH2 ¼ WH0 2 þ Z ð19Þ
k2 ½H2 ½CðoÞ
K2 ¼ ¼ ð14Þ
k2V ½H2 O ½Cf WH2 O ¼ WH0 2 O Z ð20Þ
K2 ½CO2 ½H2 0
WCO2 ¼ WCO þX ð21Þ
K¼ ¼ ð15Þ 2
K1 ½CO ½H2 O
0
CO þ H2 O ¼ CO2 þ H2 : ð16Þ WCaO ¼ WCaO þ NH2 S Dt ð22Þ
The solution of Eq. (27) is written as Eq. (28) 2.5. Circulation rate and shrinkage of chars
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b þ b2 4ac The circulation rate of char is calculated in the following
X ¼ : ð28Þ two steps. First, the cut-off diameter of the cyclone com-
2a
bustor is calculated according to the cyclone geometry and
the Rankine vortex flow condition [21]. Second, the tran-
Substituting the value of X into Eqs. (15) and (16), the
sient mass equations of char particles are developed. A trial
values of Z and Y are obtained._ _ and error method is applied to solve these equations by
The rates of gasification N c and desulfurization N H2S are
varying the initial diameter of char particle and the number
determined from experiments conducted by Wen [9], John-
of circulation of char particle in the gasifier until the
son [10], and Pell et al. [18]. Thus, two sets of kinetic data
diameter of char particle shrinks to the cut-off diameter
were used to indicate the influence of the rate of gasification
and the circulation rate of char is accumulated to the
on the performance of the circulating fluidized bed gasifier:
required amount. In the analysis using Johnson’s kinetic
one set from Johnson [10] as described in Fig. 2 and the
data, the circulation rate of char reaches such amount that
other from Wen [9] as described in Eq. (29). Johnson’s [10]
the chemical reaction of char gasification reach equilibrium
experiments indicate that the rate of the char –steam reaction
at X1 = 2.5 m. In the analysis using Wen’s kinetic model, the
depends mainly upon temperature and steam pressure for a
circulation rate of char reaches such amount that the fluid-
specific kind of char. Fig. 2 contains specific gasification
ized bed has a superficial velocity between 3.6 and 4.9 m/s
rates for different chars in steam at 1 atm. It shows that the
(12 –16 ft/s) and a solid loading density between 50 and 100
gasification rate increases as the temperature increases.
kg/m3, which are recommended for the bed to operate in the
Wen’s [9] experiments indicate that the rate of char gas-
circulating region by industrial experience [22]. The follow-
ification also depends on the concentration of H2O, H2, and
ing assumptions were made in conducting the analysis.
CO. This is shown in his kinetic model, Eq. (29), which
includes the concentrations of these species. In the equation,
1. The char is a spherical solid particle with a constant
KC – H2O is the equilibrium constant of char stream reaction
density.
and Kv is the rate constant for the gasification of coal char in
2. The shrinkage of the char is mainly due to the chemical
the temperature range from 1273 to 1473 K.
reactions between the char and the gas species (steam and
oxygen), i.e. the effects of attrition and agglomeration on
CH2 CCO RT the size of the particles have been neglected.
Nc ¼ Kv CH2 O Wc : ð29Þ
KCH2 O 3. A Rankine vortex [23] is formed in the cyclone
combustor, which is a combination of a central forced
_ vortex and a peripheral vortex.
The rate of desulfurization N H2S is obtained from the
kinetic model of Pell et al. [18], as indicated by Eq. (30). 4. The cut-off diameter of the cyclone combustor can be
The rate constants K3 and equilibrium constant Ke are determined by considering the motion of the particle on a
obtained from experiments [19] of the reaction between imaginary cylindrical surface as described by Ogawa [23]
CaO and H2S from 700 to 1200 K and Barth and Trunz [24].
5. All particles larger than the cut-off diameter are separated
from the product gas and all particles smaller than the
¼ K3 WCaO CH2 S :
N ð30Þ cut-off diameter are carried out of the cyclone combustor
H2 S
1 þ Ke CH2 S by the product gas.
The kinetic model of desulfurization described by Eq. (30) 2.5.1. Calculation of cut-off diameter of the cyclone
does not consider the effect of the water concentration on combustor
the rate of desulfurization. The effect of water concentration The separation of the particles and the gas in the cyclone
on the rate of desulfurization is still not well understood. combustor is caused mainly by the centrifugal force
However, water concentration should restrict the extent of imposed on the solid particles. The equation of motion of
desulfurization from the thermochemical_point _ of view. a solid particle in the cyclone combustor in the radial
Substituting the values of X, Y, Z, N c, N H2S into Eqs. direction can be written as Eq. (31)
(17) – (23), the composition of the product gas can be
determined after a time interval Dt or a distance DX1 = UgDt. dUr 1
Mp ¼ Mp Uh2 FD : ð31Þ
The final composition of the product gas at X1 = 2.5 m is dt r
influenced_ by the circulation rate of the char because the
value of N C is related to the circulation rate of the char. The term on the left-hand side is the inertial force. The
Using a computer simulation, the required circulation rate of first term on the right-hand side is the centrifugal force,
the char for the gasification reactions to reach equilibrium at and the second term on the right-hand side is the drag
X1 = 2.5 m was determined. force that is caused by the gas flow in the negative radial
174 H. Tsui, C.-H. Wu / Powder Technology 132 (2003) 167–183
direction. If the centrifugal force is larger then the drag Thus, Eq. (34) can be written as Eq. (35)
force, the solid particle will be accelerated in the radial
direction and be forced to move towards the wall of the
qp
cyclone combustor. The drag force FD in Eq. (31) can be Vr2 ¼ d2 V 2 : ð35Þ
9l De p h2
written as Eq. (32).
q The velocity Vr2 in Eq. (35) can be obtained by assuming
FD ¼ Cd Ap ðUr Vr Þ2 : ð32Þ
2 that the inward radial velocity of gas is uniformly distributed
over the imaginary cylindrical surface. Thus,
_ Vr2 is obtained
The expression for the drag coefficient Cd depends on the by dividing the volume flow rate of gas Q by the area of the
type of flow. According to Ogawa [23], the drag coef- imaginary cylinder surface
ficient Cd in Stokes flow can be written as Eq. (33). The
flow is considered as Stokes flow when the Reynolds
Q
number based on the diameter of the particle Rep is less Vr2 ¼ : ð36Þ
pDe H
than 4
24 Substituting Eq. (36) into Eq. (35) results to Eq. (37), which
Cd ¼ : ð33Þ is the expression for the cut-off diameter
Rep
!1=2
Substituting Eqs. (32) and (33) into Eq. (31) results to Eq.
1 9Ql
(34), which is the equation of motion in the radial dpc ¼ : ð37Þ
Vh2 pqp H
direction in Stokes flow.
and H into Eq. (37), the relation between dpc and Vh2 is is calculated to be Vh = 6.13 m/s based on condition (4). Fig.
written as Eq. (38). 5 shows a sketch of Rankine vortex [25] of a combination of
a central force vortex and a peripheral free vortex. The
4 1
dpc ¼ 1:816 10 : ð38Þ relation between the tangential velocity Vu and the radius r
Vh2 is given in Eq. (39).
The value of Vh2 can be calculated under conditions (4) and Vh rh ¼ constant: ð39Þ
(5). From the thermodynamic analysis, 0.0435 kg/s of air
was required to be fed into the cyclone combustor. Thus, For the forced vortex, h equals 1 and for the free vortex h
tangential velocity of the air entering the cyclone combustor is found between 0.45 and 0.8 [25]. Based on condition (5),
176 H. Tsui, C.-H. Wu / Powder Technology 132 (2003) 167–183
Fig. 6. Mole ratio of gas species as a function of axial distance along the
gasifier.
Fig. 5. Sketch of the Rankine vortex [25].
As a result, the total mass consumption of a single
particle char in the ith circulation DWi (kg/s) can be written
the tangential velocity Vu2 can be calculated from Eq. (39) as Eq. (41).
with h = 0.5 as follows:
0:331 0:1
0:5 0:5 DWi ¼ 1þ þ DWgi ¼ 3:194 104 dp2i1 : ð41Þ
r 9 0:9 0:9
Vh2 ¼ Vh ¼ 6:13 ¼ 9:19 ðm=sÞ:
r2 4
A shrinking particle model is used to estimate the
shrinkage of the char particle after n circulations. The char
From Fig. 1, the values of r and r2 are obtained to be is assumed to have a constant density and to shrink
0.2285 m (9 in.) and 0.1015 m (4 in.), respectively. uniformly when it reacts with either steam or oxygen. The
Finally, the cut-off diameter of the cyclone combustor is diameter of the char dpn after n circulations can be written as
calculated to be 19.7 Am by substituting Vh2 = 9.19 m/s Eq. (42).
into Eq. (38).
! 13
2.5.2. Calculation of the char diameter dpn and circulation 6 X
n
dpn ¼ W0 DWi
rate of char Wn after n circulations pqp i¼1
The shrinkage of a single char in each circulation is due
! 13
to both gasification and combustion. From previous studies 6 p Xn
[26], it has been found that the rate of consumption of char ¼ qp dp30 3:194 104 dp2i1 ð42Þ
pqp 6 i¼1
is the product of its surface area and the rate coefficient Ks
(kg/s m2). The rate coefficient Ks (kg/s m2) for gasification
is estimated from Eq. (40) as follows: Under the assumption that the char particle has a constant
density qp and a uniform diameter dp0 when it enters the
cMp ¼ Ks As ð40Þ
gasifier, the_ number of char particles fed into the gasifier per
unit time N is obtained by dividing the feeding rate of char
by the mass of a single char particle
Wf Fc
N¼p : ð43Þ
dp30 qp
6
The circulation rate of char after n circulations can be
written as Eq. (44)
Wn ¼ N ðW0 þ ðW0 DW1 Þ þ ðW0 DW1 DW2 Þ
þ ðW0 DW1 DW2 DW3 Þ þ K þ ðW0 DW1
DW2 DW3 K DWn ÞÞ
!
Xn Fig. 9. Composition of product gas species as a function of axial distance
¼ N ðn þ 1ÞW0 ðn i þ 1ÞDWi along the gasifier.
i¼1
wf Fc
¼p ðn þ 1ÞW0 3:194 (44) by varying the initial diameter of char dp0 and the
dp30 qp number of circulation of char in the gasifier n until the
6 !
Xn system reaches steady or both Eqs. (45) and (46) are
4 2 satisfied.
10 ðn i þ 1Þdpi1 : ð44Þ
i¼1
Eqs. (42) and (44) are the transient mass equations of char
3. Results and discussion
particles circulating in the fluidized bed and cyclone com-
bustor. The system will reach steady state when the initial
3.1. Johnson’s kinetic data
diameter of char shrinks to become the cut-off diameter of
the cyclone combustor after n circulations
The results of the kinetic analysis using Johnson’s
dpn ¼ dpc ð45Þ kinetic data of a constant specific gasification rate (0.01
1/s) are presented in Figs. 6 – 11. The constant specific
and the circulating rate of chars becomes the amount gasification rate of 0.001 1/s was obtained from Fig. 2 at
required of operating the gasifier simultaneously 1150 K. In the kinetic analysis, the reactor temperature, the
thermal capacity of the gasifier, and the water concentra-
Ẇn ¼ Ẇre : ð46Þ tion of the CWSF, were fixed at 1150 K, 586 KW (2 106
Btu/h) and 30%, respectively. The kinetic models derived
As the system reaches steady state the particle size distri- in previous section were used to predict the required
bution and the circulating rate of char will not vary with circulation rates of char and lime for the chemical reac-
time. A trial-and-error method is used to solve Eqs. (42) and tions to reach equilibrium within the given height of the
Fig. 8. Mole ratio of gas species as a function of axial distance along the
gasifier. Fig. 10. Gas velocity as a function of axial distance along the gasifier.
178 H. Tsui, C.-H. Wu / Powder Technology 132 (2003) 167–183
Fig. 12. Operating concept of the gasifier with equilibrium feed rates at 1150 K using Johnson’s [10] kinetic data.
H. Tsui, C.-H. Wu / Powder Technology 132 (2003) 167–183 179
enon is caused by the different shift direction of water – gas (47) to shift to the left, which makes the generation rate of
shift reaction H2 to be smaller than that of CO. Figs. 10 and 11 show the
gas velocity and the solid loading density as a function of
CO þ H2 OVCO2 þ H2 : ð47Þ the axial distance, respectively. The gas velocity is
obtained by dividing the volume flow rate of gas by the
Initially, the chemical kinetic makes reaction (47) to shift
cross-sectional area of the gasifier and the solid loading
to the right, this will generate CO2 and make the slope of
density is the ratio of the circulation rate of the solids to
CO2 curve positive. However, beyond X1 = 0.55 m the
the volume flow rate of gas. These figures show that the
chemical kinetic makes reaction (47) to shift to the left,
gas velocity increases and the solid loading density
this will consume CO2 and make the slope of CO2 curve
decreases as the axial distance increases. This phenomenon
negative. The comparison of the slope of CO curve with
is caused by the increase in the volume flow rate of gas as
that of H2 curve in Fig. 9 also shows the same shift
the char gasification reaction
tendency. Initially, the slope of H2 curve is larger than that
gasif ication
of CO curve, but becomes smaller than that of CO curve CðsÞ þ H2 O
! CO þ H2 ð48Þ
when X1 is beyond 0.55 m. The larger curve slope
represents the larger generation rate of gaseous species proceeds along the axial distance. The char gasification
and vice versa. Thus, the chemical kinetic initially makes reaction consume 1 mol of H2O(g) but generates total two
reaction (47) to shift to the right, which makes the mol of CO and H2.
generation rate of H2 to be larger than that of CO, but All three operating parameters (reactor temperature,
beyond X1 = 0.55 m the chemical kinetic makes reaction thermal capacity, and water concentration in the CWSF)
Fig. 13. Operating concept of the gasifier with equilibrium feeding rates using Wen’s [9] kinetic model.
180 H. Tsui, C.-H. Wu / Powder Technology 132 (2003) 167–183
3.2. Wen’s kinetic model that the gasifier is required to operate at 1450 K with a
thermal capacity of 879 KW (3 106 Btu/h) and circulation
This section demonstrates how to obtain a superficial rates of char and lime of 15 and 4.5 kg/s, respectively, in
velocity between 3.6 and 4.9 m/s (12 – 16 ft/s) and a solid order to reach the specified range of gas velocity and solid
loading density between 50 and 100 kg/m3, which are loading density. The chemical reactions, however, do not
recommended by industrial experience [20]. In this analysis, reach equilibrium at a height of X1 = 2.5 m and only 88% of
Wen’s [9] kinetic model (Eq. (29)) was used to predict the the water is consumed. The emissions of H2S (0.15 lb of
gasification rate of the char in the gasifier. Wen’s kinetic SO2 per million Btu) based on the total conversion of H2S to
model (Eq. (29)) describes the gasification rate of char as a SO2 after combustion were found still to be below the
function of the reactor temperature and the concentration of allowed SO2 emission levels (1.2 lb per million Btu).
the species, steam, CO, and H2. A trial-and-error technique Fig. 13 shows the sketch of the gasifier with the feed
was used to determine the operating parameters and the rates of materials and the operating conditions that are
circulation rates of char and lime so that the superficial gas needed to reach the expected ranges of gas velocity and
velocity and solid loading density fell within the specified solid loading. The recycle ratio, the ratio of the circulation
range. In this method, the water concentration of the CWSF rate of lime to the feed rate of CWSF, is calculated to be
was fixed at 30%, but the other two operating parameters, 163. The equilibrium feed rates were calculated at 1450 K
the reactor temperature and the gasifier’s thermal capacity, for the gasifier’s thermal capacity of 879 KW (3 106 Btu/
were varied. The results of this trial and error method show h) and a CWSF containing 30% of water by weight. Fig. 14
Fig. 14. The consumption of steam as a function of axial distance along the Fig. 16. Gas velocity as a function of axial distance along the gasifier using
gasifier using Wen’s [9] kinetic model. Wen’s [9] kinetic model.
H. Tsui, C.-H. Wu / Powder Technology 132 (2003) 167–183 181
Fig. 19. Circulating rate of char as a function of axial distance along the
gasifier.
Fig. 17. Solid loading density as a function of axial distance along the
gasifier using Wen’s [9] kinetic model. decrease in the gasification rate of the char as the concen-
trations of CO and H2 increase in Wen’s kinetic model.
shows the consumption of steam as a function of axial
distance. It shows that after the gas has traveled a distance of 3.3. Circulation rate and shrinkage of chars
2.5 m, 88% of the steam has been consumed in the gasifier.
From the thermodynamic analysis, it was found that the The transient Eqs. 42 and 44 developed in Section 2.5
consumption of steam should be larger than 99% as the are solved by varying the initial diameter and the number
gasification reaches equilibrium. Thus, this figure indicates of circulation of the chars until the char particle shrinks to
that the gasification reactions have not reached equilibrium be the cut-off diameter and the circulation rate of chars
by the time the product gas reaches the exit at X1 = 2.5 m. equals the required circulation rate of chars. Figs. 18 and
The mole fractions of the gas species as a function of axial 19 show the results obtained by using Johnson’s kinetic
distance are shown in Fig. 15. The superficial gas velocity data at 1150 K. The circulation rate of char is accumulated
and the solid loading density are shown in Figs. 16 and 17, to such amount that the chemical reaction of char gas-
respectively. They show that the superficial gas velocity and ification reach equilibrium at X1 = 2.5 m. The diameter of
solid loading density are within the specified ranges of 3.6 – the char is plotted as a function of the number of circu-
4.9 m/s and 100 –50 kg/m3, respectively. lations in Fig. 18, and the circulation rate of the char is
It is interesting to compare Fig. 16 with Fig. 10. Fig. 16, plotted as a function of the number of circulations in Fig.
which was obtained using Wen’s [9] kinetic model, shows 19. Figs. 18 and 19 show that the circulation rate of char
that the gradient of the superficial gas velocity in the flow will reach a steady value of 11.8 kg/s after 2860 circu-
direction decreases as the axial distance increases. However, lations from the startup if the initial diameter of the char is
Fig. 10, obtained from Johnson’s [10] kinetic model, indi- 80.5 Am. The char particle is expected to shrink from 80.5
cates that the superficial gas velocity increases linearly as Am to the cut-off diameter of the cyclone combustor, 19.7
the axial distance increase. This difference is due to the Am, and be carried out of the cyclone combustor after 2860
circulations.
(1) The char – steam reaction in the gasifier does not reach
equilibrium at low char circulation of 11.8 kg/s and low
temperature of 1150 K. It needs to operate at higher char
circulation rate (15 kg/s) and higher temperature (1450
K) for the char –steam reaction to reach equilibrium. It is
suggested to predict the performance of the gasifier from
the kinetic point of view in order to design the optimal
geometry and operating methods that will allow the
gasifier to play a successful role in the clean coal
Fig. 18. Shrinkage of char as a function of axial distance along the gasifier. technology system such as IGCC, HIPPS, etc.
182 H. Tsui, C.-H. Wu / Powder Technology 132 (2003) 167–183
(2) It shows a concept to operate the gasifier from transient K2 Rate constant of desorption of CaS on the surface
to steady condition after the diameter of char particle of inactivated lime (l/s)
shrinks to equal the cut-off diameter of the cyclone K3 Rate constant of Eq. 2 (E/gmol s)
combustor and the circulation rate of char equals the Ke Equilibrium constant [0.3012 105 exp(7603.2/
required amount simultaneously. Whenever the system T)] (E/mol)
reaches steady condition the particle size distribution K1 Equilibrium constants of Eq. (8)
and the circulation rate of char will not change. K2 Equilibrium constants of Eq. (9)
(3) The use of coal water slurry as fuel has restricting effects K Equilibrium constants of Eq. (16)
on the performance of the gasifier to be used in IGCC kC – H2O Equilibrium constant [exp(17.64– 16810/T)]
because in this way the water feeding rate becomes Ks Surface rate coefficient (kg/s m2)
proportional to the char feeding rate and cannot be varied Kv Rate constant of char gasification[exp(24.3 –
independently. Accordingly, if the gasifier is operated 25,120/T)] (cm3/mol s)
under steady condition in IGCC its thermal capacity n Number of circulations of char
cannot be modified by only varying the water feeding N_ Total unconverted lime
rate without the change of operating temperature. N_ Feed rate of the char (particle/s)
(4) A large amount of circulating lime CaO in the gasifier N_c Rate of char gasification (atom/s)
makes the removal of H2S from the flue gas relatively N H 2S Rate of the reduction of H2S (atom/s)
easy. The emissions of H2S (0.15 lb of SO2 per million Mp Mass of a single particle [6qpdp3/p] (kg)
Btu) based on the total conversion of H2S to SO2 after P
_i Pre-exponential constant
combustion were found still to be below the allowed Q Gas volume flow rate through the imaginary
SO2 emission levels (1.2 lb per million Btu). surface (m3/s)
r Coordinate in the radial direction
List of symbols R Universal gas constant (cal/mol K)
A Concentration of available lime CaO in the Rep Reynolds number [(Ur Vr)dp/m]
calcined limestone, any units T Temperature (K)
As Surface area of single particle (m2) t Time (s)
Ap Cross-section of char particle (m2) Dt Time interval (s)
B Concentration of inactivated lime CaO covered by Ur Solid particle velocity in the radial direction (m/s)
CaS layers in the calcined limestone, any units Uh Solid particle velocity in the angular direction (m/s)
C Concentration of H2S (gmol/E) Ug Superficial gas velocity (m/s)
Cd Drag coefficient Vr Gas velocity in the radial direction (m/s)
Cf Free site on the surface of char available for Vr2 Gas velocity on the imaginary surface (m/s)
reaction Vh Air tangential entering velocity (m/s)
C(o) Occupied site or activated complex on the surface Vh2 Gas velocity in the angular direction on the
of the char imaginary surface (m/s)
De Diameter of the imaginary cylinder W Number of moles of gas species, char, or lime
dp Diameter of the solid particle (m) (mol) based on 1 mol of carbon in feed CWSF
dpc Cut-off diameter of the cyclone combustor (m) _ (mol)
dpi Diameter of the solid particle after ith circulation W
_c Circulation rate of char (kg/s)
(m) Wf Feeding rate of coal water slurry fuel (kg/s)
d pn Diameter of char particle after n circulations (m) W0 Initial mass of feeding char particle (kg)
dp0 The initial diameter of char (Am) W0 Moles of gas species or lime at the beginning of
Ei Activation energy (Kcal/gmol K) each time interval (mol)
FC Mass fraction of carbon in the CWSF DWgi Gasification of a single char particle in the ith
FD Drag force upon the solid particle in the radial circulation (kg)
direction (N) DWi Total mass reducation of a single char particle in
H Height of the imaginary cylinder (m) the ith circulation (kg)
h Exponential constants of Rankine vortex in Eq. X Converted atoms of in each time interval (mol)
(39) X1 Axial coordinate along the gasifier (m)
k1 Rate constant of Eq. (8) DX1 Traveling distance along the gasifier after a time
k1V Rate constant of Eq. (8) _ interval Dt
k2 Rate constant of Eq. (9) X_ Mole of gas species (mol)
k2V Rate constant of Eq. (9) Xeq Mole of gas species at equilibrium (mole)
k3 Rate constant of Eq. (10) Y Converted atoms of CO in each time interval (mol)
K1 Rate constant of adsorption of CaS on the surface Z Converted atoms of in each time interval (mol)
of available lime (E/gmol s) q Density of flue gas (kg/m3)
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