TECHNIQUES FOR POLLUTION PREVENTION IN TEXTILE WET FROCESSING

CPERATIONS
David B. Williams, Environmental Engineer
N.C. Office of Waste Reduction

Textile wet processing operations are coming under increased

scrutiny from environmental regulators because of the complex
wastewaters and air emissions they generate. This new regulatory
effort comes at a time when textile companies are already faced
with the need to reduce costs to respond to increasing
competition. Pollution prevention offers an opportunity for
textile companies to reduce pollutant releases and save money; at
the same time, it helps them become more efficient. This paper
discusses some of the opportunities for using pollution
prevention to reduce waste and save money.
Contrary to conventional waste management which only results in
increased cost, pollution prevention can help a company reduce
its costs through reduced raw material usage, reduced waste
requiring treatment and disposal, reduced water and energy
requirements, and improved product quality. Applicable pollution
prevention techniques include purchasing and inventory control;
water and chemical conservation; improved operation, maintenance,
and housekeeping; production process modification; recovery and
recycle/reuse; and source separation. The following sections
discuss ways to apply some of these pollution prevention
techniques to reduce pollutant loadings in wastewater; conserve
water and energy; and reduce air emissions, hazardous waste
generation, and worker exposure to toxic chemicals. Case studies
are presented to demonstrate that these techniques and
technologies have been implemented effectively by other
companies. The techniques are discussed in a low-tech to high-
tech order. It,is important to keep in mind that low-tech low-
cost approaches are often the most effective for preventing
pollution.

Purchasins and inventory control

Hundreds of different chemicals and raw materials used by dyeing
and finishing operations. Consumption of these materials ranges
from 5 lbs. per year to several tons per week. Process
performance can be affected dramatically by changes in the
constituents of these raw materials, particularly when trace
contaminants exist in the chemicals or raw materials. Tracking
raw material quality and managing each of these raw materials
requires significant effort. The effort is rewarded, however,
with fewer off-quality products and reworks. Chemical screening
and quality control are two ways that have proven effective for
reducing waste management headaches and costs.
Chemical screeninq. Many companies have established a committee
to review chemicals used and to review new chemicals before they
are approved for use to ensure that the chemicals do not contain
ingrsdients that may cause water or air pollution problems,
increased risk to workers, or increased hazardous waste.
Criteria for evaluating chemicals may include:
a worker safety effects
0 heavy metal content
a biodegradability
a aquatic toxicity potential
a inclusion on list of EPA priority pollutants
a SARA listed compounds (particularly 33/50 chemicals)
a hazardous waste characteristics
a VOC and hazardous air pollutant content
a cost and performance
0 ozone-depleting chemical content
Increasingly, substitutes are becoming available to replace
harmful components with less toxic and less regulated
alternatives. Chemical substitution is discussed further in a
later section of this paper.’
Ensurinq auality of raw material shiDments. Variation in the
chemical and physical properties of raw materials can have a
dramatic effect on the quality of the dyeing and finishing
processes. The best time to detect changes in the raw materials
is prior to use rather than after time, energy, and other
resources have been invested in using the material. Simple
physical tests (pH, viscosity, density, color, etc.) conducted on
raw materials and compared to test results from a standard for
the material can reveal changes in the raw material in time for
appropriate process adjustment or return of the material to the
supplier.
Frequently raw fiber and chemicals contain significant
undesirable impurities which may cause pollution problems. Tests
of raw materials and chemicals for contaminants may help pinpoint
a source of wastewater pollutants that the wet processor may not
have anticipated. Cotton fibers may contain metals ranging in
concentration from 7 5 to 100 mg/kg, and sodium sulfate often
contains significant levels of zinc. The extent of trace
contaminants in raw materials, especially natural minerals and
fibers, is highly dependent on the source of the material. For
example, cotton produced in certain southwestern areas of the
U.S. has been shown to have elevated levels of arsenic.
Inventory manaqement. To minimize the quantity of surplus
ch’emicals required to be managed as hazardous waste, it is
important to order chemicals in reasonable quantities and use
first-in-first-outinventory management principles to ensure that
the shelf life of chemicals is not exceeded. It is also
important to store ingredients under proper conditions. For
instance, bagged ingreaients and fiber drums should not be stored
on a wet dyehouse floor. When materials are spilled
accidentally, they should be swept or vacuumed up in a dry form
when possible rather than simply being washed down the drain.

Water and chemical conservation

Water and chemical conservation offers one of the greatest waste
reduction and cost reduction opportunities for wet processors.
Water conservation. Frequently, mills can reduce water.use by 30
percent or more with no decrease in product quality.* Common
sources of unnecessary water waste include:
0 hoses and faucets left running,
0 leaking fittings, valves, and pumps,
0 excessive water use in washing and rinsing operations
0 excessive water use in clean-up procedures, and
0 cooling water left running when machinery is not operating
Bekause much of the energy required for wet processing operations
is used for heating process water, reducing water consumption and
reusing water lowers energy costs substantially.
Water reuse. Of all wet processing operations, washing and
preparation operations typically consume the greatest amount of
water. These operations also offer the greatest opportunity for
water conservation. Continuous preparation operations can employ
countercurrent washing to allow water to be used several times
before it must be discharged. Countercurrent washing is used in
many mills for desizing, scouring, mercerizing, bleaching,
dyeing, and printhouse soaper ranges.3
Rinsewater can be used as make up for subsequent batch or
continuous processes. As an example rinse water in a continuous
scouring range can be used to make up the.scouring bath, or in
some cases, as make up for desizing. Mercerizing or bleach
washwater can be used for either scouring or desizing operations.

As color and chloride limits for wastewater discharges become

prevalent, the incentive for reusing dyebaths will increase as
both of these dyehouse wastewater components are difficult and
expensive to remove. Dyebath reuse may reduce the need for color
and chloride removal. Water costs and wastewater management costs
will also be reduced with dyebath reuse. Because many of the
dyes and chemical specialties are not completely exhausted, the
residual chemicals can be accounted for as the baths are
zeconstituted, thereby lowering chemical costs. Energy savings
should be realized as well because the recycled dyebath generally
starts at a higher temperature. Bleachbaths and caustic can be
recovered and reused as
Clean-up procedures. It is not unusual to see a dyehouse or
drugroom worker turn on a faucet or hose and leave the water
running for several minutes while he attends to some other need.
Meanhhile large volumes of water are wasted. Automatic shutoff
valves and nozzles can help reduce the likelihood of hoses being
left running. In-line flow restrictors and flow control valves
are also useful for reducing water consumption for clean-up. If
scoops and handling utensils are dedicated to individual
ingredients, the need to clean each utensil after each use can be
eliminated.

CASE STUDY - WATER CONSERVATION & REUSE

AMITAL S P I N N I N G CORPORATION - N e w B e r n , N . C .

A m i t a l S p i n n i n g Corp. i n s t i t u t e d a w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n and
r e u s e program. N o n c o n t a c t c o o l i n g w a t e r i s r e u s e d f o r dye
l i q u o r p r e p a r a t i o n , and s p e n t d y e b a t h s a r e r e u s e d whenever
p o s s i b l e . Because the c o o l i n g w a t e r i s r m e r (SOOF) t h a n
t a p water, steam requirements f o r h e a t i the d y e b a t h a r e
;educed, and t i m e b a t h i s r e d u c e d by
8 to 10 minutes p e r hs a l l o w s c h e m i c a l s
t h a t r e m a i n i n the sed a s w e l l .
Chemical costs fo p e r b a t c h lower
than f o r n e w b a t c h e s . Water u reduced f r o m
320,000 t o 92,000 g a l l o n s roduc tion h a s
i n c r e a s e d f r o m 12 o f y a r n p e r day.
E s t i m a t e d co December 1991
t o t a l l e d $21 for w a t e r s a v i n g s and $ 5 2 1 , 1 0 0 f o r e n e r g y
savings.

Chemical conservation. Substantial quantities of chemical

specialties and dyes are wasted in wet processing mills.
Chemicals are either used in excessive amounts, used
unnecessarily, or spilled. These wastes cause potential
pollution problems and a drain on profits. Dyebath recipes tend
to grow over time as new ingredients are added to counteract an
undesirable effect caused by other ingredients.
An example of an ingredient that is often used unnecessarily or
in excessive quantities is defoamer. The most judicious approach
is to seek out the cause of the foaming problem and correct it
rather than to add something else to counteract the effect.
Foaming indicates that either too many other chemicals are being
used or that some of the chemicals in use foam excessively.
--
Often adjusting temperature, increasing batch time, or optimizing
pH can eliminate the need for specialty chemicals such as
retarders or leveling agents. Optimized physical conditions
instead of additional chemical ingredients improves the dyers
ability to repeat shades, thereby lowering the re-dye percentage
and reducing dye use. Wastewater contaminants are reduced as
well since retarders and levelers are not typically exhausted i n
normal dyeing operations.
One recent study found that in some cases up to half the total
wastewater pollutant loading comes from spillage, clean-up, and
other nonprocess sources.6 Measuring, weighing, and handling
utensils should be large enough that ingredients do not r u n over
or spill out during transport.

Chemical substitution
As discussed, it is a good idea to review all chemicals used,
particularly those used in large quantities, to identify those
that may contribute to wastewater problems or other problems. In
many situations, alternative chemicals are available f o r
chemicals that contribute to particular environmental concerns.
Process modification may sometimes be necessary to accommodate
substitute chemical. Situations where chemical substitution is
often employed are discussed below.
Metal containins dyes. Many dyes and pigments, particularly
blues and greens, contain metals such as copper and nickel as
part of the dye molecule. In many situations these metal-
containing dyes can be replaced with dyes that do not contain
metals or that contain lower metal content. An example is
substituting metal-free vat dyes for metal-containing direct or
fiber reactive dyes for dyeing cellulosic materials. Typically
for direct dyes, only 85-95% of the metals exhaust into the
fiber; the remainder is left in the dyebath and is dumped.
Dyeing conditions should be optimized to maximize exhaustion
where metalized dyes are used.
Surfactants. Surfactants are contained in nearly every chemical
specialty. Surfactants vary in their toxicity to aquatic life
depending on their structure. The ultimate toxicity of
surfactants is affected by the degree to which they biodegrade
during wastewater treatment processes. Relatively toxic
surfactants that biodegrade easily are actually less harmful to
aquatic life than less toxic surfactants that do not biodegrade
well. For example, ethoxylated octyl- or nonylphenol (AP)
surfactants are less toxic than linear alcohol ethoxylates (LAE),
but they are only 2 5 % degradable, whereas LAEs are nearly 100%
degradeable.6 The result is that LAE exhibits far less pass-
through toxicity than AP. Therefore, LAE is commonly substituted
for AP to help reduce effluent toxicity. Unfortunately, more
biodegradable surfactants generally have a higher biological
oxygen demand (BOD), so much consideration must go into
substitute surfactants to ensure that one problem does not
replace a different one.
Phosphates. Effluent phosphorus limitations have forced many
companies to evaluate strategies reduce phosphorus. A number of
common processing chemicals contain high levels of phosphorus
including buffers, builders for scouring, water conditioners, and
surfactants. Alternatives which do not contain phosphates exist
for Almost every situation where phosphates are used. As was the
case with surfactants, many of the non-phosphate alternative
chemicals may have a higher BOD or may be more toxic than those
they replaced. Material safety data sheets do not always
indicate the presence of phosphates since they are not generally
considered hazardous materials. It may be necessary to contact
chemical suppliers to obtain information about phosphorus
content.

CAL S U B S T I T U T I O N

Production Process Modification

Often, large reductions in water, chemical, and energy usage and
pollutant loadings can be made through modifying the preparation
and dyeing processes to make them more efficient. Examples of
waste reduction through process modification is presented in the
following sections.
Low liquor ratio dveins eauiDment. The amount of water required
for dyeing a pound of fabric, the liquor ratio, differs greatly
with the type of dyeing equipment used. Table 1 shows typical
liquor ratios for various types of dyeing equipment. Low liquor
ratio equipment not only reduces the amount of water used for
dyeing, but it also reduces energy required for heating the water
and the amount of electrolyte and other chemicals required.
Reducing electrolyte usage will become more important in the
years to come as effluent chloride limits become common. Many
types of low-liquor ratio dyeing equipment have a relatively poor
washing efficiency. For this reason, a dyeing machine with a
1O:l liquor ratio will not necessarily use half as much water as
a machine with a 20:l ratio.
,

Table 1: Liquor ratio of dyeing equipment

~ Dyeing Water Consumption Typical liquor

Machine gal./lb. of fabric ratio
Continuous 20 1:l
Beck 28 17:l
Jet 24 12 : 1
Jig 12 5:1
Beam 20 1O:l
Package 22 1O:l
Paddle 35 40:l
Stock 20 12 : 1
Skein 30 17:l

For low liquor ratio equipment it is important to consider the

effects of water conservation on the ultimate concentration of
pollutants in the effluent stream. Many municipalities have
allowed dischargers to switch their permitted discharge limits to
a pounds-per-day basis rather than a concentration basis.
Companies with such limits are, therefore, not penalized for
conserving water.
Process Control. A great deal of water and chemical conservation
can be accomplished by more closely controlling water and
chemical inputs. Water levels in dyeing equipment should be
varied depending upon the size of the load. Reducing the fill
level also reduces the quantity of chemicals required to achieve
the desired concentration.
Pad batch dyeing. Pad batch dyeing eliminates the need for salt
and chemical specialties from dyebaths, and it helps reduce
energy requirements since it is a cold process. Pad batch is
applicable for dyeing cellulosic fibers with fiber reactive dyes.
Pad batch dyeing requires only about 2 gallons of water per pound
of fabric compared to approximately 20 gallons per pound with an
atmospheric beck. It is particularly appropriate for dyeing dark
colors such as forest green that require large quantities of
el-ectrolyte when dyed with direct dyes. Shade repeatability,
reduced labor requirements, and high production speeds are other
advantages of the pad batch method.2
 I
.

CASE STUDY - PROCESS CONTROL

CRAFTSMEN F A B R I C S I N D U S T R I E S - Concord, N . C .

Craftsmen Fabrics I n d u s t r i e s modified i t s dyeing machine

process c o n t r o l l e r s t o allow the equipment t o be f i l l e d t o
varying l e v e l s depending upon load s i z e . Chemical usage was
varied accordingly. Because l e s s water needed t o be heated,
l e s s energy was required. Depending upon the type o f dyeing
machine used t o t a l cost reduction ranged from 1 t o 4 cents
per pound of f a b r i c processed. Total annual cost savings are
estimated t o be $ 1 7 2 , 0 0 0 . 8

Vacuum or mechanical extraction. If excess solution is extracted

from goods prior to rinsing and washing operations, less carry-
over or drag-out of concentrated dyeing solution into subsequent
processes occurs. The result is that the number of rinsing steps
repired can often be reduced. One manufacturer was able to
reduce the number of wash boxes from eight to three simply by
installing vacuum extraction equipment on the wash boxes.
Heat Recovery. Tremendous opportunities exist for recovering
energy from textile wastewater. Wastewater discharge
temperatures often exceed 130°F compared to raw water
temperatures of approximately 5 5 O . Many companies have reclaimed
this excess heat from wastewater using heat exchangers and using
it to preheat incoming water. One company is saving more than
$1,000 per day by recovering waste heat.g

Summary
Pollution prevention offers textile manufacturers an opportunity
to reduce water pollutant loadings and VOC and HAP emissions and
save money at the same time. Many companies may be able to come
into full compliance with all environmental regulations without
installing expensive pollution control equipment. Pollution
control equipment can only pay for itself through avoided
environmental fines and other intangible costs such as improved
environmental quality and improved public relations. The case
studies presented here show companies which have reduced water
pollutants and air emissions with less than one year payback
through reduced water, chemical, and energy use. These companies
also realized the intangible savings mentioned above.
Pollution prevention has been proven by countless companies to be
the most cost-effective approach to environmental protection.
The North Carolina Pollution Prevention Program is available to
help companies identify opportunities for pollution prevention.
Companies interested in receiving free non-regulatory technical
assistance should call ( 9 1 9 ) 571-4100. .
 I

REFERENCES

1. Smith, Brent. "Chemical Screening and Inventory Control."

American Dyestuff Reporter. June 1987. pp. 2 4 / 2 6 .
2. Smith, Brent. A Workbook for Pollution Prevention by Source
Reduction in Textile Wet Processing. North Carolina
Pollution Prevention Program. Raleigh, N.C. 1988.
3. "Water Conservation for Textile Mills." North Carolina
Pollution Prevention Program. Raleigh, N.C.
4. "Dyebath and Bleach Bath Reconstitution for Textile Mills."
North Carolina Pollution Prevention Program. Raleigh, N.C.
5. 1992 Governor's Awards for Excellence in Waste Manaqement.
Presented April 22, 1993. Raleigh, N.C.
6 . Smith, Brent. Identification and Reduction of Toxic
. Pollutants in Textile Mill Effluents. North Carolina
Pollution Prevention Program. Raleigh, N.C. 1989.
7. Accomplishments of North Carolina Industries: Case
Summaries. North Carolina Pollution Prevention Program.
Raleigh, N.C. 1987.
8. Bishop, Clifton. Craftsmen Fabrics Industries, Inc.
Personal Communication. 1994.
9. Smith, Brent. Identification and Reduction of Pollution
Sources in Textile Wet Processinq. North Carolina Pollution
Prevention Program. Raleigh, N.C. 1986.