143

APPENDICES
1
APPENDIX
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Planets Distance From Sun Diameter Characteristic Feature Number of Satellite

Mercury 58 million km 4,900 km No atmosphere.

Rocky, many craters.
Temp. –1700 C to 4000C —

Venus 108 million km 12,000 km Atmosphere is mostly

carbon dioxide.
Vast plains and high
mountains.
Average temp. over 5000 C —

Earth 150 million km 12,750 km Atmosphere is mostly 1 satellite —

nitrogen and oxygen. Moon
Surface covered with water.
Temp. is 150C

Mars 228 million km 6,800 km Thin atmosphere, mostly 2 satellites —

carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Phobos
Surface has polar ice caps and Deimos
and dry river beds. Temp.
ranges from –1000 C to
about –300 C

Jupiter 778 million km 1,43,000 km Atmosphere is mostly 16 satellites called

hydrogen and helium. Galilean satellites.
No solid surface. Temp. 4 largest
ranges to –1250 C in the satellites are Io,
atmosphere. Europa, Ganymede
and Callisto

Saturn 1,427 million km 1,20,000 km Atmosphere is mostly 20 satellites —

hydrogen and helium. largest visible
No solid surface. satellite Titan
Average temp. in
atmosphere is
about –1800 C

Uranus 2,869 million km 52,000 km Atmosphere is mostly 15 satellites

hydrogen and helium.
No solid surface.
Average temp. in
atmosphere is about –2250 C

Neptune 4,505 million km 49,000 km Atmosphere is mostly 8 satellites

hydrogen. No solid surface.
average temp. in
Atmosphere is about –2200 C

Pluto 5,890 million km 2,300 km Atmosphere is mostly methane. 1 satellite

Surface is solid with unknown
features.
Temp. is about –2300 C
11
APPENDIX
MOH’S SCALE OF HARDNESS

Mineral Hardness (Based on Moh’s Scale)

Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5
Orthoclase 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10
111
APPENDIX
PRINCIPAL ECONOMIC MINERALS

Name Chemical Formula Economic Uses

Boehmite AlOOH Ore of aluminium

Diaspore HAlO2 -do-
Alunite KAl2(SO4)2. (OH)6 -do-
Magnetite Fe3O4 Ore of iron
Hematite Fe2O3 -do-
Goethite HFeO2 -do-
Siderite FeCO3 -do-
Rutile TiO2 Ore of titanium
Ilmenite FeTiO2 -do-
Pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9 S8 Ore of nickel
Niccolite NiAs -do-
Chalcopyrite CuFe S2 Ore of copper
Chalcocite Cu2S -do-
Covellite CuS -do-
Azurite 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 -do-
Malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 -do-
Cuprite Cu2O -do-
Copper Cu -do-
Galena PbS Ore of lead
Jamesonite Pb4FeSb6S11 -do-
Bournonite CuPbSbS3 -do-
Sphalerite ZnS Ore of zinc
Wurtzite — —
Smithsonite ZnCO3 Ore of zinc
Calamine Zn4(Si2O7)(OH)2.H2O -do-
Cassiterite SnO2 Ore of tin
Stannite Cu2FeSnS4 -do-
Cinnabar HgS Ore of mercury
Polyxene (Pt, Fe) Ore of platinum
Argenite Ag2S Ore of silver
Proustite Ag3AsS3 -do-
18
APPENDIX
RADIATION BALANCE OF THE EARTH
(SURFACE + ATMOSPHERE ENERGY BALANCE)

Incoming Solar Radiation Percentage

Absorption by O3 3
Absorption by H2O and aerosols 13
Absorption by clouds 2
Back scattered by clouds 24
Back scattered by air and aerosols 7
Back scattered by surface 4
Total 53
Absorption by ground
From the sun 25
From the atmosphere and clouds 22
Total 47
Total Incoming Radiation 100

Outgoing Terrestrial Radiation

Short Waves Nil
Back radiation from H2O, CO2 and clouds to outer space 31
Back radiation from ground to outer space 4
Total 35

Long Waves
Back radiation from ground 5
Back radiation from H2O, CO2 and clouds 60
Total 65

Total Outgoing Radiation 100

Surface Balance (as Percentage of Incoming Solar Radiation Outside the Atmosphere)

Incoming from
the sun 25
the atmosphere 26

Total 51
Outgoing to
the atmosphere
Long wave to H2O, CO2 and clouds 13
Latent heat 24
Sensible heat 5
Outer space
Back scattered from ground 4
Long wave 5
Total 51
8
APPENDIX
AREA AND VOLUME OF MAJOR OCEANS AND SEAS

Name Area Percentage Volume Percentage

(sq. km.) (cu. km)

I. Oceans
Atlantic Ocean 82,441,500 22.83 323,613,300 23.61
Indian Ocean 73,442,700 20.34 291,030,000 21.23
Pacific Ocean 1,65,246,200 45.77 707,555,000 51.63
Arctic Ocean 14,090,100 3.91 16,980,000 1.23

Sub Total 3,35,220,500 92.85 1,339,178,000 97.70

II. Inter-Continental Seas

Malay Sea 8,143,100 2.26 9,873,000 0.72
Central American Sea 4,319,500 1.21 9,573,000 0.70
Mediterranean Sea 2,965,900 0.82 4,238,000 0.30

Sub Total 15,428,500 4.29 23,684,000 1.72

III. Smaller Enclosed Seas

Baltic Sea 422,300 0.12 23,000
Hudson Bay 1,232,300 0.34 1,58,000
Red Sea 437,900 0.12 2,15,000
Persian Gulf 238,800 0.06 6,000

Sub Total 2,331,300 0.64 4,02,000 0.05

IV. Fringing Seas

Bering Sea 2,268,200 0.62 3,259,000
Okhotsk Sea 1,527,600 0.42 1,279,000
Japan Sea 1,007,700 0.28 1,361,000
E. China Sea 1,249,200 0.34 235,000
Andaman Sea 797,600 0.22 694,000
California Sea 162,200 0.04 132,000
North Sea 575,300 0.17 54,000
English Channel and Irish Seas 178,500 0.05 10,000
Laurentian Sea 237,800 0.06 30,000
Bass Sea 74,800 0.02 5,000

Sub Total 8,078,900 2.22 7,059,000 0.51

Grand Total 3,61,059,200 13,70,323,500

(Hydrosphere)
 Unit I

GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE

CHAPTER
NATURE AND
Y
ou have already been introduced to
geography as a part of social science in
secondary school. As such you learnt
about the world — its people and places;
distribution of various natural and cultural
features and phenomena over the earth’s
surface; and the emerging patterns of human-
environment interactions at local, regional and
global levels. Now, at this stage, you are being
introduced to geography as a ‘discipline’ for the
first time. In this chapter, you will get to know
the nature and scope of geography and its
evolution over the years and the main
branches. Soon you would realise that this
fascinating area of study, offers immense
possibilities to use and apply the knowledge
and skills required for living and working in
today’s world.
NATURE OF GEOGRAPHY
You must have noted that geography is
concerned with the study of the earth’s surface
where all life forms including human beings
live and all human activities take place. The
earth’s surface includes the oceans, the
atmosphere, the upper part of the earth’s crust
and the biosphere.
The earth’s sur face is ever changing,
sometimes slowly and imperceptibly, while at
others, rapidly and perceptibly. In general, the
natural phenomena like mountains, rivers,
lakes etc. change slowly while the cultural
phenomena like buildings, roads, crops, etc.
change fast. Geography studies the origin of
these changing phenomena; the processes
that change them and have brought them to
the present state and arranged them in space
in the way they exist. It also studies the
SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY
implications of location and arrangement of
these phenomena for human beings.
Over 6,000 million people live on the earth
in innumerable places called villages, towns
and cities spread over many continents and
countries. Continents, mountains, rivers,
plains and many other physical features are
the outcome of natural processes in action,
while countries, villages, towns, cities,
agriculture, industry, means of transport and
communication etc. are the products of
human activities. A process is a sequence of
change systematically related through a chain
of causes and effects. Human beings use the
natural resources of the earth such as land,
water, air, minerals, animals, forests and many
others to make a living and to shape their
culture. In doing so they change the earth
surface enormously. It is no longer natural in
the real sense except in remote areas that are still
inaccessible, such as Antarctica. The inhabited
part of the earth has a clear imprint of the human
use of nature.
Geography thus, studies the sur face
features of the earth and their association with
one another and derives meaningful spatial or
regional patterns. It studies the factors and
processes, which change these features; their
mutual relationships; and their spatial
arrangement. And finally it studies the
implications of the above changes for human
beings and their activities.
It would be pertinent to note that all
surface features of the earth that attract the
attention of geographers are not visible; many
of them are conceptual and, therefore,
cannot be seen on the ground. For example,
we cannot see education, health, per capita
income as we can see rivers, mountains, roads
4 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
etc. We can, however, see their social
topography when we convert their intensities
into patterns on maps. Thus, we have maps that
show literacy, mortality, longevity of life,
environment, prevalence of diseases, quality of
life, etc.
Nature provides the base, the resources as
well as the resistances. Human beings use these
natural endowments to evolve their cultures and
civilisations. Culture is the cumulative product
of experiences; it consists of values, norms,
beliefs, thoughts, ethical standards and styles
of life and living. Civilisation is the physical
manifestation of culture. Houses, villages, cities,
means of transport and communication,
agriculture, industry, etc. forms part of
civilisation. Apparently, the two are closely
related and almost inseparable. In our
discussion, we will use the term culture to
include civilisation. Culture is cumulative and
therefore, ever changing.
In ancient societies human interaction
with nature was rather direct: As time passed,
experience accumulated to give rise to various
kinds of cultures. Cultures are not only the
outcome of the interaction between humans
and nature but also among the humans living
in different natural environments. It is an ever
evolving and ever changing phenomenon.
That is why in similar natural settings,
cultures and civilisations are not always the
same. The earth surface that geographer
studies is, therefore, not homogeneous or
isometric; it is marked by vast differences in
both natural and cultural features.
Geography is thus, a natural-cum-human
science engaged in the study of factors and
processes, both natural and human, that
shape the earth surface and give rise to
different cultures and civilisations. It classifies
and delineates the earth features to arrive at
regional patterns and structures; it identifies
the agencies and processes at work to change
the existing patterns; and predicts the
possible outcomes of the processes at work.
Thus, geography tries to answer the following
questions:
• What are the natural and cultural features
on the surface of the earth?
• How have they come into being?
• How are they distributed and why?
• How are they associated with each other?
• Are the existing patterns of distribution
conducive to human welfare?
• What can be done to modify them?
• What are the implications of the proposed
changes for humans?
To sum up, geography is a science that
studies the spatial arrangement of things on
the surface of the earth resulting from a
dynamic interaction between humans and
nature. Unlike other disciplines, geography
cannot be defined by its subject matter for
anything present on the earth surface can be
and is studied by it. Geography uses
information provided by various disciplines,
all the way from nuclear physics to, let us say,
ancient history, as raw materials to analyse
the emerging patterns and structures of the
earth sur face and their implications for
human beings.
SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY
Literal meaning of the term ‘geography’ is
‘description of the earth’ (geo = earth +
graphos=description). The term was first used
by Eratosthenes, a Greek geographer who
lived in Alexandria, Egypt during 276-192 BC.
This is how geography was conceived in
ancient times. At present, it is no longer
confined to the description of the earth. It has
now acquired the status of a science that
explains the arrangement of various natural
and cultural features on the earth surface. In
this section we will examine the scope of
geography in greater details.
Geography is often called the mother of
all sciences. There is some truth in it. Humans
in their early stages of civilised life had to cope
with an omnipotent and omnipresent nature.
Nature was most important object of curiosity.
As apparent from ancient literary works of
practically all cultures, nature was often
personified and its elements were presented
as Gods and Goddesses, and devils and evil
spirits, depending upon how they affected
human life. Humans suffered from serious
limitations imposed by nature because nature
NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY
was overpowering and the technological
means to control it were primitive and
toothless. As such humans adjusted
themselves to natural environment; they did
not try to transgress the dictates of nature;
they cooperated with nature and felt one
with it.
Domestication of animals and plants set in
motion a great change in human life. It
culminated in Agricultural Revolution, which
lasted until eighteenth century in Europe and
nineteenth century in Asia, Africa and Latin
America. As the cultural base of humans
expanded, their relationship with nature
changed from subservience to cooperation.
Their tools and techniques improved, as did
their knowledge pool. By the seventeenth
century, they broke the shackles of nature
and ventured to control it to their advantage.
They developed a great variety of mechanical
and chemical devices to usher in a change
that is popularly known as Industrial
Revolution. It took about three centuries,
eighteenth to twentieth to spread all over the
world.
The strength of the Industrial Revolution
lay in scientific inventions on the one hand
and European discovery of the sea routes to
reach sparsely settled rich lands of Americas,
Australia, Africa and highly advanced cultures
of Asia on the other. With increasing
interaction, knowledge about continents and
oceans, mountains and plains, rivers and
lakes, and peoples and places increased many
fold and measurements of distances,
directions, heights, and depths along with
details of cultural landscapes became
necessary for preparing maps and charts.
Geography became really global. The attitude
of human beings changed and they started
moving away from mythology to scientific
presentation of both natural and human
phenomena.
Once the spirit of scientific enquiry was
kindled and information about the world
became more copious, the urge for deeper
analysis of the processes that gave rise to such
a great variety of natural and cultural features
in the world grew. This necessitated
5
specialisation, which ultimately gave rise to
systematic disciplines like physics, chemistry,
biology, economics, sociology, political science,
etc. that once formed part of one unified
discipline called geography. Today there are
hundreds of disciplines and sub-disciplines
aiming at unravelling the mysteries of nature
and human behaviour, not holistically, but
from one or the other perspective. They
individually see part of the reality even if in
great depth, not the whole of it.
The branching off of specialised disciplines
did not, however, diminish the place and
importance of geography. The need for a
discipline, which looked at the causes and
consequences of the arrangement of various
natural and cultural features of earth surface
holistically existed before and exists even
today. Geography does not compete with
specialised sister disciplines; apart from
generating its own information, it takes
knowledge generated by them and processes
it to build up theories and principles to explain
the ongoing changes on the earth surface.
Geography is, therefore, a truly holistic and
interdisciplinary field of study engaged in
understanding the changing spatial structure
at different territorial levels, global to local,
and at different times, from past to the future.
EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHY
As noted earlier, geography is perhaps the
oldest intellectual preoccupation of man. Its
foundation was laid by Indian, Chinese,
Greek, Arab, and other scholars of times
immemorial who ventured out beyond their
own locale to write about other lands and
peoples. Atharva Veda written around tenth
century BC gives the details of the then known
earth; its physical features, biogeography and
human settlements. Indian Rishis went to
different parts of the world to carry the
message of Indian culture particularly of
Hinduism and Buddhism to Central Asia,
East Asia, Southeast Asia, eastern coast of
Africa, etc. The Chinese scholars made similar
trips to different parts of the then known
world particularly to India, and so did the
Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Greek and Arab
6 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
travellers. They were the first discoverers of the
unknown lands. The experiential knowledge
of these itinerants produced a unique culture,
the imprints of which still persist in the
commonality of certain human values in South,
Southeast and East Asia. One gets a sense of
unity in diversity .
In sixth century BC, Thales of Miletus, a
Greek geographer gave the size and shape of
the earth; in second century BC, Ptolemy gave
latitudes and longitudes for map making and
locating places. In first century BC, Strabo, a
Roman geographer gave detailed description
of the world in 17 volumes. The contributions
of Indian astronomers and geographers were
highly advanced for their times. Aryabhatta
propounded the theory of heliocentric
universe a century before Copernicus, and
Bhaskaracharya mentioned about the gravity
of the earth, 1,200 years before Newton.
Kalidasa’s description of the geography of
central India in Meghdoota is highly
professional. Arabs too made significant
contributions and carried the known
knowledge to far off places. In fourteenth
century AD, Ibn Batuta, travelled to India and
wrote about its land and people.
During fourteenth to eighteenth centuries,
discoveries of new lands and ocean routes
generated vast amount of information about
physical configurations of the world and the
places and people beyond the shores of
Europe. These details enabled Europeans to
migrate from overpopulated Europe to less
populated lands of Americas, Australia and
parts of Africa relieving Europe from the
growing pressure of population. It also
enabled the Europeans to politically and
economically subjugate practically the whole
of the resource rich Asia, Africa, Australia and
Americas. Control over the resources of the
world and the opportunity for emigration to
other lands, were the main factors behind the
rise of Eur ope as the most developed
continent of the world.
By the end of the eighteenth century,
efforts were afoot to scientifically analyse the
geographical accounts available from various
sources. Two German geographers, A.V.
Humboldt and Karl Ritter played a leading role.
Prior to them Imanuel Kant, the great German
master of logical thought, had given geography
its place in the overall framework of organised
objective knowledge otherwise known as
science. He enumerated five sub-fields of
geography: mathematical geography; moral
(cultural) geography; political geography;
commercial geography, and theological
(religious) geography.
Geography became a very popular subject
in schools because it gave knowledge about
the lands to prospective migrants, adminis-
trators and traders. Gradually, along with the
description of places and peoples, explanation
for varying responses of people to natural
environment was also presented. Thus,
geography, in the later half of the nineteenth
century, emerged as the study of the
dynamics of man-environment relationship
and its imprints on the earth surface.
Geographers were not however united on
the question of man-environment
relationship. Those who postulated that
environment controlled or determined human
activities were called ‘determinists’. They were
lead by Friederich Ratzel and Elsworth
Huntington. And those who said that man
could modify the environment to create new
opportunities for himself were lead by Vidal
de la Blache and L. Febvre. They were known
as ‘possibilists.’
In early twentieth century, H.J.
Mackinder, a British geographer of German
origin, looked at geography as a science of
relationships; as a study of arrangement and
association of things on the face of the earth
to form regional systems and structures. He
strongly advocated for synthesis of physical
and cultural streams of geography into a
regional frame. According to him humans
could not exist without nature and nature
could not escape the influence of humans.
The two together shaped the earth surface
and gave rise to regional patter ns and
structures. Thus, Mackinder defined
geography as an outlook, as a way of looking
at the earth; it did not confine itself to any
specific domain of factual information; it
NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY
studied the spatial patterns on the earth
surface, the processes involved in their
evolution, and the impacts they produced on
humans and their activities.
Thus, geography in the twentieth century
became a discipline, which studied the earth
surface from two perspectives: systematic
and regional. The former produced sub-
disciplines like geomorphology, climatology,
biogeography, political geography, economic
geography, health geography etc., while the
latter gave rise to regional geography, regional
science, regional development, regional
planning, area planning, etc. The first started
with systematic knowledge to arrive at
regional patterns, while the second started
with regions to arrive at systematic details.
In both cases, humans remained a central
theme: how systemic processes and regional
patterns affected humans and their activities.
In the second half of the twentieth century,
search for an acceptable definition of
geography was abandoned. It was realised
that no living discipline could be defined once
for all. It must change with time. Geography
too must change and no definition could be
considered final. A group of geographers,
economists, and statisticians under the
leadership of Walter Isard of University of
Pennsylvania, USA joined hands to evolve a
new and hybrid analytical discipline called
Regional Science. It brought geography closer
to other social sciences and mathematics and
triggered of f what is now known as
quantitative revolution in geography.
As quantitative methods and techniques
of Regional Science penetrated other social
sciences, an environment of cross-fertilisation
set in and quantitative geography became a
craze during 1960s and 1970s. It provided
scientific tools to study the relationship
between physical and human phenomena,
and carry out regional analysis with a
precision never attempted before. It enabled
geographers to handle large number of factors
and processes together to discern meaningful
patterns and structures.
Along with quantitative revolution, the
signs of another major revolutionary change
7
became apparent in 1970s. It was Information
Revolution; its impact became apparent in
1990s. Apart from the fact that it enabled
geographers to use their newly acquired
quantitative techniques with greater ease and
swiftness, it produced immense amount of
information in photographs taken from several
thousand metres above the earth otherwise
known as remote sensing. Such photos were
taken from aircrafts in post- World War II
decades. To begin with, it was meant to secure
information about enemy positions and
movements during the war but soon it became
an important source of information for
development of agriculture, industry,
transportation, communication and public
utilities. Along with the air photographs came
photogrammetry, the technique of air photo
interpretation.
The 1980s brought artificial satellites,
which circled the earth at a set speed and
route, several kilometres above the earth to
take photographs of much larger chunks of
the earth and with far greater precision and
sharpness than the aircrafts could ever do. It
is possible to get satellite imageries
(photographs) with a resolution of less than
one metre, that is to say that even a metre
long thing could be photographed and
identified. Further, practically all details of the
earth surface, above it and below it, can be
photographed. It is possible to image mineral
deposits and sources of ground water, to chart
weather conditions, to locate various features
of the earth surface and changes therein, and
to trace the movement of people, armies,
goods and services from place to place The
satellite imageries have made air photograph
antiquated. The information they provide is
unimaginably vast and detailed. They have
enabled geographers to develop Geographic
Information System (GIS), Land Information
System (LIS), and Global Positioning System
(GPS) as location decision, administrative and
managerial tools. Geography of the twenty-first
century is set to enter a new era of Spatial
Information Technology (SIT). Geographers of
tomorrow would be trained not only in
answering the question what is where and
8 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
why but also in what should be where and why;
not only in generating information for decision
making but also in actively participating in
decision making.
The last quarter of the twentieth century
has put geography on a new trajectory of
development with SIT as the main source of
information and information processing. It
was also a period when concern about the
deteriorating environment became vocal.
Pollution of land, water, and air reached an
alarming state. Environment had always been
a major concern of geography. Environmental
geography thus, emerged as a major branch
of geography.
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY
Today geography is the only discipline that
brings all natural and human sciences on a
common platfor m to understand the
dynamics of the spatial configuration of the
earth surface. It is an interdisciplinary and
integrative science having numerous
branches (Fig.1.1). Space in geographic
terminology is the congregation of places
on earth sur face to form patter ns and
structures, which support life particularly
human life.
Systematic Geography
Geography looks at the earth surface from
two perspectives: systematic, and regional.
A study of specific natural or social
phenomenon that gives rise to certain spatial
patterns and structures on the earth surface
is called systematic study. There can be as
many systematic branches of geography as
the phenomena studied. Ordinarily,
systematic geography is divided into four main
branches:
• Physiography, conventionally known as
physical geography;
• Biogeography, including environmental
geography;
• Human geography, also referred as
cultural geography; and
• Geographic methods and techniques.
Physical Geography
Physical geography can be divided into four
main sub-branches:
• Geomorphology;
• Climatology;
• Hydrology;
• Soil geography.
Geomorphology is a genetic study of
landfor ms like continents, mountains,
plateaus, plains, river valleys, and a vast
number of other features. Climatology is the
systematic study of climate and its constituent
elements like temperature, pressure, winds,
rainfall, storms, etc. and their distribution.
Hydrology is the study of the role water plays
in nature and human life through oceans,
rivers, glaciers, and water vapour. Soil
geography is the study of soil formation, its
typology and distribution.
Biogeography
The main sub-branches of biogeography are:
• Plant geography;
• Zoogeography;
• Human ecology; and
• Environmental geography.
Plant geography studies the distribution
of various kinds of forests and grasslands.
Zoo geography studies the distribution of
animals and micro-organisms, and human
ecology studies the changing human-nature
relationship and its consequences for human
life and living. Environmental geography
studies the quality of the living environment
and its implications for human welfare.
Human Geography
Human beings working with the nature create
a great variety of cultural phenomena like
villages, towns, cities, countries, factories,
roads, houses, etc. They are also responsible
for destroying many things through conflicts
and wars. Study of location and distribution
of all such phenomena fall under the purview
of human geography. The main sub-branches
of human geography are:
• Cultural geography;
• Social geography;
 Geography

t t
Systematic Regional

t t t t t t t t
NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY

Physical Bio Human/ Methods and Techniques Regional Regional Regional Regional
Cultural of Geography Studies Planning Analysis Development

t
t t t t
Plant Zoo Human Environmental
Ecology t t t t
Field Cartography Quantitative Geo-Informatics
Survey

t t t t
Geomorphology Climatology Hydrology Soil

t t t t t t t t t t
Cultural Social Population Urban Rural Economic Agricultural Industrial Political Geography of
Trade and
Transport

Fig1.1 : Geography — Branches and Sub-Fields

9
10
• Population geography;
• Urban geography;
• Rural geography;
• Economic geography;
• Agricultural geography;
• Industrial geography;
• Political geography;
• Geography of trade and transport.
Each of these studies the distribution of
the relevant elements, tries to find out the
processes involved in their origin and uneven
distribution, delimits the patter ns of
distribution, and predicts the emerging
patterns and structures.
Geographic Methods and Techniques
Under geographic methods and techniques
come:
• Field studies (physical as well socio-
economic surveys);
• Cartography;
• Quantitative geography;
• Spatial information system (GIS, LIS,
GPS).
Regional Geography
Unlike systematic geography, regional
geography starts with the spatial imprints of
one or all the systematic geographic processes
discernible as regions of different sizes.
Regions could be based on a single factor like
relief, rainfall, vegetation, per capita income,
literacy and so on. They could also be
multifactor regions created by the association
of two or more factors. Administrative areas
like states, districts, tehsils/taluks, revenue
villages also can be treated as regions, even if
they have no rationale other than
convenience. For planning and development
purposes, one can form specialised regions.
Identification of the relevant geographical
characteristics of a region; study of interplay
between nature and human and its regional
implications; delimitation of regions using
given criteria; tracing of mutual relationship
among the regions, both vertical and
horizontal; finding regional structures of
economy, society, and polity; and regional
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
planning for problem areas and regions, are
some of the principle concerns of regional
geography. The main sub-branches of regional
geography are:
• Regional studies;
• Regional analysis;
• Regional development;
• Regional planning including area and
community planning.
Regional studies encompass study of
selected areas and regions to bring out their
geographic personality and potentials. They
include regional surveys. Regional analysis
is far more technical than regional studies
both in terms of methodology used and the
scope. Regional analysis uses highly advanced
statistical and mathematical techniques in
analysing the data and lays greater emphasis
on interregional relations and flows to
determine the potentials of a region for future
development. Regional development is a
branch of study that focuses on the processes
of development in a region and suggests
policies and programs, which can help the
region overcome its problems. Regional
planning is a technical exercise involving the
theory and practice of area planning for urban
as well rural areas.
To sum up, geography is a unified field of
study known for its approach and point of
view rather than for its subject matter. It
studies the spatial structure of the earth
surface and its implications for human life
and living. As such the branches of geography
listed above are not exhaustive; they are only
indicative. There can be as many branches
as the subject matters studied to arrive at
meaningful scientific conclusions about the
causes and consequences of the existing or
emerging spatial patterns and structures of
the whole or part of the earth surface.
There are two ways of studying geographic
problems. One of the ways is to select a
geographical factor such as climate and study
its mechanism to evolve typologies and to
examine the causes and consequences of their
spatial distribution on the surface of the earth.
The focus in this case is on climate and
climatic types as modified by local and
NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY 11

regional factors. Such a study falls within the
purview of systematic geography. Alter -
natively, one can start with a region, let us
say a state of India, or a river basin, and then
study it from different perspectives to
understand its uniqueness, to diagnose its
problems and to suggest policies and plans
to solve the problems. In either case region is
a common denominator. Scientific study of the
causes and consequences of the spatial
structure of the earth surface forms the core
of geography.
IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
This book pertains to physical geography. It
covers all that is natural— lithosphere,
atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
Lithosphere covers land forms, atmosphere
deals with climates, hydrosphere is the study
of water features and biosphere focuses on
living things like plants, animals, micro
organisms and human beings. Soils are the
products of all the four elements of physical
geography.
Modern geography, as it emerged in
Europe, was oriented to physical aspects. This
tradition continued almost till the end of the
nineteenth century. Colonial era was marked
by over emphasis on physical environment as
a determining factor in human behaviour, but
there were dissenting voices particularly from
France and the United States where geographic
patterns were considered primarily as products
of human mind working on the physical
base of the earth rather than of nature working
on man.
Movement from the theory of environmental
determinism to that of social determinism did
play a balancing role and made geography
once again a broad based discipline but it
induced a mindset which treated natural
environment — land, water, air, soils,
vegetation, animals etc. — as mere resources
to achieve economic progress. Resource
exploitation became a desirable activity. This
led to the destruction, pollution and shortage
of practically all natural resources including
free gifts like air.
By 1950, humans realised the damage
they had done to their own future. They
realised that natural resources constituted the
life support system on the earth. Their
destruction could lead to extinction of all life
on planet earth. Geographers in India, under
the influence of American geographers and
guided by theories of economic growth
deemphasised physical geography. In the
light of the new situation emerging from
environmental crisis, geography has sought
to return to its physical base. Geography of
the twenty-first century has once again
become a balanced, integrated and
comprehensive discipline giving equal
importance to both physical and human
geography. There can be no geography
without physical geography; nor there can be
one without human geography.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) Who first used the term ‘geography’?
(ii) Why is geography often called the mother of all sciences?
(iii) Why was the need felt for specialisation, which gave rise to systematic disciplines?
(iv) Why did geography become a popular subject in schools by the end of the eighteenth
century?
(v) Name the two major revolutionary changes in geography, which influenced it most
during the second half of the twentieth century.
(vi) What are the two ways of studying geographic problems?
12 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

2. Distinguish between:
(i) Culture and civilisation;
(ii) Systematic and regional geographies;
(iii) ‘Deterministic’ and ‘Possibilistic’ schools of thought;
(iv) Physical geography and biogeography.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Geography in the twentieth century;
(ii) Geographic methods and techniques;
(iii) Contributions of ancient Greek and Indian scholars to geography.
4. Discuss the scope of geography with changing times.
5. ‘There can be no geography without physical or human geography’. Explain this statement
by giving suitable examples.

Project Work
Collect information regarding some eminent Indian geographers of the twentieth century and
their contributions.
 13

Unit II

THE EARTH
CHAPTER
V
iewed from space, the planet earth
appears as a round ball that shines
bright and blue. Aristotle, a Greek
philosopher, believed that the earth was at the
centre of the universe and that the moon, sun,
planets and stars orbited around it. Indian
astronomer Aryabhatta, however, believed in
heliocentric solar system. Today, we know that
the sun is a star and the planets revolving
around it came out of it in the distant past. The
sun, its nine planets and the satellites of the
planets constitute the solar system.
Planets differ in size, constituent matter
and temperature. All these characteristics are
related to their respective distances from the
sun. The earth is one of the small inner
planets, along with Mercury, Venus and Mars.
Inner planets comprise of heavy elements and
are closest to the sun. The earth is, however, the
only planet with conditions favourable for the
sustenance of life.
ORIGIN OF THE PLANETS
Nebular Hypothesis : In 1755, Ger man
philosopher Imanuel Kant hypothesised that
slowly rotating cloud of gas, called Nebula, in
some unspecified fashion condensed into a
number of discrete and globular bodies. The
great French mathematician Laplace also
proposed, more or less, the same theory in
1796. According to Kant and Laplace, the
original mass of gas cooled and began to
contract. The rotational speed increased as a
consequence of the law of conservation of
angular momentum. Thus, successive rings of
gaseous material were spun off from the
central mass by centrifugal force. In the final
stages the rings condensed into planets.
ORIGIN OF THE EARTH
Collision Hypothesis : Sir James Jeans and
Sir Harold Jeffreys, well-known scientists of
England, came forward with the collision
hypothesis. According to this hypothesis,
gaseous material was pulled away from the
pre-existing sun by the gravitational
attraction of a passing star. Giant tongues of
matter came out. These tongues broke
into small chunks or planetesimals, which
went flying as cold bodies into orbits around
the sun in the plane of the passing star.
By collision and gravitational attraction,
the larger planetesimals swept up the
smaller pieces, and thus, were formed the
planets.
THE BIRTH OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
The earth was formed at the same time as the
sun and the other planets of the solar system.
The entire solar system, consisting of the sun,
nine planets, and their satellites form a very
small part of the galaxy that consists of many
stars (Appendix I). Innumerable such galaxies
form the universe. Our galaxy is popularly,
called the Milky Way. The pressure and
temperature at the centre of the Nebula that
produced the solar system became so great,
that it triggered a nuclear reaction. Some of the
hydrogen in the cloud fused into helium,
releasing great amount of energy.
The gaseous cloud exploded to form a
supernova. The explosion caused shock waves
that pushed the denser portions of cloud to
collapse under their own gravity. The dense
core grew larger and hotter as its gravity
attracted more material. In the process, the
hot core developed into a protostar. Finally, the
protostar became the infant sun.
16 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Homogeneous Accretion Hypothesis : The
homogeneous accretion hypothesis maintains
that the earth accreted from an intimate mixture
of silicate particles and metal particles. The
material was assumed to have been formed in
the solar nebula by a complex series of chemical
and physical processes which had occurred
prior to the accretion of planets. According to
hypothesis, accretion of the earth occurred over
a sufficiently long period (107 – 108 years) so that
its gravitational potential energy was efficiently
radiated away and it formed in an initially ‘cool’
and unmelted condition.
Subsequently, heating by long-lived
radioactive elements occurred, leading to
melting of the metal parts and its segregation
into the core. The major element composition
of the earth and its depletions in volatile
elements can be explained through this
hypothesis. It also explains the approximate
chemical uniformity of the mantle formed after
the formation of the core.
Heterogeneous Accretion Hypothesis :
According to heterogeneous accretion
hypothesis, the composition of the material
from which the earth accreted changed with
time giving rise to layered structure of the
earth. According to this model, the earth
formed ‘inside out’, with a cool, oxidised, and
volatile rich nucleus and more metal-rich and
devolatilised outer rings.
ORIGIN OF THE SATELLITES (MOON)
A discussion on the origin of the earth will be
incomplete without discussing the origin of the
moon. In this case also there are many
hypotheses. Radiometric dating of the rocks
from the moon show that it was born along
with the earth. It is not younger. Apparently
then, there are two possibilities. It either came
out of the sun in a gaseous form but being too
small was attracted by the earth, or it flung out
of the earth due to a huge meteorite falling on
the earth. The area where the meteorite fell,
a huge hollow was created, which is now filled
up by the ocean and the landmass flung to the
outer space created the moon.
In all fairness, several possible courses for
our planet’s evolution are presented here. In
general, there is fair agreement in the course
of events. Looking for the plausible
explanation to the earth’s evolution is like
making a house out of a variety of blocks. The
constraint is that each block has to fit with the
ones under it and over it and that the whole
structure has to stand up, but there may be
more than one way to build the house.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) Why do planets differ in size, constituent matter and temperature?
(ii) What is a Nebula?
(iii) What are planetesimals?
(iv) Who first proposed Nebular hypothesis?
(v) Name our galaxy.
(vi) What is a protostar?
(vii) How is it known that the moon was born along with the earth?
2. Write short notes on:
(i) Collision hypothesis; (ii) Homogeneous accretion hypothesis; and (iii) Origin of the moon.
3. Discuss various hypotheses for the evolution of planets.
4. Describe the evolution of the solar system.

!
CHAPTER
A
lthough earthquakes can have
catastrophic effects, they can also
reveal a great deal about the earth’s
internal structure. The shock waves arising
from earthquakes pass through the interior of
the earth in different ways and provide the
evidence about the inaccessible interior
regions of the earth. Several kinds of wave
motions (P and S waves) produced by the
earthquakes are of a class called body waves
because they travel through the solid body of
the earth. Body waves are distinguished from
surface waves, which move along the free
upper crust of the earth. Surface waves are of
Fig.3.1 : Forms of Surface Seismic Waves
A. Rayleigh Waves; and B. Love Waves
17
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
two types; they travel more or less together,
but with different motions (Fig. 3.1). One type
consists of Rayleigh waves, named after the
English physicist, Lord Rayleigh. They can be
visualised as water waves travelling across the
surface of a still pond after a pebble has been
tossed into the water. The second type of
surface waves is the Love wave, named after
the physicist A.E.H. Love. Motion in the Love
wave is entirely horizontal, at right angles to
the direction of wave motion.
The waves travel at different rates from a
common source. Therefore, time interval
between their arrival at the recording station
will also vary. Besides, the density of rocks and
nature of the medium, whether solid or liquid,
through which the P and S waves pass, also
affect the propagation of waves. Based on
these observations, the earth’s interior has
been divided into three layers – crust, mantle
and core (Fig. 3.2).
THE EARTH’S CORE
Study of seismogram (a seismograph record)
has confirmed the existence of a spherical core
at the earth’s centre and has added insights
into its physical nature. In case the earth were
entirely solid, both P and S waves would travel
through in all directions. The body waves of
any large earthquake could be recorded
directly opposite its focus. It was, however,
found that there is a region on the globe
opposite the earthquake focus where S waves
are not received. That means, the S waves
cannot pass through the central part of the
earth because this part is made of a medium
18
Fig.3.2 : Dimensions of the Earth’s Mantle and Core
which is not solid. Physicists have proved
through experiments that S waves cannot be
sent through a liquid medium. This proves that
the earth’s core is in liquid state in contrast to
the surrounding mantle which is solid.
The seismic waves bend as they travel
through the core and therefore, P waves are
not directly received in a zone, known as
shadow zone, between 1030 and 1430 distant
from the focus. Also, S waves are not received
there because they do not travel through the
liquid core. Only surface waves are received in
this shadow zone. Beyond 1430 only P waves
passing through the core and surface waves
travelling along the surface are received. From
the extent of the shadow zone, the earth’s core
is calculated to have a radius of 3,470 km, a
little more than half the earth’s total radius.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
THE EARTH’S MANTLE
The P waves make abrupt drop in velocity at
the mantle-core boundary, whereas S wave
terminates at the mantle-core boundary
(Fig.3.3). Thus making a plane of dis-
continuous surface between the core and the
mantle known as Gutenberg discontinuity.
Through the earth’s mantle, upto nearly 2,900
km, the speed of earthquake waves is so high
that only a very rigid and dense rock will
satisfy the observed conditions. Solid or rigid
in this case means either crystalline or glassy.
It also means that, when subjected to the
sudden twists and bends of earthquake waves,
the rock behaves as an elastic solid, that is, it
changes shape when shear stresses are
applied, but returns exactly to its former
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
Temperature (K)
Fig.3.3 : The Earth’s Interior
A. Increase in pressure with depth; B. Increase in
temperature with depth; C. Increase in density with
depth; and D. Velocity of P and S Waves.
19
shape when those stresses are removed. Thus,
the mantle consists of solid rock.
Based on the behaviour of seismic waves,
the mantle is sub-divided into two major parts
— the upper mantle and the lower mantle. The
upper mantle, extending from the crust to a
depth of about 650 km, includes the
asthenosphere, which occupies the upper 300
to 400 km. Rocks in the asthenosphere behave
as both a plastic solid and an elastic solid. The
matter possessing these remarkable
properties is an elastic-viscous substance —
it can be elastic and plastic at the same time,
depending on whether the forces that tend to
deform it are applied and released suddenly or
steadily. The presence of the soft layer or
plastic layer in the upper part of mantle was
suspected as far back as 1926 by
distinguished seismologist Beno Gutenburg.
He noticed that earthquake wave velocities are
slowed down below 150 km, after first
increasing rapidly from the surface to that
depth. This region is referred to as the low-
velocity zone.
THE EARTH’S CRUST
The crust is distinguished from the mantle by
the presence of abrupt change in the velocity
of seismic waves. This corresponds to the
abrupt change in rigidity of the rock from crust
to mantle. The change in rigidity in turn is due
to change in mineral composition or in
physical state of the rocks. The P waves near
the surface travel at about 6 km per second
and this velocity increases gradually or
abruptly to the base of the crust, where it is
7 km per second. The surface of sudden
increase in wave velocity, which separates the
crust above from the mantle below, is the
Mohorovicic discontinuity, also called
Moho discontinuity or M discontinuity. It is
named after the Yugoslav seismologist,
Mohorovicic, who first recognised the
discontinuity in 1909.
20 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) Name the three layers of the earth.
(ii) What is a seismogram?
(iii) Name two types of surface waves.
(iv) How do the rocks of the earth’s mantle behave when subjected to the earthquake waves?
(v) What is asthenosphere?
(vi) What is the radius of the earth’s core?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Body waves and surface waves;
(ii) Rayleigh waves and Love waves;
(iii) Gutenberg discontinuity and Mohorovicic discontinuity.
3. Write short notes on:
(i) Shadow zone; and (ii) The earth’s crust.
4. Discuss how do seismic waves suggest layering of the earth’s interior.
5. Describe the earth’s mantle.
 21

"
CHAPTER
EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO

T
he earth is constantly undergoing lithospheric plate boundaries is remarkably
change. Some changes are fast and strong.
some are slow. Earthquakes and
volcanoes are endogenic forces which cause TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES
sudden changes on the earth. Weathering and
We have already discussed earthquake waves in
agents of sculpture are exogenic forces which
Chapter 3. In this section, we propose to examine
bring about slow changes. In the following
them in greater details. There are three types of
pages a description has been given about the
seismic waves generated by earthquake called
earthquakes and volcanoes.
Primary, Secondary and Long waves designated
as P, S, and L respectively. P waves are fast
EARTHQUAKE
travelling waves; they arrive first. S waves are
Earthquake is the trembling of the earth slower; they take almost twice as long to travel.
initiated by sudden shock. Sometimes it is so In fast travelling P waves, the individual particles
violent that it damages or destroys strong vibrate to and fro in the direction of wave
buildings. The devastation caused on propagation whereas in S waves the particles
26 January 2001 in Bhuj, Gujarat speaks of vibrate up and down at right angles to the
the violent nature of earthquakes. Most of the direction of propagation (Fig. 4.1).
shocks that cause the earth to tremble are The P waves travel through the body of the
associated with diastrophic movements. The earth at an average rate of 6 km/sec. They are
sudden slippage of rocks along the faults and faster at depth (about 8 km/sec to 11 km/sec)
also in some cases faults reaching the ground than near the surface. They travel through
surface, displace the objects on the ground. In
other cases, crustal rocks bend elastically and
set waves in motion.
The place where the earthquake originates
inside the earth is called its focus. The point
on the earth’s surface vertically above the
focus is called the epicentre. The waves travel
away through rocks in all the directions.
Shaking is the strongest near the epicentre.
Great accumulation of elastic strain is built up
constantly along active lithospheric plate
boundaries, particularly along converging
(where two plates meet) boundaries. Slippage
of opposed plates in these converging zones
release enormous quantities of energy in the
form of great earthquakes. The relationship Fig.4.1 : Earthquake Waves — Particle Motions
between earthquake activity or seismicity and in P Waves and S Waves
22
both solid and liquid medium. The S waves also
go through the body of the earth but at a slower
rate of 3.5 km/sec. L waves follow the
circumference of the earth and travel at more
or less constant rate. They are also known as
surface waves. Thus, P and S waves travel by
a direct path through the earth (Fig. 4.2) while
L waves follow its circumference.
Fig.4.2 : Cross-Section of the Earth — Paths of
P Waves; S Waves; and Surface Waves
The Seismograph
The seismograph is a sensitive instrument that
records earthquakes thousands of kilometres
distant and so weak that their vibrations could
not possibly be recognised by the human
senses. The seismograph design is based on the
principle of inertia — the tendency of any mass
to resist a change in a state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line is greater, the greater
the mass of the object.
The first indication that a severe
earthquake has occurred at a distant point is
the sudden beginning of the Primary waves
(P waves). These waves then die down
somewhat for a few minutes; then a second
burst of activity sets in with the arrival of
Secondary waves (S waves) which are
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
somewhat larger in height than the P waves.
Following it, smooth waves that increase
greatly in amplitude to a maximum and then die
slowly are recorded. These are the surface
waves. Two measurements are made directly
from the seismograph: (a) amplitude in mm of
the largest (highest) wave recorded; and
(b) time in seconds elapsed between arrivals of
the P and S waves.
Earthquake Prediction
Two approaches have been adopted in
earthquake prediction. One approach is the
measurement of several kinds of significant
physical changes that take place immediately
prior to an earthquake. The second approach
is historical i.e. long-term seismic history of
the affected region. The physical changes are:
P Wave Velocity
Numerous small earthquakes are expected to
cause change in the velocity of P waves that
return to normal immediately before the large
earthquake. This change is monitored on
seismograph.
Ground Uplift
Slow movement of crustal masses before the
earthquake causes a large volume of rock to
become riddled with countless minute cracks
or microcracks. The ground water moves into
the newly created microcracks. The presence
of water acts like hydraulic jack; the rock mass
swells and the ground surfaces experience
doming or uplift before major earthquakes.
This change is referred to as dilatancy.
Radon Emission
Emission of radon gas increases just before a
major earthquake takes place. Monitoring of
the emission of radon gas can serve as
forewarn to the major destruction.
Animal Behaviour
It has been observed that prior to the major
earthquake, animals especially burrowing
animals, behave unusually. The ants, termites
EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO
and other burrowing animals shift their hiding
places. The birds chirp loudly and animals
such as dogs howl and bark very regularly.
Induced Earthquake
In a number of cases human activities have set
off earthquake. The pumping of fluids into the
oil fields to raise the hydrostatic pressure and
to increase oil recovery is responsible for
setting off minor earthquakes. Human beings
are responsible for setting off earthquakes by
building large dams on major rivers. The load
of water from new lakes impounded behind the
large dams is responsible for triggering
earthquakes.
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE ZONES
Abundance of large earthquakes in a ring
surrounding the Pacific Ocean, known as
Circum-Pacific Belt is a line of intense volcanic
activity as well as seismic activity. The second
belt of intense seismicity stretches from
Mediterranean Sea to the Indonesian region,
corresponding to tectonically active boundary
between Eurasian Plate and the African and
Australian Plates. A third belt of high
seismicity runs down the middle of the Atlantic
Ocean basin through the Indian Ocean and
across the southern Pacific Ocean.
VOLCANO
The molten material coming out from inside
the earth through a pipe or vent and
accumulating around the pipe in the form of
a mound, is called a volcano. All volcanoes
result from magma, molten material below the
earth’s surface, which is brought to the
surface as lava or volcanic fragments.
Volcanoes show considerable variation in size,
shape and the kind of material ejected. Most
volcanoes produce lava. Lava is at very high
temperatures, between 800 0 and 1,200 0
celsius and it contains steam and many other
gases.
Let us find out how does magma,
originating inside the earth comes to the
surface as lava.
23
Towards the base of the earth’s crust, hot
rock maintains its solid state because of the
pressure from rock above it. When pressure is
reduced by a crack in the earth or rock that
lies above, the hot rock can change to a liquid
in small chambers known as magma
chambers. Zones of weakness, regions of
lessened pressure or already existing fissures
are perfect paths for the passage of magma.
Gas pressure in pockets in the earth forces the
magma to move. Sometimes as magma moves,
it melts overlying rocks or forces them aside.
Volcanic Features
Extrusion of lava takes place from an opening
called volcanic vent. A saucer shaped
depression is created around the vent, which
is known as crater. On occasion, the explosive
eruption of a volcano blows out an enormous
mass of magma and previously solidified lava
from a considerable depth. Such explosion is
associated with the collapse or subsidence of
the central part of the crater. A steep sided
crater is formed by the destruction of the
crater formed by the gradual construction of
volcanic matter (Fig. 4.3). This steep-sided
crater is known as caldera. Besides the lava
that flows out from a volcano, rock and
mineral fragments are also blown out from a
volcano known as pyroclastic material. The
pyroclastic material range in size from solid
blocks to fine dust. Spindle or spherical
shaped masses are known as volcanic bombs.
Sometimes fluid or plastic lava falls close to the
vent after being thrown in the air to form
spatter cone. Smaller particles of lava, ranging
from 4 to 25 mm, are called volcanic lapilli
whereas particles under 4 mm constitute
volcanic dust or ash. Volcanic ash, when
thrown up in air, remains in suspension for a
long period of time. It is either drifted away by
wind or falls down with rainfall and is
transported by running water to be deposited
as sedimentary layers called tuff.
Eruptive Styles
Magma may cool enough to solidify before it
reaches the surface of the earth, or it may cool
24
Fig.4.3 : Formation of Caldera by Collapse
of Volcano
A. Magma fills the reservoir and stands high up in
volcanic pipe as the final eruption begins; B. Violent
eruption of gas and pumice occurs as the magma from
reservoir drains downwards; and C. Collapse of the cone
fills the vacated space with a mass of broken blocks.
after it flows down the side of a volcano. If
eruption is violent, lava is hurled high into the
air, with solid rocks. Volcanoes may remain
dormant for thousands of years and then
suddenly erupt when the pressure has built up
beneath the ground. Eruption takes place in two
ways — fissure eruption and central eruption.
Fissure Eruption
The lava or pyroclastic material emanates from
long, narrow fissures or a group of such
fissures. The fluid lava flows away from the
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
fissures and does not build cones. Deccan
Plateau in India is an example of the fissure lava
eruption that took place about 60-62 million
years ago.
Central Eruption
The central eruptions are much like point
source eruptions, unlike the linear sources of
fissure eruption. The lava or pyroclastic
material erupts from a central vent or pipe and
gives rise to a cone. Viscous lava can barely
flow and produce volcanic domes.
Types of Volcanoes
On the basis of frequency of eruption, there are
three types of volcanoes: active, dormant and
extinct volcanoes. The volcanoes that erupt
frequently as compared to others are called
active volcanoes. The Barren Island of
Andamans in India is an example of active
volcano. The volcanoes that erupt
inter mittently are known as dor mant or
sleeping volcanoes. The volcanoes that have
not erupted for a very long time and have no
record of eruption in historic times are known
as extinct or dead volcanoes. The dormant
volcanoes may get activated suddenly and are
therefore dangerous. Krakatao in Indonesia
erupted in 1883 (the world’s greatest recorded
explosion).
Global Pattern of Volcanism
Chains of volcanoes are always associated
with places where the crust of the earth is
actively changing. The longest chain
surrounds the Pacific Ocean and is called the
‘Ring of Fire’. Another group exists in the area
of the Mediterranean and in the Rift Valley in
eastern Africa. Whole groups and chains of
islands are sometimes formed in the ocean by
volcanoes that erupt time and again. This is
how the Hawaiian and Aleutian Islands were
created. The effects of volcanic activity are not
all bad. The ejected material that comes from
inside the volcano is unbelievably fertile.
Another important product of volcanic activity
is geothermal heat, a source of alternate
power.
EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO 25

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What is an earthquake?
(ii) What is focus?
(iii) Which of the earthquake waves travels fastest?
(iv) Name the wave that follows the circumference of the earth.
(v) Which two measurements are taken directly from the seismograph?
(vi) How do human activities induce earthquakes?
(vii) What is a volcano?
(viii) How does hot rock at the base of the earth’s crust maintain its solid state?
(ix) Name the two ways in which volcanic eruption takes place.
(x) What is the ‘Ring of Fire’?
(xi) Name the three types of volcanoes.
2. Give one word for the following:
(i) The point on the earth’s surface vertically above the focus.
(ii) The earthquake waves, larger in height than ‘P’ waves but having a slower rate of
movement.
(iii) Spindle or spherical shaped masses thrown out from a volcano.
3. Distinguish between :
(i) ‘P’ waves and ‘S’ waves;
(ii) Magma and lava;
(iii) Vent and crater;
(iv) Dormant and extinct volcanoes.
4. Discuss main characteristics of various seismic waves.
5. Describe the two approaches followed for the prediction of the earthquakes.
6. Describe the distribution of earthquake prone regions in the world.
7. What are the probable causes of the volcanic eruptions? Describe the volcanic activity and
the major features associated with them.

Finding out
Collect information about the earthquake prone regions of India and the major earthquakes of
the country during past ten years. Prepare a report supported with a map of India showing the
location of these occurrences and the areas affected by the earthquakes.
26 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

#
CHAPTER
ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS

A
lfred Wegener, in 1912, proposed that
all land masses of the world had formed
from one super–continent, called
Pangaea (Fig. 5.1). The super -continent,
Pangaea had evolved some 280 million years
ago, at the end of the Carboniferous Period and
by mid-Jurassic, 150 million years ago,
Pangaea had split into a northern continent
called Laurasia, and a southern continent
called Gondwanaland. About 65 million
years ago, i.e. at the end of Cretaceous,
Gondwanaland further broke up to give rise to
several other continents such as South
America, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica
(Fig. 5.2). India broke apart and followed an
independent route moving towards northeast.

EVIDENCE OF MOVEMENT OF CONTINENTS

There are evidences that suggest the
existence of Pangaea. The ancient mountain
belt, 470 to 350 million years old, were created
by a continuous belt of geological activity.
These mountains are now separated by the
Atlantic Ocean. Some fossils also tell us that
the continents were once joined. For example,
fossils of the plant Glossopteris and the
animals Mesosurus and Lystrosaurus have all
been found on all continents of Gondwanaland
that are now widely separated.

Fig.5.1 : Wegener’s Map of Continental Drift —
Fitting of the Continents Bordering the
Atlantic Ocean
Geological Matching
Significant observation is the occurrence of
gold deposits within river alluvium in the
Ghana coast (Africa) and the absolute absence
of source rocks in that region. However, across
5,000 km wide ocean, there are gold-bearing
veins in Belen Sau in Brazil (South America)
but no gold deposits within alluvium in the
adjacent coastal belt. Placing Africa and South
America together, the solution emerges with
stunning effectiveness. The gold bearing
sediments were transported down the slope in
ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 27

60°N

30°N

0°

60°N
30°S

30°N
S
60°

0°

30°S

60°S

60°N

30°N

0°

30°S

60°S

Fig.5.2 : Formation of Present Day Continents from Pangaea — Five Stages of the Break-Up
Arrows indicate the direction of the movement of the lithospheric plates.

Brazil and deposited in the belt which is today
the Ghana coast.
Palaeoclimatic Unity
Thick glacial deposits of Permo-Carboniferous
age are exposed at Uruguay and Brazil in
South America, Africa, south India, south
Australia and Tasmania. The uniformity in the
nature of sediment indicates that these
continents/countries were together in the
geological past and experienced similar
climatic conditions. Today, these countries are
28 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

situated in various types of climatic zones,

from temperate to tropical and are widely
separated from each other by large oceans.
Similarly, corals thrive in warm waters
between the latitudes 300N and 300S. However,
remnants of some corals found on the continents
away from the region strengthen the view that
these continents were nearer to the equator in
the geological past. The continents have moved
northwards and are experiencing cold and frigid
climatic conditions today.

Polar Wandering
One of the strongest line of evidence that the
continents were formerly united in Pangaea
came from palaeomagnetism. The magneti-cally
susceptible minerals such as magnetite,
haematite, ilmenite, pyrrhotite in lava/magma
and unconsolidated sediments have the
tendency to align themselves parallel to the
magnetic field prevailing at that time. This
property is retained in the rocks as permanent
magnetism. There has been periodic change in
the position of magnetic pole that is recorded
in rocks by way of permanent magnetism.
Unraveling the signatures of such changes in
the geologically old rocks by scientific methods
provides the changing position of poles in
geological time scale. This is known as polar
wandering. The polar wandering clearly
demonstrates that the continents have Fig.5.3 : Stages in Continental Rupture and the
frequently moved and changed directions of Opening-Up of a New Ocean Basin
their motion from time to time. The vertical scale is exaggerated to emphasise
surface features.
SEA FLOOR SPREADING A. The crust is uplifted and stretched apart causing it
to break into blocks that become tilted on faults;
The present distribution of the continents has B. A narrow ocean is formed between the faults;
taken place in the last 65 million years. The and C. The ocean basin widens.
drift of continents still continues. The ridges
down the middle of ocean floors have been
will widen to produce a new ocean millions of
emitting lava actively (Fig. 5.3). These mid-
years in future. The widening South Atlantic
oceanic ridges, are cracks on the floor of ocean
Ocean has separated Africa and South America.
where molten rocks push up to form new
crust. The crust spreads away from the ridge
PLATE THEORY
and the ocean basin widens. This phenomena
is known as Sea Floor Spreading. The Atlantic According to the global plate tectonic theory, the
Ocean is getting wider by several centimetres lithosphere is broken into a number of
a year, the Pacific Ocean is getting smaller, and moderately rigid plates (Fig.5.4). The plates
the Red Sea is part of a crack in the crust that move continuously and have relative direction
 ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS

Fig.5.4 : The Mid-Oceanic Ridge System and Related Fracture Zones

29
30
of motion. Based on the relative motion of plates,
three kinds of plate boundaries or marginal
zones are recognised — (i) zones or margins of
divergence or spreading; (ii) zones or margins of
convergence; and (iii) fracture zones or
transform faults.
Zones of divergence are boundaries along
which plates separate and in this process of
separation molten material upwells. This is
commonly observed along linear ocean ridges
where new lithosphere is created in the form
of new ocean floors. Active volcanism and
shallow focus earthquakes mark such
boundaries.
Zones of convergence are boundaries along
which the edge of one plate overrides the other.
The overridden plate slips down into the
mantle and is absorbed. This process is known
as subduction. Besides volcanism and shallow
to deep focus earthquakes, these boundaries
also produce deep trenches/ basins and
folded mountain chains.
There is neither creation nor destruction
along the transfor m fault (Fig. 5.5). The
lithospheric plates slide past each other.
Causes of Plate Movement
Arthur Holmes, in 1928, proposed that sub-
crustal convection currents invoke the
mechanism of thermal convection that acts as
driving force for the movement of plates. Hot
current rise, then cool as they reach the
surface. At the same time, cooler currents sink
down. This convectional movement moves the
crustal plates. Owing to current movements,
the rigid plates of the lithosphere, which ‘float’
on more mobile asthenopshere, are in
constant motion. There are no direct evidences
to prove the existence of such mechanism
below the crust. However, small centres of past
volcanic activity and often located far from any
active plate boundary suggest the effect of
convection currents on the lithosphere. These
centres of volcanic activity are called the hot
spot. W. Jason Morgan proposed the
hypothesis of hot spot in 1971. According to
him, the source of magma in the mantle
remains fixed in position while the lithospheric
plate above it moves steadily. In this way,
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
volcanoes are formed over a hot spot but then
move away from the magma source and become
extinct. These extinct volcanoes form a chain
that is record of the plate motion.
Plate Boundaries
Plate boundaries are the most significant
structural features of the earth. To understand
plate tectonics, it is necessary to learn the
geography of plate boundaries.
Plate boundaries are not dif ficult to
identify; they are marked by major topo-
graphic features.
As given in Fig. 5.5 the outer rigid layer of
the earth — the lithosphere — is divided into
a mosaic of seven major plates and a number
of smaller sub-plates. The major plates are
outlined by young mountain systems, oceanic
ridges and trenches. These include:
• Pacific Plate;
• Eurasian Plate;
• Indo-Australian Plate;
• African Plate;
• North American Plate;
• South American Plate;
• Antarctic Plate.
The largest among them is the Pacific Plate
which is composed of oceanic crust almost
entirely and covers about 20 per cent of the
earth’s surface. The other plates have both
continental and oceanic crust. No plate consists
of only continental crust. Plates range in
thickness from about 70 km beneath oceanic
areas to 150 km beneath continents.
Plates are not permanent features. They
change in size and shape and the ones which
do not contain continental crust can become
victims of subduction. A plate can split or weld
with another adjoining plate.
Each tectonic plate is rigid and moves as
a single unit. Nearly all major tectonic activity
occurs along the plate boundaries and that is
why geologists and geographers focus their
attention on the plate boundaries.
Indian Plate
Indian Ocean floor presents striking
topography, consisting of a number of elevated
ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 31

North

Indo-
Australian
Plate

E W

North

South
American Indo-
Plate Australian
Plate

E W
Plate boundaries
Divergent boundary Transform fault Convergent boundary

Fig.5.5 : Lithospheric Plates of the World

Note the movement of the Indian plate marked by arrows with respect to other plates.
32 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

ridges and plateaus. Two of the ocean ridges,
namely the Ninety-east ridge and the Mascarene
Plateau, Chagos-Maldweep-Lakshadweep
island ridge are said to be volcanic tracts of two
hot spots. The northward extension of Ninety-
east ridge ended in the trench which consumed
the sea floor to the north of the Indian continental
mass. The Chagos-Lakshadweep ridge linked
the ancient Carlsberg ridge with southeast
Indian ridge during Eocene period (50 million
years ago). The mid Indian Ocean ridge has been
spreading faster, estimated at a speed of about
14-20 cm/year.
Consequent to the Carlsberg-southeast
Indian Ocean Ridge, the collision between
Indian Plate and Eurasia Plate took place
north of the Indian Plate giving rise to the
Himalaya. The suture between Indian and
Eurasian Plates in the Himalaya region has
been along the Indus and Brahmaputra
rivers.
Geological Facts
• Australia has nearly turned completely
round from its original position and is now
moving northward. In 50 million years
time it will be touching the landmass of
Eurasia.
• About every 40,000-500,000 years, the
earth’s magnetic poles reverse.
• It has taken about 200 million years to
separate South America from Africa and
create the Atlantic Ocean, and about
40 million years for Australia and the
Antarctic to move apart to their present
position.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What is a Pangaea?
(ii) Who first propounded the theory of continental drift?
(iii) What is meant by sea floor spreading?
(iv) How do lithospheric plates behave along the transform fault?
(v) What acts as the driving force for the movement of plates?
(vi) Name the major plates of the earth.
(vii) Which plate is composed of mainly oceanic crust?
(viii) How did the Himalaya rise?
2. Give one term for the following:
(i) Name of the southern continent, which broke from Pangaea.
(ii) Centres of volcanic activity.
(iii) Periodical change in the position of magnetic pole.
(iv) The process in which one plate overrides the other and the overriden plate slips down
into the mantle and is absorbed.
3. Discuss the evidences that support the continental drift.
4. Explain the plate tectonic theory and its mechanism.
5. Describe the main features of the Indian plate.

Finding Out
Collect more information about the continental drift especially the movement of the Indian plate.

$
CHAPTER
T
he earth’s solid layer, called lithosphere,
is about 100 km in thickness. The word
‘lithosphere’ literally means ‘a sphere of
rocks’. Down to a depth of 16 km from the
earth’s surface, 95 per cent of the earth
materials consist of rocks. The rocks are made
of individual solid substances called minerals.
Each mineral usually contains two or more
elements, of which the whole earth is made of.
ROCKS
Petrologists (scientists who study rocks) define
a rock as any natural mass of mineral matter
that makes up the earth’s crust. All rocks are
not hard. Clay, for example, is a type of rock
that is soft. Chalk is still softer.
Rock Types
There are three main groups of rocks: Igneous;
Sedimentary; and Metamorphic Rocks.
Igneous Rocks
These are formed from lava hurled out of a
volcano or from the cooling of hot magma
below the crust. Granite is coarse-grained
igneous rock that is formed by the slow cooling
of magma. Basalt is fine-grained igneous rock,
almost black, that is formed by quick cooling
of lava. Igneous rocks are classified on the
basis of chemical composition and texture.
Chemical differentiation of magma gives rise
to mafic and felsic types of igneous rocks.
Texture relates to the sizes and patterns of the
mineral crystals present in the rock. The size
of mineral crystals in an igneous rock depends
largely upon the rate of cooling of magma. As
a general rule, rapid cooling results in small
33
ROCKS AND MINERALS
crystals and slow cooling in large crystals.
Extremely sudden cooling will result in the
formation of a natural glass which is non-
crystalline. Large bodies of magma, trapped
beneath the surface, cool very slowly because
the surrounding rock conduct the heat slowly.
Rapid cooling occurs in lava that loses heat
rapidly to the atmosphere or to the overlying
ocean water.
The crystals large enough to be seen with
naked eyes or with the help of a hand lens are
called phaneritic textured crystals whereas
those too small to be distinguished without the
aid of a microscope are called aphanitic textured
crystals of the igneous rocks. Where crystals
in the rock are all within the same size range,
the texture is described as equigranular.
Where a few large crystals, called as
phenocrysts, are embedded in a martix or
groundmass of smaller crystals, the texture is
porphyritic.
Sedimentary Rocks
These are made from sediments formed by the
erosion and weathering of other rock types.
Wind, water and snow erode rocks and carry
the sediments to low lying areas. When
deposited in the sea they are compressed and
hardened to form layers of rocks. Sediment is
fragmented mineral and organic matter
derived directly or indirectly from pre-existing
rocks and from life processes, transported
and deposited by air, water or snow/ice.
Sandstone is made from grains of sand,
which have been naturally cemented
together. Chalk is made up of millions of tiny
calcium carbonate (lime) skeletons of
microorganisms.
34
Throughout the geologic past, layers of
sediment have accumulated to great thickness
in certain favourable areas on the continents
and on the ocean floor. As new layers are
added, the underlying layers experience
progressively deeper burial. Under increasing
pressures imposed by the overlying load,
water is excluded from the sediment. They
become denser and strongly coherent.
Ultimately, hard rock layers are produced, a
process ter med lithification. In some
instances, chemical changes also occur in the
sediments following deposition. All processes
of physical and chemical change affecting
sediments during its conversion into solid rock
are called diagenesis.
The first level of classification of sedi-
mentary rocks is into clastic and non-clastic
divisions. The adjective “clastic” comes from
the Greek word “klastos”, meaning “broken”
and describes clastic sediments consisting of
particles removed individually from a parent
rock source. The naming of clastic rocks
depends in part on the size of component
mineral grains. A system of grading of mineral
grains has been established by geologists,
which is known as Wentworth Scale.
The non-clastic sedimentary rocks are
made of sediments of two basic types,
chemical precipitates and organically derived
sediments. Chemical precipitates are solid
mineral matters precipitated from an aqueous
solution in which the component ions have
been transported. The rock salt and gypsum
are its examples. The organically derived
sediments consist of remains of plants or
animals as well as mineral matters produced
by the activities of plants and animals. Coal
and limestone are very good examples of this
kind. Important non-clastic sediments are the
carbonate minerals, compounds of calcium or
magnesium ion or both. Sulphate compounds
are also minerals of the chemical sediments,
anhydrite (calcium sulphate) and gypsum
(hydrous calcium sulphate) are important
minerals.
Metamorphic Rocks
These types of rocks are formed when a rock
is subjected to heat and/or pressure (Fig. 6.1).
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The heat and/or pressure alter the
characteristics of the original rock by forming
new minerals. Clay when subjected to heat and/
or pressure gets metamorphosed to slate.
Similarly, limestones give rise to marble.
The metamorphic rocks can be broadly
grouped into two major classes: cataclastic
rocks and recrystallised rocks. Cataclastic
rocks are formed by mechanical disruption
(breaking and crushing) of the original
minerals without appreciable chemical
change. The process is described as dynamic
metamorphism. The recrystallised rocks are
formed by the recrystallisation of the original
minerals. Minerals with different chemical
formulae and crystal lattices are produced due
to recrystallisation. The recrystallised rocks
are further divided into two subclasses:
contact and regional metamorphic rocks. The
contact metamorphic rocks are formed by
recrystallisation under high temperature
caused by the intruding magma. The rocks
are not subjected to bending and breaking but
new mineral/s, emanating from magma are
added to metamorphosed rocks. The regional
metamorphic rocks undergo recrystallisation
during the process of being deformed by
shearing, often under conditions of high
pressure or high temperature or both.
As metamorphism continues a large
percentage of the minerals assume plate-like
shape and are assembled in parallel
orientation in the rock, a structure known as
foliation. Strongly developed foliation is known
as schists. In schists, crystals of certain
minerals grow in size. These large crystals are
referred to as porphyroblasts. Another
structure found in metamorphic rocks is
lineation. In this, mineral grains are drawn out
into long, thin, pencil-like objects, all in
parallel alignment. In another for m of
structure, known as banding, minerals of
different varieties or groups are segregated
into alternate layers. These layers are usually
of light or dark shades, making the banding
conspicuous. Gneiss and schist have well
marked banded structure.
ROCKS AND MINERALS
Fig.6.1 : Rock Cycle
MINERALS
The mineral is a naturally occurring
homogeneous solid that is an inorganic
substance, having an orderly atomic structure
and a definite chemical composition. The basic
source of all minerals is the hot magma in the
interior of the earth. When magma cools,
crystals of minerals appear. These first
crystals may sink in the magma so that the
composition of the magma changes with
depth. Thus, a sequence of minerals is formed
in the rocks as the magma cools. Besides,
certain minerals such as coal, petroleum and
natural gas are organic substances found in
solid, liquid and gaseous forms respectively.
Physical Properties of Minerals
Minerals can be identified by their hardness,
colour, the way they reflect light (lustre), the
way they break (cleavage and fracture), and
their density.
35
Crystal Structure
Mineral crystals fall into six crystal systems
(Fig.6.2), each of which is defined in terms of its
crystallographic axes.
(i) Isometric System : Three axes of crystal are
of equal length and lie at right angle to each
other, e.g. Halite mineral.
(ii) Tetragonal System : Three axes make right
angles with each other. The two horizontal
axes, a and b, are of equal length but the
third, c axis, is of different length, e.g
Zircon mineral.
(iii) Hexagonal System : Four axes are present.
Three of the axes are horizontal and of
equal length, intersecting in angles of 600
and 1200. The fourth axes is perpendicular
to other axes and is of different length, e.g.
Beryl mineral.
(iv) Orthorhombic System : Three axes inter-
sect at right angles to each other, but they
are of unequal lengths, e.g. Staurolite
mineral.
36
(v) Monoclinic System : The three axes are of
unequal length. Two axes intersect at right
angles whereas the third axis intersects
obliquely forming an acute angle, e.g.
Gypsum mineral.
(vi) Triclinic System : The three axes are of
unequal length and intersect at oblique
angles, e.g. Albite mineral.
Cleavage and Fracture
The smooth planar surfaces of weakness along
which a mineral has pronounced tendency to
split is known as cleavage planes. It bears a
close relationship to internal atomic structure
and external crystal form of mineral. Minerals
Fig.6.2 : Mineral Crystals — Various Forms
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
lacking cleavage break along various types of
fracture surfaces. For example, the curved
fracture surfaces of a glass constitute
conchoidal fracture, that is seen in mineral
quartz.
Specific Gravity
Each mineral has a certain specific gravity which
is the ratio of its density to the density of water
at 40 Celsius. Specific gravity of minerals is a
property of great importance because it
determines the density of a given rock and rock
density in turn determines the gross layered
structure of the earth.
ROCKS AND MINERALS
Hardness
The degree to which a mineral surface resists
being scratched is known as its mineral
hardness. Hardness is geologically important
because it determines how easily a mineral is
worn away by the abrasive action of streams,
waves, wind and glaciers in the processes of
erosion and transportation. Ten standard
minerals constitute the Mohs Scale of
hardness ranging from the softest to the
hardest (Appendix II).
Lustre
The appearance of a mineral surface under
reflected light is referred to as its mineral
lustre. It is described by several descriptive
adjectives, such as metallic (metal like),
adamantine (diamond like), vitreous (glass
like), resinous (oil like), pearly or silky (pearl
or silk like).
Colour
Certain minerals possess a distinctive mineral
colour that facilitates recognition. The
impurities present in the mineral provides
shades of colour to a mineral.
Streak
When a mineral is rubbed across the white
porceline plate, known as streak plate, it may
leave a streak of mineral powder of distinctive
colour. The colour of powder of mineral may
sometimes be different than the colour of the
mineral.
Besides physical properties, minerals are
also identified on the basis of their optical
properties. These optical properties are
evaluated by means of a microscope using
polarised light rays and are of great value in
mineral identification.
Economic Importance of Minerals
Mineral resources can be divided into four
main groups: essential resources, energy
resources, metal resources, and industrial
37
resources. The most basic group, essential
resources, comprises soil and water. Energy
resources can be divided into the fossil fuels
(crude oil, natural gas, coal, oil shale and tar
sand) and the nuclear fuels (including
uranium, thorium and geothermal power).
Metal resources range from structural metals
such as iron, aluminum and titanium to
ornamental and industrial metals such as
gold, platinum and gallium. Industrial
minerals include more than 30 minerals, such
as salt, asbestos and sand (Appendix III).
Mineral deposits have two geological
characteristics that make them a real
challenge to modern civilisation. First, almost
all of them are non-renewable resources. The
geological processes that form them are much
slower than the rate at which we exploit them.
There is no likelihood of our ability to grow
mineral deposits at a rate equal to our
consumption. Second, mineral deposits have
a place value. We cannot decide where to
extract them; nature made that decision for us
when the deposits were formed.
Facts About Minerals
• There are at least 2,000 minerals that
have been named and identified. However,
most rocks are made up of not more than
12 different classes of minerals.
• The most common element in the earth’s
crust is oxygen. The second most
common element is silicon. Mineral
Quartz is silicon dioxide and is very
common mineral.
• The largest diamond ever found was the
Cullinan diamond, discovered in a mine
in South Africa in 1905. It was 3,106
carats, which means it weighed more
than 600 g.
• Diamond and Graphite are both forms of
carbon but their atoms are arranged
differently. Diamond is the hardest
mineral whereas Graphite is soft, black
and feels greasy.
• Under the sea, minerals dissolved in
water crystallise around the vents of
faults or fissures.
38 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) Define a rock.
(ii) Name the types of rocks.
(iii) Which are the two main types of igneous rocks?
(iv) What is meant by ‘texture’ of the rocks?
(v) What is lithification?
(vi) Name the scale that grades the size of mineral grains.
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Rocks and minerals;
(ii) Chemical precipitates and organically derived sediments;
(iii) Cataclastic rocks and recrystallised rocks;
(iv) Foliation and lineation.
3. Give a word for the following:
(i) Few large crystals embedded in a matrix of smaller crystals.
(ii) The processes of physical and chemical changes affecting sediments during their
conversion into solid rocks.
(iii) Structure of a metamorphic rock in which mineral grains are drawn out into long, thin
pencil like objects, all in parallel alignment.
(iv) The smooth planar surfaces of weakness along which a mineral has pronounced tendency
to split.
4. Classify the following rocks into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic:
(i) Granite;
(ii) Slate;
(iii) Marble;
(iv) Limestone;
(v) Clay;
(vi) Basalt;
(vii) Sandstones;
(viii) Coal;
(ix) Chalk;
(x) Gypsum;
(xi) Gneiss; and
(xii) Schist.
5. Write short notes on:
(i) Sedimentary rocks;
(ii) Types of metamorphism;
(iii) Economic importance of minerals.
6. Describe the formation of igneous rocks giving suitable examples of various types.
7. Discuss physical properties of minerals.

Finding Out
Collect rock samples of different kinds and write their main features as seen through naked eyes.

%
CHAPTER
S
oils are products of a complex mixture
of weathered and eroded rock materials
on the one hand and organic residues
on the other. Weathering changes consolidated
mass (rock) to an unconsolidated (loose)
material. The decomposition of plants and
microorganisms releases organic chemicals
(humus) that interact with the loose material,
giving rise to various kinds of soils. These
changes involve addition, loss, transformation
and translocation. Additions are made by
water (rainfall, irrigation), nitrogen from
bacterial fixation, energy as sunlight, sediment
from wind and water, salts and organic
residues. Losses result from chemicals soluble
in soil water, eroded small-sized fractions,
nutrients removed in grazed and harvested
plants, water losses, carbon losses as carbon
dioxide and denitrification loss of N 2 .
Transformations happen because of many
chemical and biological reactions that
decompose organic matter. Water and
organisms move within the soil causing
translocation of substances at dif ferent
depths. Organic soils develop from an
accumulation of plant residues that are
preserved by the low oxygen environment of
shallow and stagnant waters. Non-soils are
surface material that do not support plant life,
such as the salt flats of Great Salt Lake and
rock barrens.
SOIL FORMING FACTORS
All soil forming processes involve weathering,
There are, however, several other factors that
influence the end product of weathering. Five
of them are primary factors. They singly or
jointly are responsible for the development of
various types of soils. These factors are:
39
SOILS
Parent Material
Soils from weakly cemented sandstone will be
sandy and soils from shales will be shallow
and fine-textured. Similarly clay formation is
favoured more by a high percentage of
decomposable dark minerals and less by
quartz. The parent material, thus, influences
the soil formation by their different rates of
weathering.
Climate
Acidic soils are formed in humid areas due to
intense weathering and leaching. Alkaline
soils are formed in areas of low rainfall due to
the accumulation or retention of lime. The
climate is an increasingly dominant factor
in forming varied type of soils especially
because of the effects of temperature and
precipitation. It also plays an indirect role in
the formation of soil by way of its influence on
vegetation.
Biota
The decomposition of organic wastes and
residues and the activities of living plants and
animals have marked influence on the soil
development. Burrowing animals, such as
moles, prairie dogs, earthworms, ants and
termites help soil development slowly by
decomposing organic matters and forming
weak acids that dissolve mineral faster. The
roots of living plants and decomposed plant
material releases weak organic acids that help
in weathering and soil development.
Topography
Steep hillsides have thin soil cover because of
40
surface runoff that results in the erosion of
surface. On the other hand, gentle hillsides
preserve appreciable soil cover due to the
luxuriant vegetation and sufficient water
passing in vertically to deeper levels. The
landlocked depressions receive high amount
of runoff water that favours appreciable
vegetation cover but slower decomposition
because of oxidation deficiency. This results
in the formation of soil that is rich in organic
matter. The topography influences the soil
formation through its relationship with water
and temperature.
Time
Under ideal conditions, a recognisable soil
profile may develop in 200 years and under
less favourable circumstances, it may extend
to several thousand years. The rate of soil
development is determined by the effects of
time and other distinct factors – climate,
parent material, topography and biota.
Soil Forming Processes
Several processes are involved in soil
formation and may, to some extent, affect the
soil profile. These processes are:
Eluviation
It is the mechanical translocation of clay or
other fine particles down the profile.
Illuviation
It is the accumulation of the washed down
(eluviated) material in the lower horizons of the
soil profile.
Cheluviation
It is the downward movement of material,
similar to leaching but under the influence of
organic complex compounds.
Leaching
It is the removal and downward movement of
material from a horizon in solution.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
SOIL HORIZONS
Horizons are soil layer that are approximately
parallel to the soil’s surface. Each horizon is
different from other. Boundaries between
horizons range from indistinct to abrupt and
clear. Horizons are for med because of
differences in the degree of depth, amounts of
humus accumulated, translocation of colloids
by water and loss of colloids. Capital letters,
A,B,C,E,O and R are used to designate master
horizons. Lowercase letters are used as
suffixes to indicate specific characteristics of
the master horizon.
SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION
Plant nutrition is the process of absorption
and utilisation of essential elements by plants
for growth and reproduction. Most plants need
at least 16 essential elements — carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium,
nitrogen, sulphur, calcium, iron, magnesium,
boron, manganese, copper, zinc, molybdenum
and chlorine. Plants utilise hydrogen, oxygen
and carbon from air and water. Nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium are absorbed from
soil and fertilisers. Chlorine, copper, boron,
iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc are
micronutrients that are absorbed in lesser
quantity. Nitrogen is most often the limiting
element in plant growth. It is utilised by plants
as ammonium or nitrate. The fertility of soil
depends upon the presence of essential
elements as well as the organic matter in
sufficient amount.
SOIL TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION
Soil taxonomy or classification of soils, is the
grouping of soils on the basis of their
morphology (texture and structure),
appearance, for m and fertility. The first
complete US taxonomic classification was
published in 1938 and modified in 1949.
Although the US system has application
worldwide, many countries — France,
Canada, China, India, Brazil and Russia use
their own systems. The present US
classification organises all soils into 11 orders,
SOILS
54 sub-orders, 238 great groups, 1,922
subgroups and then families and series.
In traditional classification, the major
divisions of soil are Zonal, Intrazonal and
Azonal.
Zonal Soils
These soils reflect climate and vegetation to a
large degree, hence, their name. They are
formed on well drained sites on non-extreme
parent material. Polar desert soils, Podzols,
Brown earths, Prairie soils, Chernozem,
Chestnut soils, Brown and gray semi-arid
soils, Grumusols, Red earths, and Lateritic
soils fall under zonal category.
Intrazonal Soils
These are well developed soils formed where
some local soil forming factor is dominant.
Soils in this category belong to four main
groups, namely saline, hydromorphic,
calcareous and organic. Each group consists
of a variety of soil types.
Azonal Soils
These have poorly developed profiles because
some factor of soil formation has inhibited soil
formation. Lithosols, alluvial soils and dry
sands fall in this category.
SOILS OF INDIA
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) classified Indian soils into eight groups
— alluvium, black, red and yellow, laterite, arid,
saline, peaty and organic, and forest soils. This
classification is based on genesis, colour,
composition and location.
Alluvial Soil
Alluvial soil is the most productive one in India
though, low in nitrogen content. It is fertile
enough to support crops for good yield. It is a
depositional soil transported by streams and
winds. Its colour varies from light gray to ash
gray. It is found in the Great Indian Plain, river
valleys, coastal plains and deltas.
41
Black Soil
It is popularly known as black cotton soil and
is developed on basaltic rocks of Deccan
Plateau. Cotton being the major crop of the
soil, hence, it is called black cotton soil. The
colour of soil ranges from deep black to gray.
It swells when wetted and shrinks when dried.
Because of this characteristic the soil develops
wide cracks. Black soils are well developed in
Maharashtra, western Madhya Pradesh, parts
of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and
Tamil Nadu.
Red and Yellow Soil
This soil is relatively sandy and reddish in
colour. Red colour is essentially due to the
presence of iron oxides. It is derived from the
old crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Wheat,
millet, cotton, potatoes and coarse grains are
widely grown in this soil. Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa have
large extent of land with red sandy soils. Yellow
and red soils are found in parts of Orissa and
Madhya Pradesh and southern part of the
Gangetic Plain.
Laterite Soil
The warm climate with seasonal rainfall helps
remove fast the humus content from the soil.
This makes the soil more acidic and rich in
aluminium and iron oxide. This soil is known
as laterite. Laterites are not naturally fertile
enough for growing food crop. Application of
fertilisers and manures are required to make
it crop worthy. Laterite soil can be cut into
blocks that are used as bricks for house
construction. It is well developed in coastal
margins and plains of southern peninsula
from West Bengal to southern Maharashtra.
Arid Soil
Arid soil ranges from red to brown in colour.
It is well developed in western Rajasthan. It is
generally, sandy and alkaline. High
temperature and accelerated evaporation
decreases the moisture and humus content in
it. Because of the concentration of calcium
42 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

downward, its lower layers become Forest Soil

impermeable. Irrigation increases the soil
moisture and makes the soil crop worthy.
Saline Soil
Because of dry climate and poor drainage
conditions, this soil acquires more salt. It is
widespread in wester n Gujarat (Rann of
Kuchch), deltas of East Coast and Sunderban
areas of West Bengal. Gypsum diminishes the
salinity of soil and makes it useful for crops.
Peaty and Organic Soils
Area of high rainfall are marked with good
growth of vegetation. As the organic matter
accumulates and decomposes, it gives rise to
humus rich soil. The high content (40-50 per
cent) of organic matter gives the name to soil.
The soil is normally black in colour and
alkaline. It occurs widely in northern part of
Bihar, Almora area of Uttaranchal, coastal
areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
Forest soils are formed in forested areas where
sufficient rainfall is available. In this soil too
organic matter is high and pH value is low. It
is mostly for med in the forest areas of
mountains.
Some Facts About Soil
• The branch of science that deals with the
study of soil is called as pedology.
• Based on the study of palaeosols in India,
Pakistan and Nepal, onset of Indian
Monsoon in Asia has been established at
about 8 million years ago.
• Enrichment of water with nutrients,
primarily phosphorus, causing abundant
aquatic plant growth is called
eutrophication.
• A vertical section of the soil through all its
horizons and extending into the parent
material is called soil profile.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What are soils?
(ii) How is soil different from a rock?
(iii) What is humus?
(iv) How do organic soils develop?
(v) Name the primary factors responsible for the development of soils.
(vi) What is leaching?
(vii) How many essential elements are required by plants?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Eluviation and illuviation;
(ii) Cheluviation and leaching;
(iii) Intrazonal and azonal soils;
(iv) Arid soil and saline soil.
3. Discuss the factors responsible for soil formation and also the processes involved.
4. What are the bases of classifying soils of India, as used by the ICAR? Describe the distribution
of major soil types in our country.

Finding out
Collect soil samples from different areas. Find out their main characteristics and write a brief
note.
 43

Unit III

LANDFORMS
&
CHAPTER
EVOLUTION
T
he surface of the earth constitutes a
great assemblage of physical features,
each having a form, dynamics, and
uniqueness. It is called landform. No landform
is permanent, each is changing — some slowly
while others fast. Landforms vary in size from
continents to minor rivulets.
A host of internal and external forces are
involved in the creation of landforms. Tectonic
forces crumple rocks and push up continents
and mountain ranges. Moving water, air and
ice erode rocks and transport the eroded
debris to depositional sites and thus, change
the appearance of the landscapes with the
passage of time. The intensity of these agencies
varies from one region to another depending
on climate, vegetation and altitude.
Geomorphology is the genetic study of
landfor ms. T raditionally, the study was
essentially confined to origin and evolution of
landforms. According to some, the study and
interpretation of records left by erosion
constitute the major part of the science of
geomorphology. While others view geo-
morphology not merely as a study of
landforms but also interaction, at the contact
surface, between the lithosphere and the
atmosphere. Two great geomorphologists,
S.W. Wooldridge and W.M. Davis considered
that landforms were the best indicators of the
earth’s history.
The view of the earth’s history proposed by
the catastrophists of the early nineteenth
century was of a succession of abrupt
upheavals culminating in a great flood. These
paroxysms were interpreted as the result of
Divine intervention. In contrast, C. Lyell and
J.Hutton hypothesised slow changes involving
a number of natural processes. J. Hutton in
OF LANDFORMS
the book Theory of the Earth with Proof and
Illustrations (1785) recognised the cyclical
nature of geological changes. He postulated
that ordinary processes, operating over long
time intervals could effect great changes. He
reasoned from observation that rocks slowly
decayed and disintegrated under the action of
water and air. Hutton observed mountains
being eroded, rivers carrying debris to the sea,
ocean waves pounding rocks, sands and mud
settling to the bottom and then being buried
on the sea floor. Nature behaves in a uniform
fashion all the time. Charles L yell called it
Principle of Uniformitarianism. Actually what
remains uniform are the physical and chemical
laws that govern geological activities.
LANDFORM TYPES
Landforms that result from crustal movements
are of tectonic type. No sub-aerial relief can
occur until tectonic uplift has raised land
above sea level or they are constructed by
depositional (volcanic or sedimentational)
processes.
Terrestrial land forms can be classified
into the following hierarchy: first order
land forms, second order land forms, and third
order land forms.
The first order landforms include the
continents and ocean basins that comprise the
largest units of the earth’s relief. In the
light of Plate Tectonic Theory (discussed in
Chapter 5 of this book), the continents are
large masses that are rafted and rooted in the
mantle. As a consequence of this process new
oceans are formed.
The second order landform includes the
tectonic mountain belts, plateaus and plains.
Under the second order relief, the landscapes
46
are characterised primarily by their tectonic or
structural unity. The second order relief is
generally, created by internal or endogenic earth
processes driven by the energy source in the
form of volcanism and/or tectonic activity from
deep inside the earth. The Himalaya mountains
and the Deccan Plateau are examples of the
second order landforms.
The third order landform includes the
features produced by erosion such as carved
mountains, hills and valleys. Atmospheric
weathering and erosion are largely responsible
in giving rise to the landforms by destructional
or erosional processes. Complex series of
reactions take place when rocks are exposed to
water and air in the planet’s gravitational field.
The third order landforms are shaped by the
external or exogenic earth processes. External
processes, driven by solar energy, act through the
atmosphere and oceans where air and water
come in contact with the lithoshpere.
WEATHERING
The world’s different landscapes have been
made mainly by the action of weather on rocks.
The term rock weathering is used to describe
chemical decomposition and physical
disintegration of rocks. L ying above the
bedrock may be a layer of loose material, the
regolith (rego — blanket, lith — rock). Regolith
is a term that can be used broadly to refer to any
layer of relatively loose or soft material lying on
the bedrock. When regolith is formed by
decomposition and disintegration of the
bedrock that lies directly beneath it, it is called
residual regolith. The regolith transported by
streams, ice, wind and deposited elsewhere is
called transported regolith.
Weathering takes place in three ways: by
physical or mechanical action, by chemical
action and by biochemical or biological action.
Mechanical Weathering
In middle and high latitude climates and at high
altitudes alternate freezing and melting of water
called frost action provides powerful
mechanism for breaking up of rocks. Water
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
that has penetrated joint planes and other
natural openings in the rock expands when
transformed into ice crystals. The pressure of
growing mass of such crystals cause joint
blocks to be heaved up and pried free of the
parent mass.
In the dry climates of low and middle latitudes,
an important agent of rock disintegration is salt.
The dry climates have long droughts in which
evaporation can occur continuously causing
water deep in the rock to be drawn surfaceward
by capillary force. Near the rock surface, this
moisture steadily evaporates permitting dissolved
salts to be deposited in openings of the rock.
Although minute in size and appearing fragile, the
growing salt crystals are capable of exerting
powerful stresses. Temperature changes are also
a factor in the disintegration of rocks. Daily
temperature changes may not cause rock
disintegration, but repeated expansion and
contraction assist in breaking up of rocks already
affected by other stresses and by chemical decay.
The action of the roots of growing plant,
exerting pressure upon the confining walls of
regolith or rock is yet another kind of mechanical
weathering. This process is especially important
in the breakup of rock already weakened by
other physical and chemical means.
Rocks break in different ways. Rocks
composed of coarse grain fall apart grain by grain.
Some rocks disintegrate like skins of onions,
called exfoliation. Others break along joints as in
block separaton or along new surfaces producing
angular pieces as in shattering (Fig. 8.1).
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering consists of several chemical
reactions, which may occur more or less
simultaneously. Oxidation is one of the most
typical exothermic, volume increasing reactions.
Especially common is the reaction of iron bearing
minerals with oxygen dissolved in water. Other
typical weathering reaction is carbonation. It is
reaction of minerals with dissolved carbon
dioxide in water. Hydrolysis, yet another
chemical reaction, is the decompo-sition of
mineral with water. Some minerals get dissolved
in a chemical reaction called solution.
EVOLUTION OF LANDFORMS 47

erosion. Larger plants affect weathering in a

number of ways. Cracks may be widened by root
pressure. The accumulation of elements by plants
and their return to the surface of the soil affect the
nature of the soil and weathering profiles and the
course of weathering. Vegetation litter and
decaying vegetation are important in conserving
moisture which in turn enhances weathering.

MASS WASTING
The force of gravity acts constantly upon all
soil, regolith and bedrock. In most places the
internal strength of these materials is sufficient
to keep them in place. Wherever the ground
surface is sloping, a proportion of the force of
gravity is directed downslope parallel with the
surface. Every particle has at least some
tendency to roll or slide downhill and will do
so whenever the downslope force exceeds the
resisting forces of friction and cohesion that
tend to bind the particle to the rest of the
mass.
The forms of mass wasting range from the
catastrophic slides to the small flows of water
saturated soil. But extremely slow movement
Fig.8.1 : Mechanical Weathering of soil, imperceptible from one year to the
Note four geometrical forms into which rocks may break. next year, also acts on almost every hillside
(Table 8.1).
Careful inspection of hillside often discloses
Biological Weathering evidence that the soil has been very slowly
The breakdown of rocks and minerals is very moving downslope rather steadily over a long
largely controlled by plants, animals and bacteria period of time. This phenomenon is called soil
creep (Fig. 8.2). It is the result of shear
as well. The main contribution of animals to
distributed along countless joint fractures and
weathering seems to be repeated mixing of soil
bedding or cleavage surfaces in the rock.
material, thus bringing fresh material into In hilly and mountainous regions of humid
exposure to weathering agents. Snails are climate, water-saturated soil and regolith rich
common in lime-rich areas and can wear deep in clay minerals take the form of an earthflow.
holes in limestone. Bird droppings may provide Earthflow is a form of mass wasting in which
organic matter for the start of soil formation and behaviour of the earth material is that of a
weathering. Grazing by large animals loosens the plastic solid (Fig. 8.3). Solifluction is an arctic
soil, thus, increasing surface runoff and soil variety of earthflow in the treeless tundra.
Table 8.1 : Types of Mass Movements
Type of Bedrock Type of Material (Soils)
Movement Predominantly Coarse Predominantly Fine
Falls Rock fall Debris fall Earth fall
Topples Rock topple Debris topple Earth topple
Slides Rock slump Debris slump Earth slump
Rock slide Debris slide Earth slide
Flows Rock flow Debris flow Earth flow
48
Fig.8.2 : Soil Creep
Common place evidence of imperceptible
down slope creep of soil.
Mass wasting takes the form of mudflow if
proportion of water to mineral matter is large. It
travels fast down the channels of streams.
Mudflows also originate high in mountains
Fig.8.3 : Earth Flow
Slump features are well developed in the
upper part of a slope.
Fig.8.4 : Landslide
Two basic forms of landslide — rockslide
and slump may be noted.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
where melting winter snow picks up weathered
rocks rich in clay.
Along vertical rock cliff, the process of
physical weathering loosens the rocks. When
the force of gravity brings them down they are
described as rockfalls. The falling rock masses
break into smaller fragments to form a slope
of loose materials called talus. Sliding of a
single block of rock on its lower surface is called
rock slide (Fig.8.4). When a block slips on a
curved fracture plane rotating backward upon
a horizontal axis, it is known as slump (Fig. 8.4).
The processes of erosion, transportation
and deposition are carried out by several
agents, such as running water, glacial ice, sea
waves, and winds.
RUNNING WATER
Running water is undoubtedly the most
important agent of denudation. It is most
conspicuous as a stream or river that trans-
ports enormous volumes of surplus preci-
pitation from the land to the ocean. Stream
action, in combination with weathering, mass
wasting and overland flow is responsible for
total process called fluvial denudation.
Running water as a geomorphic agent acts
in two basic forms. First is overland flow, the
movement of runoff downhill on the ground
surface in a more or less broadly distributed
sheet or film. Second is channel flow or stream
flow, in which water moves to lower levels in a
long, narrow, troughlike feature called a stream
channel bounded on both sides by rising slopes
called banks that contains the flow.
Stream channels are organised into
branching channel networks. Together with the
land surface slopes that contribute runoff by
overland flow, the channel network forms a
drainage system or drainage basin which is a
line following a chain of continuous ridge crests.
The line includes all of the surface or watershed
that slopes toward the channels of the system.
Rivers perform three closely interrelated
geomorphic work :
• Erosion;
• Transportation; and
• Deposition.
EVOLUTION OF LANDFORMS 49

River erosion is the progressive removal of a good example of lateral accretion (Fig. 8.5).
mineral matter from the surfaces of stream Sometimes, when a segment of the meandering
channel which itself may consist of bedrock or river channel is abandoned to straighten its
regolith. River transportation is the movement course, the abandoned channel is known as
of eroded particles in chemical solution, in oxbow lake (Fig. 8.6).
turbulent suspension or by rolling and dragging
along the bed. River deposition consists of
accumulation of any transported particles on
the streambed, on the adjoining floodplain or on
the floor of a body of standing water into which
the river empties. While the river performs all
three functions simultaneously, one may
dominate over the other in different parts of the
river courses.

River Erosion
The nature of river erosion depends upon the
materials of which the channel is composed and
the means of erosion available to the river. One
simple means of erosion is hydraulic action, the
pressure and drag of flowing water exerted upon
grains projecting from the bed and banks. Weak
bedrock and various forms of regolith are easily
carved out by hydraulic action alone.
Mechanical wear, termed abrasion, occurs when Fig.8.5 : Formation of Meanders
Meanders develop with a slight change in the
rock particles carried in the current strike
channel of the stream in initial stage.
against the exposed bedrocks of the channel.
Small particles are further reduced by crushing When the velocity of running water as it
and grinding when caught between larger comes out from hills and meets the plain
cobbles and boulders. Chemical reactions decreases, it dumps the transported material at
between ions carried in solution in river water the foot hills forming alluvial fans. By the time
and exposed mineral surfaces result in a form a river enters the sea or a large lake, it loses its
of erosion called solution.
Gentle rain falling on bare surface loosens
the soil and muddies the water. The muddy
water flows as thin, slow moving surface layer
of water called sheet flow. As the slope increases,
the water scours additional sediments and
erodes small channels called rills. Headward
erosion of rills and their subsequent widening
lead to gully formation. Gullies dissect the land
into a number of isolated little hills, giving rise
to badland topography. The valley of the
Chambal in Madhya Pradesh is an example of
badland topography. Fig.8.6 : River-Born Features in a Plain
Note river meander and associated landforms.
Entering the plains, the running water
deposits the transported material laterally velocity. The fine material carried down the
called as lateral accretion. Point bars formed by distance is deposited at this point to form a
meandering rivers on their concave bends are triangular fan called delta.
50
River Transportation
It takes three different forms. First, dissolved
solids such as salts travel downstream
indefinitely and reach the ocean. They do not
affect the mechanical behaviour of the river.
Second, particles of clay, silt and sometimes,
fine sand are carried in suspension. In this form
of transport, the upward currents in eddies of
flow are capable of holding the particles
indefinitely in the body of the river. Clay
particles, once lifted into suspension, are so
readily carried that they travel long distances.
As a result, suspension provides a means of
separating solid particles of various sizes and
carrying each size category to a different
location, a process known a sorting. Third,
rolling or sliding of grains along the stream bed.
These dragging motions can be conveniently
included in the term traction. Fragments
moved in traction are bed load of the river.
The erosion and transportation depends
upon the energy of a stream. The volume of
water and speed of its movement provide
energy to it. A swift mountain stream by
vertical erosion for ms V-shaped valleys,
gorges, rapids and waterfalls. Where side rocks
Fig.8.7 : Conditions for Formation of a Glacier
Accumulated ice moves downwards.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
are very resistant the valley becomes very narrow
and the sides steep to form gorges. The Satluj,
the Indus and the Brahmaputra have formed
deep gorges in the Himalayas. Irregular bed of
a river caused by occurrence of rocks of varying
resistance leads to the formation of rapids where
water jumps up and down while flowing. When
the break in the river courses is great, waterfalls
are formed.
River Deposition
The fine clays continue in transportation
almost indefinitely, but the coarser silts settle
down when river velocity drops to moderate
values. In this way clay is carried to the sea,
where it contacts salt water and undergoes
clotting into larger particles, or flocculation.
Particles of medium to coarse sand and larger
particles travel as bed load in a river. River
meanders, flood plains, braided channels,
oxbows lakes and deltas develop in plains as
a result of lateral and bed deposits.
GLACIERS
Glaciers are defined quite broadly as large
natural accumulations of land ice affected by
EVOLUTION OF LANDFORMS 51

motion. Matter, in the form of snow, is received

upon the upper surface in the zone of highest
elevation where the rate of loss of snow by
ablation in summer is, on an average, less than
the rate at which the snow is received. This region
of net gain is called the zone of accumulation (Fig.
8.7). In the lower part of the glacier, loss by
ablation, exceeds the rate at which snow
accumulates and the imbalance is greater as we
follow the glacier to lower, warmer elevations. This
region of net loss is the exit boundary of the
system and is known as the zone of ablation.
Beneath the glacier, ice moves plastically
removing and picking loose materials. This
activity is called glacial plucking. Blocks of rock
being carried within the glacier or ice are
scraped and dragged along the rock floor,
grooving the bedrock and chipping out
fragments of rock in an abrasive process called
grinding. As the ice moves it carries the rocks
along, and grinds them into smaller grains. The
scratches or striations so formed are the relic Fig.8.8 : A Glaciated Topography
of that action. Striations are clues to the The upper sketch shows valleys covered with glaciers.
direction the ice moved. The lower one shows the features formed by a
Ice erodes and transports material from the glacial erosion.
sides of its valley with a special efficiency. Not
slope and decreases with the friction and debris
only does it scrap the sides below the ice level, but at the bottom floor.
the ice acts as a conveyor belt for any debris that Unequal movement leads to splitting of ice and
happens to fall or slide from higher up on the development of cracks on the glacial body which
valley walls onto the surface of the glacier. are called crevasses. U-shaped valleys, cirques
The crushing strength applied to the bed by and sheep-back shaped rocks are common
overriding glacier or ice is exceedingly high. features of the topography which experienced
Large quantity of eroded material accompanies glaciations. Below the snowlines the glacier melts
glacier. Strip of dirt and rock that flow with the and the materials carried by it is deposited.
ice and deposit along the sides of valley is known Eskers, drumlins, out wash plain and many other
lateral moraine (Fig. 8.8). When the lateral features are noticeable in this area (Fig.8.9).
moraines of two glaciers merge, they form a single
medial moraine in the middle. Plucking of
bedrocks by the overriding glacier leads to the
formation of glacial trough, a channel of the valley
glacier. The glacial trough, if filled up by water
gives rise to trough lake. The glacial troughs
formed near the sea get filled in by the sea water
giving rise to fiords. At the head of each trough a
steep headed, semi-circular basin is formed called
cirque. Where three or more cirques intersect, a
highly pyramidal peak may rise above the level,
called horn.
The rate of movement of glaciers varies from Fig.8.9 : Features Formed by Glacial Deposition
an average of 4 centimetres to about 18 metres a Examine various forms with reference
day. Its velocity increases with the steepness of to direction of movement of ice.
52 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

WINDS
Winds are highly variable in direction and force.
The distribution and intensity of winds in
combination with climate has much to do with
the location of wind erosion and windblown
deposits on the earth.
One form of wind erosion is deflation, the
lifting and transporting of loose particles of
clay and silt, collectively referred to as dust.
The particles are suspended in turbulent
eddies in the wind structure. The process is
much like that of suspension of fine sediments
in river flow. The dust is diffused upward into
the atmosphere to heights ranging from a few
metres to several kilometres. The height
depends upon intensity of wind turbulence,
duration of the wind and fineness of the Fig.8.10 : Mushroom Rock
particles. The result may be dense cloud called Observe the shape. What could be the
dust storm. Deflation occurs where clays and reason for its formation?
silts in a thoroughly dried state are exposed on
barren land surfaces. called barchan (Fig. 8.11). Dunes separated by
The sand moves in a layer only a few troughs are called transverse dunes. Dunes
centimetre above the ground at most. The grains
make long leaps downward. The process of
leaping by rebound is termed saltation. In this
way, the wind transfers kinetic energy to the
grain, which on impact with the sand surface
dislodges other grains and may project them
into the air.
Excavation of shallow depressions by wind
erosion is called deflation hollows or blowouts.
Deflation removes the finer materials leaving
behind bigger pebbles. Such residual sheets
of pebble or gravel is called desert pavement. Fig.8.11 : Barchans
Sandblast action is another form of wind Note its formation with reference to wind direction.
erosion. It results from mineral grains of sand
blasting against exposed rock surfaces. We having long, narrow ridges parallel to the
often observe it in desert areas and in the prevailing wind direction are called longitudinal
coastal areas. Notches, honeycombed surfaces dunes.
and mushroom rocks (Fig. 8.10) are some of the
WAVES
features formed by sandblast actions.
When dust is transported by wind to long The coast, the broad region that is the meeting
distances and deposited in large area, it place of land and sea, can be carved into many
produces a landform called loess. By far the kinds of shapes — steep rocky cliffs, broad low
most prominent landforms of deserts are sand beaches, crescents of small beaches or wide,
dunes. They are created by winds transporting sweeping, sandy tidal flats. The forces that
sand and depositing it to form round hillocks shape coasts are essentially the destructive
of sand. An isolated dune of crescent shape is processes of erosion operating in conjunction
EVOLUTION OF LANDFORMS 53

with sea waves that transport and deposit

material.
At the shoreline, the line along which the
water meets the land, the major erosive agent
is wave action. Ocean waves produced by wind
are of two types: progressive, in which the wave
forms move rapidly through the water and
oscillatory, which moves up and down only.
When a train of waves arrives at the coast of a
continent or island, it encounters shallow
water. Wave orbits in shallow water are
modified into ellipses which become
progressively flatter as the bottom is
approached. In this way, not by separate
segments but in a continuous transition along
the wave crest, the line of the wave bends as
it slows, in a process called wave refraction. Fig.8.12 : Erosional Features Produced by Wave
Action
This process is so called because of its
similarity to the bending of light rays in optical
The erosive work of sea depends largely
refraction. Wave refraction produces special
upon the size and strength of waves, seaward
effects on an irregular shoreline with indented
slope, height of the shore between low and
bays and projecting headlands. Erosion by
high tides, the composition of rocks and the
waves is thus, concentrated at headlands and
depth of water. Breaking of waves along the
tends to wear them away more quickly than
shore develops a considerable force on rocks.
along straight sections of shoreline.
Erosion, however, is also affected by the
Along a coast of hard rock, a gently inclined
solvent and chemical actions of sea waves.
rock surface is carved out to accommodate the
swash and backswash. It is called abrasion
platform. A shoreline rising abruptly from the • Mass movements are environmental
abrasion platform is called marine cliff. The hazards in terms of property damage to
stormy waves thrust rock fragments with great highways, railroads and structures of all
violence, against the cliff base to develop wave kinds.
cut notches and sea caves (Fig. 8.12). • Clays that spontaneously change from a
Relatively thick and gently sloping solid condition to a near liquid condition
is called quick clay. A sudden shock or
accumulation of sand, gravel or cobbles in the
disturbance may often cause a layer of
zone of breakers and surf is called beach.
quick clay to begin to liquefy, called
During summer when waves are weaker sand liquefaction, that once begun cannot be
from deeper water is moved to the beach. A stopped.
reverse of situation occurs in winter.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What is geomorphology?
(ii) Name the geomorphologists who considered that landforms were the best indicators of
the earth’s history.
54 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

(iii) What is relief?

(iv) Name various types of weathering.
(v) Arrange the following, from smaller to bigger form: stream, gully, river, rill.
(vi) What is a fiord?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Mechanical and chemical weathering;
(ii) Earth flow and mud flow;
(iii) Alluvial fans and deltas;
(iv) V-shaped valley and U-shaped valley.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Moraines;
(ii) Wind erosion;
(iii) Disintegration.
4. Explain various forms of mass wasting.

Project Work
Prepare a list of erosional and depositional features formed by a river and draw sketches to show
each of them.
 55

Unit IV

CLIMATE
'
CHAPTER
ATMOSPHERE — COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE
A
tmosphere is a gaseous envelope
extending thousands of kilometres
above the earth’s surface. Much of the
life on the earth exists at the bottom of the
atmosphere where it meets the lithosphere
and the hydrosphere. Very survival of life
processes are associated with it. The influence
of the atmosphere on humans is not only
direct but also indirect through natural
vegetation, soil and topography. Among the
four major elements of environment, the
atmosphere is the most dynamic as changes
in it take place not only from one season to
another but also within a short period of few
hours. Of the total mass of the atmosphere,
99 per cent is within the height of 32 km from
the earth’s surface and is held to it by the force
of gravity. The atmosphere is energised by the
sun.
ORIGIN OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Today’s atmosphere is the result of very
gradual change starting about 5 billion years
ago by accretion of cold particles chiefly of iron
and magnesium silicate, iron and graphite.
Then, the earth was too small to retain the
primordial atmosphere of light gasses.
Gravitational collapse and radioactive decay
caused the earth to heat up and material
differentiated giving central solid nickel-iron
core, liquid iron silicate shell, a mantle and
lithosphere. In this process, degassing took
place, for ming a new atmosphere and
hydrosphere. This atmosphere was devoid
of free oxygen but contained methane,
ammonia (10-68 per cent), carbon dioxide
(10-15 per cent) and water vapour (60-70
per cent).
Compounds of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen
and hydrogen were generated under the
influence of energy sources such as lightening,
solar radiation or radioactive discharges.
Subsequently, the heaviest rains started, but
falling of rain drops evaporated before
reaching the earth sur face, which was
extremely hot at that time. The cyclic process
of evaporation and precipitation expedited
further cooling of the earth. When the earth’s
crust finally cooled sufficiently, torrential rain
lasting for considerable time filled ocean
basins. The carbon dioxide reacted with the
silicate of the earth’s crust to form carbonate.
Therefore, carbon dioxide was gradually
removed from the atmosphere.
The process of life thus, began about
3 billion years ago in the form of anaerobic bio-
chemical organism that were dependent upon
ambient organic molecules for nourishment.
About 2 billion years ago, biological evolution
took another revolutionary step. A few
organism succeeded in changing their mode
of existence from fermentation and bio-
chemical synthesis to more efficient mode of
photosynthesis and respiration. This set a
stage for release of oxygen, and fixation of
nitrogen. As organisms that could not tolerate
free oxygen were partially replaced by more
efficient respiring forms. Carbon dioxide level
in the atmosphere was reduced; ozone formed
a screen against incoming ultraviolet
radiation; and organic deposits began to
accumulate forming coal and oilfields. All this
fundamentally changed the previous
geochemistry of the earth. The cycle of majority
of chemical elements were reoriented. And
thus, the composition of the terrestrial
atmosphere took the present shape.
58
COMPOSITION
The composition of the atmosphere is shown
in Table 9.1. Upto an altitude of about 90 km,
it is uniform in terms of three major gases —
nitrogen, oxygen and argon. There are in
addition rare gases like neon, krypton, and
xenon, also called noble gases. This layer is
generally, called homosphere. Above 90 km,
the composition begins to change with
progressive increase in the lighter gases. This
layer is known as heterosphere.
The oxygen and nitrogen, make up about
99 per cent of the clean dry air of the
homosphere. In addition, it contains small
amount of carbon dioxide, water vapour,
ozone, inert gases like xenon, krypton, neon
and argon (which don’t take part in chemical
reaction) and huge amount of solid and liquid
particles, collectively called aerosols.
Table 9.1 : Composition of the Atmosphere
Component Per Cent by Volume
Nitrogen (N2) 78.08
Oxygen (O2) 20.94
Argon (Ar) 0.93
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.03
Neon (Ne) 0.0018
Helium (He) 0.0005
Ozone (O3) 0.00006
Hydrogen (H) 0.00005
Methane (CH4) Trace
Krypton (Kr) Trace
Xenon (Xe) Trace
Even though nitrogen and oxygen
comprise 99 per cent of the total volume of the
atmosphere, they are climatically of little
consequence. Nitrogen does not easily enter
into chemical union with other substances,
but gets fixed into the soil. It serves mainly as
diluent or dissolver. It regulates combustion.
Oxygen on the other hand combines with all
the elements and is most combustible.
Carbon dioxide although constitutes a
small percentage, is an important gas in the
atmospheric process. It can absorb heat and
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
thus, allows the lower atmosphere to be warmed
up by heat radiation coming from the sun and
from the earth’s surface. Green plants in the
process of photosynthesis utilise carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. There has been a
pronounced increase (10 times) in the content
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from 1890
to 1970.
Ozone is found in very small fraction in the
stratosphere between 20 and 25 km from the
earth’s surface. It is, however, very useful as it
absorbs ultra-violet rays and thus, protects life
from these harmful rays.
The water vapour and dust particles are
the important variables of weather and climate.
They are the sources of all forms of
condensation and principal absorbers of heat
received from the sun or radiated from the
earth. Besides, they affect the stability of the
atmosphere. Water vapour may not exceed 3
per cent to 4 per cent of total volume of air. The
amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
decreases from the equator towards the poles.
Nearly 90 per cent of it lies upto 6 km of the
atmosphere from the earth’s surface. It is in
this layer of the atmosphere where solid
particles of dust, salt, pollens etc. are held in
suspension. They act as hygroscopic nucleus
with positive charge and entrap the negatively
charged water particles to produce clouds. In
the upper layer of the atmosphere microscopic
dust particles scatter incoming solar rays and
absorb all colours except blue, giving blue
colour to the sky. The larger size particles on
the other hand, are responsible for red and
orange colours at sunrise and sunset.
STRUCTURE
On the basis of the chemical composition, the
atmosphere is divided into two broad layers: —
homosphere and heterosphere. The
homosphere extends upto the height of 90 km.
It is characterised by uniformity in chemical
composition. It consists of three thermal layers
— troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere.
Each sub-layer is separated from the adjoining
layer by a shallow transitional zone identified by
terms ending with “pause” (Table 9.2). The
heterosphere has heterogeneous chemcial
composition with layered structure of
ATMOSPHERE — COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE
nitrogen, oxygen, helium and hydrogen,
respectively (Fig. 9.1).
Homosphere
The lowermost layer of the homosphere is
called troposphere. It is 16 km thick at the
equator and 10 km thick at the poles. The
– – – –
Fig.9.1 : Structure of the Atmosphere
59
temperature decreases with altitude
because the atmosphere is heated more by
the heat radiated from the earth’s surface.
In this layer, the temperature decreases
vertically at a rate of 0.65 O C per
100 metres. It is called normal lapse rate.
A minimum of –60 O C is reached at the
Heterosphere
Homosphere
60
tropopause. Most of the atmospheric
processes responsible for the weather and
climate conditions take place in this layer.
Above the tropopause is calm and clear air
of the stratosphere. Jet aircraft often fly through
the lower stratosphere because it provides
easiest flying conditions. The total absence of
water vapour in this layer prevents the formation
of clouds, thus, providing finest visibility. Ozone
layer lies within the stratosphere. It is more
abundant in the altitude zone of 20 and 22 km.
The ultraviolet radiation is more plentiful
in the vicinity of 40 to 50 km. Ozone layer
shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation. But
for the Ozone layer, life would have been
impossible on the surface of the earth.
Temperature rises from –600C at the base of the
stratosphere to 00C, at its upper boundary,
called stratopause.
Above the stratopause, is the mesosphere.
The mesosphere extends from 50 to 90 km
altitude. Temperature decreases again with
height in this layer. It reaches a minimum of –
110 0 C at an altitude of 80-90 km in the
mesopause. Mesosphere displays high wispy
clouds in high latitudes during summer due
to reflected sunlight from meteriotic dust
particles.
Table 9.2 : Structure of the Atmosphere
Broad Layers Name of Sub-Layers
HOMOSPHERE Troposphere
Tropopause
Stratosphere
Stratopause
Mesosphere
Mesopause
HETEROSPHERE Thermosphere
Ionosphere Nitrogen layer
Oxygen layer
Helium layer
Hydrogen layer
Exosphere
Magnetosphere
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Heterosphere
Heterosphere is a layered ther mosphere
extending above the mesopause and continues
to the edge of space. Temperature rises
spectacularly in this layer and reaches 9000 C
at 350 km.
In the lower part of the thermosphere
between 100 to 400 km, ionisation of
atmospheric gases takes place. There is a peak,
concentration of ionized particles at 250 km.
This layer, known as ionosphere, reflects radio
waves. Ionized particles intermittently create a
sheet like display of light called Aurora Borealis
in the northern hemisphere and Aurora
Australis in the southern hemisphere.
In the upper thermosphere there is further
concentration of ions that comprise Van Allen
Radiation belt. Outer most layer is called
exosphere or at times magnetosphere. The
thermosphere has distinct layers of nitrogen,
oxygen, helium and hydrogen at an average
altitude of 200km, 1,100km, 2,600 and
9,600km respectively from the earth’s surface.
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Weather is the physical condition or state of the
atmosphere at any given time. As these
Altitude (km)
0-16 (at the equator) 0-10 (at the poles).
10 (at poles) to 16 (at equator)
10-16 to 50
50
50-85
85-90
90+
200
1,100
1,700
2,600
9,600
ATMOSPHERE — COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE
conditions change, so also the weather. Thus,
weather of any place is the sum total of its
temperature, pressure, winds, moisture and
precipitation conditions for a short period of a
day or a week.
Climate on the other hand is the composite
weather conditions over a considerable period
of time. It is not just “average weather”. The
deviations from the averages are equally
important. ‘It is not the averages, but extremes
that kill.’
If we wish to gain an accurate picture of
weather and climate of any station we should
look beyond the annual averages and monthly
averages. We should know the day-to-day
extremes too.
The principal elements of weather and
climate are :
• Temperature;
• Pressure and wind;
• Moisture and precipitation.
These are called elements because they are
the ingredients out of which various weather
and climatic types are compounded. The
temperature and precipitation are the main
basic elements to which pressure, winds and
other elements are related. Temperature
expresses intensity of heat. Practically, all of
the heat energy on the earth is the result of
insolation or the incoming solar radiation.
Unequal distribution of temperature over the
earth’s sur face causes dif ferences in
atmospheric pressure, which causes winds. Air
EXERCISES
Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What holds the atmosphere to the earth?
(ii) What is heterosphere?
(iii) Which are the major constituents of clean dry air of atmosphere?
(iv) Which gas of the atmosphere does not take part in chemical reaction?
(v) What are aerosols ?
(vi) Which gas despite its small percentage is crucial in atmospheric processes?
(vii) Why are the water vapour and dust particles important variables of weather and climate?
(viii) What is meant by normal lapse rate?
61
moves from regions of high to low pressure areas.
Horizontal motion of the air is known as wind.
Moisture is present in the atmosphere as
water vapour, often condensed into clouds. It
may be precipitated in the form of rain, hail, sleet
or snow. The capacity of air to gather and retain
water vapour is largely dependent on its
temperature. Higher the temperature, the
greater the capacity of air to hold moisture. On
cooling, the air is not able to retain all the
moisture it gathers while warm. This leads to
condensation and precipitation.
From the above statements it is clear that
temperature is the basic element on which
other elements of climate depend. Further, the
operation of elements of weather and climate
are closely interrelated and interdependent.
The climatic elements vary from place to
place due to climatic controls. The climatic
controls are :
• Latitude or insolation;
• Distribution of land and water;
• The great semi permanent high and low
pressure belts;
• Winds;
• Altitude;
• Mountain barriers;
• Ocean currents;
• Storms of various kinds, etc.
These controls acting with various
intensities and in different combinations,
produce changes in temperature and
precipitation, which in turn give rise to a
variety of weather and climates.
62 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

2. Give a single term for each of the following:

(i) The zone which separates the troposphere from the stratosphere.
(ii) Lower most layer of the atmosphere.
(iii) A useful gas found in small amount in the atmosphere that shields the earth from
ultraviolet rays.
(iv) Sheet like display of light in the northern hemisphere caused by ionized particles in the
atmosphere.
(v) The physical condition or state of the atmosphere at any given time.
3. Write short notes on:
(i) Origin of the atmosphere;
(ii) Homosphere;
(iii) Ionisation of atmospheric gases.
4. Discuss the composition of the atmosphere and the importance of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
dioxide.
5. Describe the structure of the atmosphere and the main characteristics of each layer.
6. Discuss principal elements of weather and climate and the major climatic controls.

CHAPTER
INSOLATION
T
he source of all the energy on the earth
including its atmosphere is the sun. The
energy radiated from the sun
comes from nuclear reactions in its core, where
the temperature is about 15,000,0000 C. Only
½ of the billionth fraction of the energy radiated
from the sun is intercepted by the earth. We
commonly, call this radiant energy of the sun
‘heat and light’. It is transmitted in the form of
electromagnetic waves, which are commonly
known as short waves. They travel at the speed
of light (about 2,98,000 km per second). They
drive the engine of the earth that operates the
winds and ocean currents, generates weather
conditions and makes the earth a livable place
for human beings.
INSOLATION
The word insolation connotes incoming solar
radiation. It is absorbed in the lower layer of
the atmosphere as bright light. Light is the
Fig.10.1 : Incidence of the Sun’s Rays at the Earth’s Surface
Note how the high angle and low angle solar radiation spreads over the surface.
63
AND TEMPERATURE
visible portion of the spectrum lying between
infra-red and ultra-violet. The ultra-violet has
dimension of shortest wavelength. It forms
only 6 per cent of insolation and is consumed
in photochemical reaction. While the infra-
red rays, though invisible, form 43 per cent of
insolation. They are largely absorbed by water
vapour that is concentrated in the lower
atmosphere.
Insolation is greatest at the equator. It
decreases polewards (Fig. 10.1). The total
amount of insolation received at the equator is
roughly about 4 times of that received at the
poles. In tropical regions, the amount of
insolation is not only large but there is also
little seasonal variation. It is because all places
between Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn
experience overhead sun twice during the
course of a year. In the temperate region, the
amount of insolation is less than the tropical
region and the seasonal variation is high.
(.30m)
(.30m)
64
Effects of Atmosphere on Insolation
The energy from the sun passes through different
layers of the atmosphere before it reaches the
ground. Atmospheric gases are essentially
transparent to visible light, but suspended
particles of liquid or solid material can absorb
or reflect light. A thick cloud may allow less than
10 per cent of sunlight passing through it to
reach the earth’s surface. Clouds generally
behave like mirrors; they reflect sunlight in
different directions rather than absorbing it.
Reflected sunlight is permanently lost to the
earth. The blue colour of daytime sky is due to
scattering of sunlight. But for scattering effect,
the sky would be black starry even when the sun
is high up in the sky.
Terrestrial Absorption and Radiation
The earth functions like a transformer in
electric circuit, receiving energy in one state
and transmitting it to another. The sun heats
the earth and the earth heats the atmosphere.
Nearly 51 per cent of the solar energy reaches
the earth directly or indirectly. The absorbed
insolation causes the surface temperature to
rise and in turn land becomes energy radiator.
The sun emits short-wave radiation to space.
The earth, on the other hand, radiates long-
wave, which is known as terrestrial radiation.
Impact of Land and Water
The land and water surface react differently to
the incoming solar radiation. The heat
capacity or specific heat of water is five times
that of land surface. This means that same
amount of heat applied to same mass of water
and land result in temperature increase that
is five times greater for the land than water. If
heat is withdrawn from land and water, the
temperature decrease will be five times greater
for the land than for water. This arises from the
fact that water tends to store the heat it
receives, land quickly retur ns it to the
atmosphere. Water is essentially transparent,
it allows some amount of heat to penetrate to
a depth of several metres. Land, on the
contrary, is opaque, so there is great
concentration of insolation in its upper layer.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The general law may be stated as follows.
Land surfaces are rapidly and intensely heated
under the sun’s rays, whereas water surfaces
are only slowly and moderately heated. On the
other hand, land surfaces cool off more rapidly
than water surface when solar radiation is cut
off. Temperature contrasts are, therefore,
more over land areas but only moderate over
water areas.
Heat Budget
Insolation is subjected to several processes of
absorption, reflection and scattering. They
decide the heat budget of the earth and the
atmosphere. The amount of solar energy
passing through the atmosphere depends
upon the angle of the sunrays and
transparency of the atmosphere. It varies
according to time and place. The solar energy
absorbed by the earth gets translated into heat
day after day, year after year. All of our weather
records reveal, certainly in general fashion, a
strong continuity of temperature characteris-
tics with little to indicate the warming trend
that would be mandatory if energy receipt
exceeded loss, so the counter flow must exist.
The gains and losses in heat by incoming and
outgoing radiation is known as heat budget.
The term ‘budget’ implies balance in the gains
and losses of the solar energy on the earth.
The sun emits the short wave radiation to
space, while the earth radiates long-wave or
infra-red radiation to space. The solar energy
strikes the upper limits of the atmosphere and
it gradually reaches the earth’s sur face
directly and indirectly (scattered) and is
absorbed. It is estimated that out of 100 units
of incoming solar energy, only 22 units travel
directly to the earth’s surface. This energy flow
is called direct radiation. The 35 units received
at the upper limit of the troposphere is reflected
and scattered back into space by clouds (24
units), dust particles (7 units) and by surface of
the earth (4 units) in its original short-wave.
Some of the scattered rays (25 units in all)
eventually, find their way down to the earth’s
surface and are absorbed by it. They are
collectively called diffuse radiation. Another 18
units of incoming solar radiation is absorbed
INSOLATION AND TEMPERATURE
Fig.10.2 : Terrestrial Heat Budget
by ozone (3 units), water, dust and other
components of the atmosphere (13 units) and
by clouds (2 units).
In all, 47 units of solar energy reach the
earth’s surfae as direct or diffuse radiation,
while 18 units are absorbed by the atmosphere.
As such 65 units in all (47 units of the earth’s
surface +18 units of the atmosphere) take part
in heating the earth and its atmosphere. To
balance the budget, 65 units are lost to space
in the form of long waves by the earth’s surface
directly (5 units) and reradiated from the earth
to the atmosphere (60 units).
Latitudinal Heat Balance
The mean annual temperature of the earth as a
whole remains same. But balance between
65
60
incoming and outgoing radiation is not uniform
and varies from latitude to latitude. Yet in spite
of this imbalance, no latitude appears to be
getting progressively warmer or colder. In the
low latitudes (between 40 0 North and 40 0
South) heat gained by short wave radiation is
far more than the heat loss by long waves
through the earth’s radiation. While in the higher
latitudes more heat is lost by outgoing long wave
than it is received in short waves. In view of the
imbalances at high and low latitudes, there is a
large scale transfer of heat from tropics to high
latitudes by atmospheric and oceanic
circulation. The transfer of heat takes place in
middle latitudes between 30o and 50o. In short,
66
nature provides mechanism of heat transfer
from tropics towards poles mainly through
atmospheric circulation (75 per cent) and
through oceanic current (25 per cent) to
maintain the heat balance for the earth as a
whole.
Convection and Advection
The transfer of heat in the atmosphere takes
place in many ways. Transfer of heat through
horizontal movement of the air is called
advection. Vertical mixing of the air or
turbulence is also frequent. It is called
convection. The convective transfer of energy
is confined only to the troposphere. Air in the
lower layer of the atmosphere gets heated
either by the earth’s radiation, called terrestrial
radiation or by conduction. When two bodies
of unequal temperature are in contact with one
another, there is a flow of energy from the
warmer to cooler body. The transfer of heat
continues until both the bodies attain the
same temperature or the contact is broken.
Metals are good conductors, air is not. Hence,
conduction is important in heating the lower
layers of the atmosphere. The heating of air leads
to expansion. As its density decreases, it
becomes lighter and moves upwards. The
Fig.10.3 : Tranfer of Heat — Convective Motions in Liquid and Gases
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
continuous ascent of heated air creates vacuum
in lower layer. The cooler air above, being denser
and heavier, slips down to fill the vacuum,
leading to constant heating of warm air on one
side and slipping cold air on the other side
(Fig.10.3). Hence, the cyclic movement of air is
associated with the heat transfer from lower layer
to upper layer.
Horizontal air movement is relatively more
important than vertical movement. In middle
latitudes, most of diurnal (day and night)
variation in daily weather are caused by
advection alone. The scorching winds blowing
during summer, locally called ‘loo’ in northern
India, are an outcome of advection process.
Similarly, in temperate regions the advection
of warm tropical air in colder months makes
the weather pleasant. Cold polar air carries
cold air towards warm regions of the world.
Large scale reversal in temperature of the
atmosphere near the earth surface is thus
brought about by the process of advection.
TEMPERATURE AND ITS CONTROL
The temperature is the measurement of
available or sensible heat energy in a system.
It is a measure of hotness or coldness of the
body. Such property determines whether heat
INSOLATION AND TEMPERATURE
will flow out or into an object when it comes
in contact with other objects.
Latitude
The earth revolves round the sun once in a
year, in an elliptical path called the ‘plane of
ecliptic’. At the same time, the earth rotates
on its own axis in 24 hours. The earth’s axis
is tilted making an angle of 660 30’ with the
plane. Due to the inclination of the earth’s
axis, the angle of the sun’s rays falling on the
earth’s surface varies from vertical on the
equator to more and more slanting as one
moves towards the poles.
When the northern hemisphere is tilted
towards the sun, it receives maximum amount
of insolation. On 21June the sun is overhead at
the Tropic of Cancer and it is the longest day of
the year for the northern hemisphere. All this
time, the southern hemisphere is away from the
sun and 21 June is the shortest day of the year
for the southern hemisphere. On 21 March and
23 September the sun is overhead at the
equator and the length of the day and night is
same everywhere throughout the world. This
position of the earth is called equinox.
On 22 December the sun is overhead at the
T ropic of Capricor n and the souther n
hemisphere receives the maximum daylight. It
is, however, the shortest day for the northern
hemisphere. Thus, areas between the tropics
receive the maximum insolation. As one moves
away from the equator towards the poles, the
intensity of insolation decreases causing fall in
temperature.
Altitude
The temperature decreases with increasing
altitude from the earth’s sur face. This
vertical decrease in the temperature is at the
rate 0.65 o C per 100 metre or 165 m/1 0C.
These variations are normal throughout the
troposphere and are termed as normal lapse
rate. The direct source of atmospheric heat lies
at the surface of the earth. The atmosphere
near the surface is denser and contains large
amount of water vapour and dust particles.
Being closer to land surface, it absorbs more
67
terrestrial heat than that of upper air. Hence,
temperature is higher in the lower part of the
atmosphere than the upper part, where the air
is cleaner and less dense. That is why higher we
go cooler it is. Udagamandalam, Mount Abu,
Panchmarhi are cooler in summer than plains.
Land and Water
Land and water surface react differently to
incoming solar radiation. That is why land,
water and ice get heated and cooled at different
rates. Hence, the temperature of air resting
over land differs markedly from the one over
water on the same latitude. The temperature
contrast between continents and oceans is
greater during winter than summer. Lands
heat and cool rapidly because solar radiation
cannot penetrate solid surface to a great
depth. As against this, it can penetrate water
to a greater depth. There is also considerable
vertical mixing in water. Moreover, the energy
required to raise the land’s temperature by
given number of degrees would have to be
tripled in order to increase the sur face
temperature of water by equal amount. As a
consequence of this heating differential, air
above the oceans remain cooler in summer
and warmer in winter than does the air on land
surface.
Prevailing Winds
Prevailing winds also affect the temperature
conditions of the areas. The moderating effects
of oceans are brought to the adjacent lands
through on shore winds. On the contrary, off
shore winds take the effects of warm or cold
currents away from land.
Ocean Currents
Ocean currents are large movements of ocean
water from places of warm temperature to
colder temperatures or vice-versa. Their
movement affects the temperature of the
adjacent areas. The warm currents raise the
temperature of adjoining colder landmasses.
The climate of north wester n Europe is
modified to a large extent by ocean currents of
the North Atlantic Ocean. The cold currents of
68
the western coast of South Africa or South
America lowers temperature of adjacent
warmer lands.
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION
OF TEMPERATURE
The temperature distribution over the earth’s
surface could be analysed from the isothermal
maps of winter and summer. Isotherms are
imaginary lines connecting places of equal
temperature reduced to sea level. Isotherms,
in general, follow the parallels of latitudes
because it is the cause of temperature
contrast. In general, January and July months
represent the seasonal extremes of
temperature (Figs.10.4(a) and 10.4(b)). A
comparison of maps, shows that there is a
marked latitudinal shifting of isotherms
between January and July, following
apparent movement of the sun and the
latitudinal migration of the thermal belt. It is
noted that where horizontal temperature
changes are large, isotherms are closely
spaced. On the contrary, where horizontal
temperature differences are less, isotherms are
widely spaced. The rate of change of
temperature is called temperature gradient.
We can draw the following inferences from
isothermal maps:
• The highest temperatures are found in
tropics and sub-tropics. They receive the
largest amount of insolation throughout the
year. On the other hand, lowest
temperatures are recorded in polar regions,
where the amount of solar energy received
is very small.
• Isotherms within tropics are widely spaced
as temperature gradient is very gentle and
insignificant. The temperature gradient is
very steep in higher latitudes as well as on
the eastern margins of the continents.
• January isotherms bend sharply on the
continents towards the equator indicating
that winter in the interior of the continent
is more severe in the northern hemisphere.
On the other hand, isotherms on the
oceans exhibit poleward bend showing
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
thereby that the oceans are relatively
warmer.
January-Isotherms
You will notice that in the norther n
hemisphere, it is winter. The 00C isotherm
passes through the North Pacific. It is fairly
straight through Aleutian striking the west
coast of North America at Alaska. In the middle
latitude region, the western coasts of
continents are warmer than their counterparts
on the eastern side, because warm ocean
currents raise the winter temperature
condition of the onshore areas. The close
spacing of the January isotherms over the
continents in the northern hemisphere
indicates steep temperature gradient. It is
very steep on the eastern sides of North
America and Asia. It indicates that in January
north eastern Siberia, Greenland, and parts
of Asia, are the coldest places on the earth.
In the southern hemisphere, it is summer.
300C isotherm passes through north western
Argentina, eastern part of Africa, Borneo and
Australia in the southern hemisphere.
July-Isotherms
The July isotherms in the northern hemisphere
are irregular, zigzag and widely spaced. This
shows warm season and summer conditions.
The 350 C isotherm passes over north Africa,
south west Asia and north western part of India
and south western part of America.
In the southern hemisphere, isotherms
bend towards poles on continents and towards
equator on oceans. The continents are much
warmer than oceans. The isotherms in the
southern hemisphere are more regular, straight
and closely spaced. This shows wintry
conditions.
Inversion of Temperature
Normally, temperature decreases with increase
in elevation. It is called normal lapse rate. At
times, the situation is reversed and
the normal lapse rate is inverted. It is
called Inversion of temperature. Inversion
is usually of short duration but quite common
nonetheless. A long winter night with clear
 INSOLATION AND TEMPERATURE

Fig.10.4(a) : World — January Isotherms ( Temperature in °C)

69
 70
W E

N N

S
S

W E

Fig.10.4(b) : World — July Isotherms ( Temperature in °C)

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
INSOLATION AND TEMPERATURE 71

skies and still air is ideal situation for inversion.
The heat of the day is radiated off during the
night, and by early morning hours, the earth is
cooler than the air above. Over polar areas,
temperature inversion is normal throughout the
year.
Surface inversion promotes stability in the
lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and
dust particles get collected beneath the
inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill
the lower strata of the atmosphere. Dense fogs
in mor nings are common occurrences
especially during winter season. This inversion
commonly lasts for few hours until the sun
comes up and begins to warm the earth.
The inversion takes place in hills and
mountains due to air drainage. Cold air at the
hills and mountains, produced during night,
flows under the influence of gravity. Being heavy
and dense, the cold air acts almost like water and
moves down the slope to pile up deeply in
pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above.
This is called air drainage. It protects plants
from frost damages.
• Plank’s law states that hotter a body, the
more energy it will radiate and shorter
the wavelength of that radiation.
• Specific heat is the energy needed to raise
the temperature of one gram of substance
by one Celsius.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What is insolation?
(ii) How much energy radiated by the sun is intercepted by the earth?
(iii) Why do different parallels receive different amount of insolation?
(iv) How does the angle of the sun’s rays falling on the ground affect the amount of insolation?
(v) What are isotherms?
(vi) What is air drainage?
2. Distinguish between :
(i) Insolation and terrestrial radiation;
(ii) Advection and convection;
(iii) Normal lapse rate and inversion of temperature.
3. Write short notes on:
(i) Differential heating of land and water;
(ii) Heat budget;
(iii) Latitudinal heat balance.
4. How is the atmosphere heated? Discuss the role of terrestrial radiation in the process.
5. What are the basic mechanisms of heat transfer? Discuss the importance of these mechanisms
with reference to the atmosphere.
6. Discuss the factors controlling the horizontal distribution of temperature especially with
reference to July and January conditions.

Map Reading
By referring to the map showing world distribution of temperature give reasons why
• Isotherms generally trend east-west.
• Isotherms shift north and south from season to season.
• Isotherms bend while crossing over land to water and vice versa.
• Isotherms are more regular in the southern hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere.
72
CHAPTER
A
ir pressure and winds are the invisible
elements of weather that influence
other elements in a significant way.
They influence temperature and precipitation.
Even a minor change in pressure, changes the
velocity and direction of winds and this in turn
brings about changes in temperature and
precipitation. Air pressure is not readily
sensed by human body, but wind is.
Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the
column of air on the surface of the earth at sea
level. It is about 1 kilogram per cm2.
PRESSURE
Air is a mixture of several gases. Gas molecules
are in constant state of collusion and move
about freely. Pressure of air at a given place is
defined as a force exerted against surface by
continuous collision of gas molecules.
Therefore, it is the consequence of weight of all
air above it. The amount of pressure exerted
by air at a particular point is determined by
temperature and density. It follows that a
change in either temperature or density will
cause corresponding change in pressure.
The air pressure is measured as a force per
unit area. The units used by meteorologist for
this purpose are called millibars (mb). One
millibar is equal to the force of one thousand
dynes on a cm 2. The instrument used for
measuring air pressure is called a barometer.
The normal pressure at sea level is 1,013.25
mb (about 76 cm).
The distribution of atmospheric pressure
is shown on a map by isobars. An isobar is an
imaginary line drawn through places having
equal atmospheric pressure at sea level. The
spacing of isobars expresses the rate and
direction of the pressure changes and is
referred to as pressure gradients.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
PRESSURE AND WINDS
There are two types of pressure systems;
high pressure and low pressure. Temperature
is the most common cause of pressure
differentiation. Air that is cooled at the bottom
will sink and increase pressure, whereas
warming will cause air to rise and thus, lower
the pressure. The change in temperature is
caused either by solar radiation or, induced by
some external dynamic agencies like friction
caused by rubbing or by force produced
through rotation of the earth. Thus, pressure
change takes place either by thermal or
dynamic processes.
Distribution of atmospheric pressure is not
uniform over the earth’s surface. It varies
vertically as well as horizontally.
Vertical Distribution
Air pressure varies according to temperature
and altitude. In the first few thousand metres
above the sea level, the pressure decreases at
the rate of 1millibar for every 10 metres. It
drops to half its surface value (from 1,013.2mb
to 540.4mb) at about 5 km. The rate of fall of
pressure with height is determined partly by
the rate of fall in temperature.
Horizontal Distribution of
Pressure — Global Pattern
The horizontal distribution of pressure across
the latitudes in general, presents an alternate
belt of low and high pressure areas (Fig. 11.1).
You will notice that there is a inverse relationship
between pressure and temperature. The
equatorial region having high temperature has
low pressure. While the polar regions with low
temperature have high pressure. These
pressure belts are thermally induced.
Logically, there should have been a gradual
increase in pressure from the equator towards
the poles. This is, however, not so.
PRESSURE AND WINDS
Fig.11.1 : Pressure Belts of the World
There are two intermediate zones of sub-
tropical highs in the vicinity of 300 N and S and
two sub-polar lows in the vicinity of 600 N and
S. Formation of these pressure belts may be
explained by dynamic controls: pressure
Fig.11.2 : Impact of the Rotating Earth on Pressure Distribution
73
gradient force and rotation of the earth. The
pressure gradient is defined as the decrease in
pressure per unit distance in the direction in
which the pressure decreases most rapidly.
The warm air of the equatorial low pressure
belt gradually gets cool in its ascent. Upon
reaching upper layers, it starts moving
towards the pole. It further cools and begins
to subside in a zone between 20 and 35
degrees latitudes. Two factors are responsible
for the general, subsidence of air in this belt.
First, cooling of the air results in increased
density, which accounts for its subsidence.
Second, owing to the rotation of the earth from
west to east, poleward directed winds are
deflected eastwards.
On the rotating earth, a point on the equator
moves fastest. As we go towards the poles, the
speed decreases, reaching almost zero at the
poles. It is because of this difference in speed
that any moving body such as winds and ocean
currents get deflected when they move towards
the equator or away from the equator (Fig. 11.2).
The force of deflection was first discovered by
Coriolis, a French mathematician, and hence,
called Coriolis force. It was later elaborated by
74
Ferrel and is known as Ferrel’s law. It states that
all moving bodies like wind and ocean currents
get deflected from their normal paths towards
right in the northern hemisphere and towards left
in the southern hemisphere. The rate of deflection
increases with the distance from the equator. As
a result, by the time the poleward-directed winds
reach 25 degrees latitude, they are deflected into
a nearly west to east flow. It produces a blocking
effect and the air piles up aloft. This causes a
general subsidence in the areas between the
tropics and 350 N and S. They develop into high-
pressure belts. The winds coming from the sub-
tropics and polar areas converge and rise in a
zone between 450 N and S and the Arctic and the
Antarctic circles, respectively. These are the areas
of sub-polar lows. This is well explained in (Figs.
11.2 and 11.3)
Thus, there are seven pressure belts in all as
shown in Fig.11.1. They are:
• Equatorial trough of low pressure;
Fig.11.3 : Pressure Belts and Arrangement of Cells
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
• Subtropical high pressure belt (northern
hemisphere);
• Subtropical high pressure belt (southern
hemisphere);
• Subpolar low pressure belt (northern
hemisphere);
• Subpolar low pressure belt (southern
hemisphere);
• Polar high (northern hemisphere); and
• Polar high (southern hemisphere).
Equatorial Trough of Low Pressure
This belt is located on either side of the equator
extending between 0 0 and 10 0 N and S. Its
outer margins shift north and south of the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn
respectively, due to apparent movement of the
sun. it is thermally produced low pressure
belt. Here, the pressure is more uniform than
that in other parts of the world. Surface winds
are generally absent since winds approaching
this region begin to rise vertically near its
margin. It is, therefore, a region of extremely
calm air and is called the doldrums.
Subtropical High Pressure (Horse Latitude)
The subtropical high pressure is located
between the tropics (25 0 N and S) and 35 0
north and south latitudes. This belt is broken
into a number of high pressure cells. The high
pressure is caused due to the subsidence and
piling of the air. A calm condition with variable
and feeble winds is created in this region.
These regions are often referred to as ‘horse
latitudes’ because in the early days, the sailing
vessels with the cargo of horse found it difficult
to sail under such calm conditions. The sailors
used to throw the horses in the sea to make
the vessels lighter for smooth sailing and
hence, the name.
Subpolar Low Pressure Belt
The subpolar low pressure belt is located
between 450 north and south latitudes and the
Arctic and the Antarctic circles respectively.
These low pressure cells are well developed in
the north Atlantic and north Pacific regions.
The low pressure is caused by converging and
rising air. Due to a great contrast between the
temperature of the winds from subtropical and
PRESSURE AND WINDS
polar source regions, cyclonic storms are
produced.
Polar Highs
At the poles, there are well developed high
pressure zones. These zones are the result of
persistent low temperature that makes the air
cold and heavy. This gives rise to a cap of
high pressure in polar region. The prevailing
polar easterly winds blow out of these caps of
high pressure to subpolar low pressure areas.
Seasonal Distribution of Pressure
Despite a broad, generalised patter n of
pressure distribution on the earth, pressure
conditions vary considerably on the basis of
prevailing weather conditions in different
parts of the world. The horizontal distribution
of pressure on the earth surface is shown by
Fig.11.4 : Horizontal Distribution of Pressure and Winds (July and January)
75
means of isobars. Just as there is a daily range
of temperature on the surface of the earth, so is
there diurnal rhythm of pressure. The direction
and rate of change in pressure is called pressure
gradient. It is at right angles to isobars, just as
the slope of land surface is at right angles to
contour lines. The rate of change or steepness
of gradient is shown by spacing of isobars.
Closely spaced isobars show steep pressure
gradient; and widely spaced isobars show gentle
gradient.
The zonal distribution of pressure is
modified by continents and oceans. In
summer, the relatively hot continents intensify
the low pressure cells and weaken or destroy
high pressure cells. In similar manner, the
corresponding cooler oceans weaken the
low pressure cells and intensify the high
pressure cells. In winter, the situation is
reversed (Fig.11.4).
76
Change in the pressure distribution
over the earth’s surface could be analysed
from isobar maps of winter and summer
(Fig.11.5 A and B). These distributions reflect
the influence of landmass in the northern
hemisphere and predominant control of ocean
surface in the southern hemisphere. The winter
chill of northern landmasses enhances high
pressure. The impact of high pressure cells of
subtropical belt is subdued. In summer, great
heating of the interior of northern continents
produces low pressure, which causes
weakening of subtropical high pressure cells.
The extensive ocean surface of the southern
hemisphere has fairly uniform pressure
throughout the year. But continental areas in
this hemisphere do experience some variation
in pressure during July. Following inferences
may be drawn from isobaric maps.
January Isobars
Northern Hemisphere (Winter)
• The polar high is in the form of ridges
extending from northeastern Eurasia to
Yukan area of North America. The isobars
have developed very deep and extensive high
pressure cells.
• Subpolar low pressure belt is represented
by individual oceanic cells developed in
north Atlantic and north Pacific ocean. These
are known as Aleutian low and Icelandic low
respectively.
• The subtropical high is well developed over
the cold continents as a continuous belt. The
high pressure cells are well developed over
Northeast Asia, Siberia and Canadian
highlands. The highest pressure is centred
on central Asia where large mountain basins
are located. The high pressure cells are fairly
weak over the oceans.
Southern Hemisphere (Summer)
• The equatorial low pressure is mainly south
of the equator. It extends over considerable
distance over warm continents of the
southern hemisphere.
• The subtropical high over southern oceans
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
is broken into three cells over Pacific, Atlantic
and Indian oceans.
• The subpolar low pressure cell over
Antarctica is weak.
July Isobars
Northern Hemisphere (Summer)
• The polar high pressure gets weakened
substantially and it separates Asiatic low.
• The subpolar low pressure is also
weakened and only subdued Icelandic low
exists. The Aleutian low has disappeared
and there is continuous low pressure over
Asia almost extending to the equator.
• The subtropical high pressure belt in
summer is well developed over the oceans.
The Pacific high, Azore high and Indian high
are well developed in July than in January.
• The equatorial low pressure lies north of the
equator in July. The centre of low pressure
is well developed over the ocean between
10 0 and 15 0 North Latitudes over Asia,
north Africa and southwest United States.
Southern Hemisphere (Winter)
• The subtropical high pressure is strongly
developed over oceans than over cold
continents.
• The subpolar low is a continuous belt over
650 to 750 south latitudes.
• The polar high is weak and extends to
smaller degree over oceans.
WINDS
Air moving parallel to the ground is called
wind; while vertical air movements is called
current. Air movement is caused by differences
in air pressure. Wind moves from high
pressure to low pressure region, following
barometric slope or pressure gradient. The
steeper the pressure gradient, the greater is
the velocity of wind. Air flowing down the
pressure gradient follows the law of gravitation
in the same manner as water does flowing
down the hill.
The wind once set in, flows from high
pressure to low pressure. But it follows
PRESSURE AND WINDS 77

Fig.11.5 (A); and (B) : Seasonal Distribution of Pressure (in Millibars)

(A) January; (B) July
78 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

somewhat a devious course due to the Coriolis

force. It is deflected to right in the northern
hemisphere and to left in the southern
hemisphere. It was Ferrel, who stated that all
moving bodies like winds and ocean currents
get deflected from their normal path towards
right in the northern hemisphere and towards
left in the southern hemisphere. That is why the
wind takes a curved course.
The wind is known by the direction from
which it blows: a wind blowing from west to east
is westerly and the one blowing from east to
west is called an easterly. The direction of wind
is known by an instrument known as wind
vane. The wind velocity is measured by an
instrument called as anemometer. The speed
of the wind is expressed in kilometres per hour
on the land and per hour on the sea.

Types of Winds
As noted earlier, the general circulation of winds
is governed by pressure systems, which differs
spatially as well as periodically. We have already
learnt about the global pressure belts in summer
and winter seasons. Pressure varies from place
to place in response to local temperature and
wind conditions, and distribution of land and sea.
In fact, it is from a global and permanent pressure
pattern that local and semi permanent pressure
cells are evolved. Fig.11.6 : Generalised System of Primary Winds
Three different air circulation systems (Planetary Winds)
are : primary; secondary; and tertiary. The
primary circulation pattern, prepares the broad winds on an rotating earth’s surface. It ignores
framework for other circulatory patterns. The seasonal heating and land water contrast on
primary winds are also known as planetary the earth’s surface. The primary winds
winds. They include trade winds, westerlies and comprise trade winds, westerlies, and polar
polar winds. The secondary winds include easterlies.
monsoon, cyclones and anticyclones. Tertiary Doldrum is a Zone of calmness in the
winds include local winds. They affect only local vicinity of equator on its both sides. Here winds
weather and climate. are feeble and have least surface movement.
(Fig. 11.6)
Primary Winds or Planetary Winds
These winds constitute large scale motion of Trade Winds
atmosphere under the influence of pressure The trade winds blow between 5 0 and 30 0
gradients, Coriolis effect, and frictional force. latitudes in both the hemispheres. In the
It is related to general circulatory pattern of northern hemisphere the prevailing winds are
PRESSURE AND WINDS 79

northeasterly and are called northeast trades.
In the southern hemisphere the prevailing
winds are southeasterly and are called
southeast trades. The two wind belts converge
near the equator, which is called Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
Westerlies
Westerlies blow in the middle latitudes between
350 and 600 north and south latitudes. The
westerlies, unlike trades, are variable in
direction and are violent in speed. At times
specially in winter, they acquire gale force. They
can also take the form of mild breeze. In the
southern hemisphere, beyond 40 0 latitude
stormy westerlies are observed both in summer
as well as in winter. Hence, they were given names
by early mariners as ‘roaring forties’, ‘furious
fifties’ and ‘shrieking sixties’.
In January strong Siberian high over
interior of Asia produces northeasterly surface
winds for most of south Asia. This cold
continental air contains very little moisture, so
precipitation during winter is at a minimum. But
during summer the Siberian high disappears
and the Inter Tropical Conver -gence Zone
(equatorial low) shifts northward to a position
over the Tibetan plateau. As a result the air flows
from the southeast, crosses the equator and is
curved into a southwesterly flow. This air passes
over most of the warm tropical Indian Ocean and
therefore, is highly saturated. The arrival of this

Polar Easterlies
At poles there are well developed high pressure
zones. The cooling effects of Antarctica and
permanently frozen Arctic sea induce thermal
highs. Air chilled at base sinks and flows
towards the equator, veering rapidly to the
west from east. These are called polar
easterlies.

Secondary or Periodic Winds

The winds that change their direction
periodically with the change in season, are called
secondary or periodic winds. Monsoon, air
masses and fronts, cyclones and anticyclones,
land and sea breezes and mountain and valley
breezes are the wind system that periodically
change their courses diurnally or seasonally.

Monsoons
Monsoon (derived from Arabic word, mausim
for season) is a regional wind that reverses
its direction on seasonal basis (Fig.11.7 (a); and
11.7 (b)). The monsoon over south and south
east Asia is typical. These wind systems override
the expected pattern of primary atmospheric Fig.11.7 (a); and (b) : Monsoon Winds and Upper
circulation. Air Circulation (a) Winter; and (b) Summer
80
saturated air over the Indian subcontinent
marks the onset of wet summer monsoon. The
precipitation is frequently high and heavy
(Mawsynram 11,873 mm and Cherrapunji
11,314 mm rainfall). The southwest monsoon
consists of two main branches. One branch
penetrates the Bay of Bengal and Northeastern
India. It is pushed westward along the Indus-
Ganga plains. The other branch arrives from the
Arabian Sea arm of the Indian Ocean and enters
the country from western side. The rains from
both the branches gradually spread across the
sub continent and bring heavy showers over
India. During the winter months monsoon
causes very little precipitation (2 to 4cm).
Tertiary or Local Winds
Tertiary winds are generated by immediate
influence of the surrounding terrain. They are
of environmental importance in various ways
and exert powerful stress on animals and plants
when winds are dry and extremely hot. The
land and sea breezes, as well as mountain and
valley breezes are also one class of local winds.
These winds respond to local pressure
gradients set up by heating or cooling of the
lower atmosphere.
Land and Sea Breezes
Daily temperature contrasts between land and
water produce small diurnal monsoon called
land and sea breezes. Along the coast there is
often drift of cool, heavy air from land to water
at night and early morning when land has cooled
to lower temperature than water. During the
heat of the day, when the land becomes warmer
than the adjacent water, the wind direction is
reversed and a breeze comes in from the sea.
These daily land and sea breezes are shallow
winds and penetrate only a few kilometres in
land or sea. Along tropical coasts and also in
middle latitudes in summer the cool sea breeze
is very important in making coastal location
more pleasant than the interiors.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Mountain and Valley Breezes
Diurnal winds similar to land and sea breezes
occur in mountainous regions. During day time
the slope of the mountain facing the sun is
heated more than the valley floor. The hot air
rises and the cool air in the valley floor flows up
the slope. This is known as the valley breeze.
After sunset the pattern is reversed. Rapid loss
of heat through terrestrial radiation along the
mountain slopes results in sliding of cold dense
air from higher elevation to valley. This is known
as mountain breeze.
Another group of local winds are known
as air drainage winds in which cold dense
air in winter flows under the influence of
gravity from higher to lower region, and
accumulates over high interior valleys. Snow
winds are locally named as ‘bora’ in northern
Adriatic coast and mistral in southern
France.
The other types of local winds are ‘loo’, ‘foehn’
and ‘chinook’. They are warm and dry winds.
Loo
In the plains of northern India and Pakistan,
sometimes a very hot and dry wind blows from
the west in the months of May and June, usually
in the afternoons. It is known as loo. Its
temperature invariably ranges between 450C
and 500C. It may cause sunstroke to people.
Foehn and Chinook
Foehn is a hot wind of local importance in
the Alps. It is a strong, gusty, dry and warm
wind. It develops on the leeward side of a
mountain range. Due to regional pressure
gradient, stable air is forced to ascend the
windward side causing precipitation on the
mountains. As it descends the leeward side,
it is warmed and becomes dry. Its
temperature varies from 15 0 to 20 0C. A
similar wind moves down the Rockies and is
known as ‘chinook’. The word ‘chinook’
literary means ‘snow eater’. It keeps the
grasslands clear from snow during much of
the winter.
PRESSURE AND WINDS
Mistral
During winter, areas adjacent to highlands may
experience a local cold wind, which originates
over the snowcapped mountains or highlands
and blows down the valley. These winds have been
given local names. The most famous is the
‘mistral’ that blows from the Alps over France
towards the Mediterranean Sea. It is channeled
through the Rhone Valley. It is a very cold and
dry wind with high velocity. Even though the skies
are clear, the ‘mistral’ brings down the
temperature below freezing point. Its speed is so
Fig.11.8 (a) : Distribution of Tropical and Polar Air Masses and Fronts
81
great that orchards and gardens have to be
protected from it by thick hedges of cypress trees.
Many small houses have their doors and
windows only on the southeastern side.
AIR MASSES AND FRONTS
The air masses and fronts are migratory
atmospheric disturbances, which generate
secondary type of winds all over the world. They
are associated with stormy weather conditions.
As indicated earlier, most precipitation results
from the condensation of moisture contained
82 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

in rising and expanding masses of warm and
moist air. Storms provide effective mechanisms
for raising large quantities of air aloft.
Air Masses
Air mass is a large body of air with fairly uniform
properties of temperature and humidity. It
acquires its properties by remaining stationary
over a given area for long period, enough to
come to equilibrium with the surface below. The
properties of air masses (temperature,
humidity, stability and abundance of minor
components) are determined by nature of
underlying surface.
The air masses extend through many
latitudes and cover thousands of square
kilometres. The complete horizontal homoge-
neity of air mass is, therefore, rarely achieved.
Small differences in the physical properties,
such as temperature and humidity exist from
one part to another at the same level.
The air mass derives its characteristics
mainly from its source region. As it moves
away from the source region, it is modified by
weather conditions prevailing along the route.
As such the classification of air mass is based
upon the nature of the source region and
subsequent modifications to which it is
subjected.

Typology of Air Masses

P

cP mP

cPk m Pw

t t t t
cPks cPku mPws mPwu
cPw m Pk

t t t t

cPws cPwu mPks mPku

cT mT

cTk m Tw

t t t t
cTks cTku mTws mTwu
cTw m Tk

t t t t
cTws cTwu mTks mTku

Fig.11.8 (b) : Typology of Air Masses

P-polar m-maritime s-stable
T-tropical k-heated from below u-unstable
c-continental w-cooled from below
PRESSURE AND WINDS
There are two basic air masses-Polar (P) and
Tropical (T) (Fig.11.8(a) and (b)) with strong
differentiation of temperature. They are in turn
sub-divided into continental (c) and maritime
(m) in terms of humidity. A continental air mass
is relatively less humid. The conveniently used
symbols are as follows:
cP — Polar continental
mP — Polar maritime
cT — Tropical continental
mT — Tropical maritime.
The properties of above air masses are
modified by transfer of heat from the bases of
air mass and the surface over which, it flows.
Heating from below expands the air mass thus,
leading to rapid cooling. The mechanical
changes in air mass also cause changes in
physical properties of air masses substantially,
producing unstability in the system. In all,
there are sixteen types of air masses (Fig. 11.8
b). The principal types are as under :
Polar continental (cP) : The air is confined
in broad high latitudinal stretches of Siberia
and Canada. Typically frozen and dusted with
snow throughout winter season, the air
masses located over this region are chilly, cold,
and slightly modified in summer.
Polar maritime (mP) : These air masses are
located over warmer high latitude oceans of
North Pacific (Bering sea), North Atlantic
(Norwegian Sea) and entire sweep of southern
hemisphere oceans fringing Antarctica. The air,
overlying these unfrozen seas with frequent
probing warmer currents, is a highly efficient
evaporator of readily available moisture. So mP
air is less cold and more moist than cP air. North
America and Northern Europe experience
these types of air masses during winter season.
The west coast is normally protected from
invasion by generally, prevailing westerly
circulations and cascade barrier.
Tropical continental (cT): This air mass is
basically hot and dry. Heat may vary a bit in
the season but dryness remains immutable.
These air masses develop over greater Sahara
area. Hot dry winds invade Mediterranean
Europe, Norther n Mexico and Souther n
California in the form of scorching Sirocco.
Tropical maritime (mT): It is considerably
83
wider than cT because of greater size. Pacific
ocean, North and South Atlantic and Indian
Ocean are extensive source areas for mT air.
These air masses overlying the tropical seas are
moist and saturated universally. They are
pushed beyond the source areas and cause
heavy precipitation and high temperature
condition.
Fronts
The contact line between air masses of different
properties is called a front. A cold front develops
where the cold air mass moves under warm air
mass and lifts it up. On the other hand, the
trailing edge of a cold air mass that is followed
by warm air is called a warm front. In each case
precipitation is likely to occur, because warm air
is rising over cold air. The duration and intensity
of the precipitation along the two fronts are quite
different. The cold front is steep and produces
showery, and sometimes violent precipitation
for a longer period of time. If the cold front moves
faster than the warm front in such a trap, part
or all of the pocket of warm air may be lifted from
the surface, thus, producing an occluded front.
After occlusion, the air masses loose earlier
characters and form new fronts.
Cyclones
Cyclones constitute the most fundamental
and climatically the most significant
atmospheric disturbances af fecting the
weather (Fig. 11.9 and 11.10). On the basis of
the areas of their origin, cyclones are classified
broadly into two types: temperate and tropical.
Temperate Cyclones
Temperate Cyclones are concentrated in the
middle latitudes between 350 and 650 in both
hemispheres (Fig.11.11). They are generally,
extensive having a vertical thickness ranging
from 9 to 11 km and a diameter of about 1,000
km. It is just like a spearhead, having the
shape of an upturned ‘V’. The approaching
temperate cyclones are noticed by the
appearance of dark clouds in the background
of white clouds.
84 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Fig.11.9 : Anticyclones and Cyclones

The most accepted hypothesis for the origin
of mid latitude cyclone is Polar front theory,
advanced by Bijerknes, a Norwegian
meteorologist. According to him the highs and
lows of the westerly wind belts result from the
interactions and alternations of two contrasting
types of air masses, one originating in the polar
regions and the other in the subtropics. Cold air
from polar highs moves equatorwards and is
deflected westward, forming the northeast

Fig.11.10 : Distribution of Cyclones and Fronts in the Northern Hemisphere

PRESSURE AND WINDS
Fig.11.11 : Formation of Temperate Cyclones and Polar Fronts
and southeast polar winds. Warmer air from the
subtropical highs moves poleward and, by
eastward deflection, forms the westerly winds.
The contact between these contrasting air
masses is the polar front. Eddies, or waves,
develop along this contact and the front
becomes highly irregular, consisting of
interlocking tongues of the two types of air
masses.
As soon as the cyclone approaches, there
is drizzle, followed by heavy rainfall. The
velocity of the wind increases. On the
approach of warm front, the fall in the
pressure stops; and the sky becomes clear.
This gives the clue that the centre of the
cyclone is reached. Immediately after this,
temperature begins to fall and the sky
becomes cloudy and rainy again. This
indicates the approach of cold front. Sky is
clear once again.
85
PR
EC
IPI
TA
TIO
N
Tropical Cyclones
Tropical Cyclones are notorious for their violence
and for causing wide spread destruction. These
develop over oceans, particularly in tropical
regions. Hence, their major climatic significance
is in causing widespread rainfall. Most of the
tropical cyclones develop in a belt of 80 to 150 north
and south latitudes.
Tropical Cyclones are characterised by
circular and asymmetrical isobars. They have
very low pressure at the centre, and the pressure
gradient is very steep and winds are very strong;
their velocity ranges between 120-200 km per
hour. Rainfall is torrential and is evenly
distributed around the centre. Area covered is
relatively small in the range of 150-500 km
diameter. They move from east to west with the
trades. They are most prominent in the Pacific
ocean, (eastern coast of China, Taiwan,
southern part of Japan). In India,
86 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

intensity is felt more in the Bay of Bengal along
the eastern coast. In Africa, they are recorded in
Ethiopia and Kenya. In North America, they are
prominent in Texas, coastal parts of Mexico and
Florida and West Indies where they are known
as Hurricanes. In Australia, they occur as Willy-
Willies and in China and Japan as Typhoons.
Cyclones are symbolic of atmospheric
dynamism and are of crucial importance in
determining the well being of man and his
society. Much is being studied about them but
still we lack precision in forecast and in assessing
their intensity. Availability of satellite imageries
in coordinating data and information for
analysis at the regional and global levels has
helped in better understanding of the
mechanism of weather.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) How do air pressure and winds influence the weather?
(ii) What is a millibar?
(iii) What are the two types of pressure systems?
(iv) What is Coriolis force and who discovered it first?
(v) What is pressure gradient?
(vi) Name the seven pressure belts of the earth.
(vii) What are isobars?
(viii) Why does pressure decrease with altitude?
(ix) What are tertiary winds?
(x) What is an air mass?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Wind and air current;
(ii) Planetary and periodic winds;
(iii) Land and sea breezes;
(iv) Mistral and foehn;
(v) Tropical and polar airmasses;
(vi) Temperate and tropical cyclones.
3. Describe the global pattern of the horizontal distribution of pressure.
4. Discuss the seasonal variation in the pressure distribution over the earth’s surface.
5. Describe the major types of winds.
6. ‘The monsoons override the expected pattern of primary wind system’. Explain.
7. Discuss the major types of air masses and how do they influence the area over which they move?
8. Give one term for the following:
(i) A large body of air with uniform properties of temperature and humidity.
(ii) The contact line between air masses of different properties.
(iii) A zone of calmness in the vicinity of equator on both the sides.
(iv) Winds blowing over south and south east Asia that are characterised by the reversal in
wind direction with change in season.
(v) A hot wind of local importance in the Alps.
(vi) A warm and dry wind moving down the Rockies and commonly called ‘snow eater’.
(vii) A very cold and dry wind with high velocity blowing from the Alps towards the
Mediterranean sea.
(viii) An airmass originating over tropical oceans.

Finding Out
Collect information about some other local winds.

CHAPTER
W
ater vapour is one of the most
important atmospheric gases. It is
odourless and invisible. Human
body can sense it only in conjunction with air
temperature — so called sensible temperature.
The atmosphere gathers moisture by process
of evaporation and looses it through
condensation and precipitation. Precipitation
and cloud potential of any given airmass,
contains within it latent heat to be released on
condensation. It is an effective absorber of
radiated heat.
Water has a number of unique properties
like high specific heat and the highest surface
tension. The specific heat is the amount of
energy needed to change the temperature of a
substance. Water needs large amount of heat to
change it into water vapour. The heat stored in
the water vapour is called latent heat. Due to
high surface tension, the water molecules are
able to attract adjoining water molecules to form
droplets, dew, fog and mist.
SOURCE AND DISTRIBUTION
OF WATER VAPOUR
Water exists in three forms or states: solid
(ice), liquid (water) and gas (water vapour).
All the three states interchange. Ice on melting
becomes liquid or sometimes even to water
vapour through the process of sublimation.
The surface of the ocean is the greatest source
of atmospheric moisture. Lesser bodies of
water, vegetation and damp land surfaces also
contribute in significant amounts. Much of
the water vapour evaporated from the oceans
is carried by winds to the land where it is
precipitated and delivered back to the oceans
by glaciers and streams. The amount of water
87
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
vapour in the atmosphere is highly variable
from place to place and from time to time,
ranging almost upto 5 per cent in any one
place. It decreases rapidly with altitude.
EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the process whereby liquid
water or ice changes into water vapour. It
occurs whenever heat energy is transported to
a surface containing water and the temperature
rises. The molecules become more mobile and
overcome the forces binding them to water
surface and break away resulting in
evaporation.
The heat removed from the immediate
surrounding is trapped in water vapour as
latent heat. In this way evaporation decreases
the temperature of remaining liquid by an
amount proportional to latent heat of vapour.
The rate of evaporation is related to the
dif ference between saturation vapour
pressure at surface temperature and the
vapour pressure at the air above.
Potential Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration is the amount of moisture
transferred to the atmosphere by evaporation
of liquid and solid water plus transpiration
from living tissues principally from plants. The
term ‘potential evapotranspiration’ refers to
idealised conditions in which there would be
enough rainfall to provide sufficient moisture
for all possible evapotranspiration in an area.
In order to deter mine the potential
evapotranspiration for any place or area,
several factors like temperature, latitude,
vegetation, permeability and water retention
capacity of the soil are taken into
88
consideration. Places having surplus of
precipitation over evapotranspiration are
marked by surplus of underground water
storage.
The amount of water changing for m
through evaporation varies widely from place
to place. Since temperature is the major
control, tropical seas and forests are by far the
greatest contributors. The polar ice caps with
their permanent low temperature and tropical
deserts, despite their high temperatures,
display a consistent lack of substantial
precipitation and are largely without evapo-
ration. The amount of water vapour ranges
from almost zero above deserts of world and
above ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica to
2.5 per cent in humid equatorial areas.
HUMIDITY
Humidity refers to the condition of the air with
regard to water vapour. Absolute humidity
refers to the actual amount of water vapour
present per unit volume of air and is usually
expressed in grams per cubic metre. It is
usually, greater near the equator than the
polar region, and greater in summer than in
winter. Distance from the source of moisture
exercises important control over the amount
of water vapour in the air. Absolute humidity
is commonly greater over oceans than over the
interior of continents.
Relative humidity refers to the amount of
water vapour in the air compared with the
amount that would be present if the air were
saturated at that temperature. It is expressed
in percentage determined by dividing the
absolute humidity by water holding capacity
of air. If the air is saturated, its relative
humidity is 100 per cent; if only half saturated,
50 per cent. Since the capacity of air for
absorbing and retaining moisture varies with
temperature, the relative humidity of air mass
can be altered by merely lowering its
temperature, without changing the actual
amount of moisture present in it. The cooling
continues to decrease the moisture holding
ability of the air and the air is eventually filled
to capacity. This is saturation; the air is
holding all the water vapour that it is capable
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
of holding, and the relative humidity is 100 per
cent (Fig. 12.1). This is also dew point because
any further cooling will result in condensation.
The dew point is where condensation begins
as cooling continues. If this point is above
freezing point, condensation will be in the form
of rain; if below freezing, it will be in the form
of snow. Consequently, cooling will result in
continued condensation.
Condensation
Condensation is the process of water vapour
changing to liquid state. If the air is cooled
below its dew point, some of the air’s water
vapour becomes liquid. Thus, any amount of
cooling of the saturated air starts the process
of condensation. Whenever, the dew point
temperature falls below the freezing point,
water vapour may convert directly into ice by
the process of “crystallisation”. Condensation
may start with the addition of any further
water vapour to the saturated air, or with the
reduction of its temperature.
Condensation depends upon two factors:
relative humidity of air and degree of cooling.
Therefore, in arid lands a larger degree of
cooling is necessary before the dew point is
reached, while in humid climates a lesser
degree of cooling will start the process of
condensation. In the process of evaporation,
heat is transformed into work energy, which
results in cooling the evaporating surface.
Condensation, on the other hand, is the reverse
process. Here, an equal amount of energy is
transformed into heat.
There can be no condensation unless there
is a surface on which the liquid can condense;
thus, the significance of dust in the
atmosphere. The abundant supply of
microscopic particles of sea salt, sulphur
dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, volcanic dust and
fine dust particles are capable of attracting or
absorbing water.
Dew and Frost
On cool nights in early winters, when radiation
from the ground is relatively rapid, the air in
contact with the ground may be chilled to the
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE 89

Fig.12.1 : Relationship Between Moisture Holding Capacity and Relative Humidity

90
dew point and moisture condenses on the
leaves and grass in the form of dews. If the dew
point is at or below the freezing point, the
condensation takes the form of tiny ice crystals,
or frost. Dew and frost form on grass quite
readily, because grass is a good radiator and
therefore, cools quickly. Furthermore, grass
and other plants give off moisture which is not
readily evaporated at night when the air cools.
The formation of dew or frost is impeded by (i)
dry air, which must be sufficiently cooled to
reach the dew point; (ii) wind mixes the air and
prevents its lower portion from reaching the
dew point; and (iii) clouds, which slow down
terrestrial radiation. Low ground moisture and
also cold air from the uplands flow down the
slope into valleys, causing the formation of dew
and frost on low flat grounds rather than on
slopes.
Clouds and Fog
Clouds are formed by the condensation of
water vapour around nuclei of minute dust
particles in the air. In most cases, clouds
consist of tiny droplets of water, but they may
also consist of ice particles if the temperature
is below freezing point. Most clouds are formed
by the rising war m and moist air. The
ascending air expands and cools until the dew
Fig.12.2 : Cloud Types and Their Location
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
point is reached and some of the moisture
condenses into clouds. Other clouds result from
mixing between two air masses of different
temperatures (Fig. 12.2). Clouds at and near the
earth’s surface are known as fog.
The ten genera of clouds are combined into
three groups based mainly on the average
height of the cloud base. They are as follows:
(i) High clouds (5 to14 km);
(ii) Middle clouds (2 to 7 km);
(iii) Low clouds (below 2 km).
High Clouds
• Cirrus (Ci) : These are fibrous clouds with
a delicate, silky appearance. When
detached and arranged irregularly in the
sky, they are harbingers of fair weather. On
the other hand, when they are
systematically arranged, as in bands, or
connected with cirrostratus or altostratus,
they usually foretell wet weather.
• Cirrostratus (Cs) : A thin, whitish sheet of
cloud covering the whole sky and giving it
a milky appearance is called cirrostratus.
These clouds commonly produce a halo
around the sun and the moon. They are
usually signs of the approaching storm.
• Cirrocumulus (Cc) : These clouds appear as
small white flakes or small globular
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
masses, usually without shadows. They are
usually arranged in groups, lines or ripples
resulting from undulation of the cloud sheet.
Such an arrangement is called mackerel
sky.
Middle Clouds
• Altostratus (As) : A uniform sheet of cloud,
gray or bluish in color, and usually having
a fibrous structure belong to this group. It
often merges gradually with cirrostratus.
The sun and the moon shine wanely
through these clouds. Sometimes it also
presents a corona. Altostratus commonly
is followed by widespread and relatively
continuous precipitation.
• Altocumulus (Ac) : These are flattened
globular masses of clouds , arranged in
lines or waves. They dif fer from
cirrocumulus as they have larger globules,
often with shadows.
Low Clouds
• Stratocumulus (Sc) : Large globular masses
or rolls of soft gray clouds with brighter
interstices belong to this group. The
masses are commonly arranged in a
regular pattern.
• Stratus (St) – These are low uniform layers
of clouds resembling fog , but not resting
on the ground. Thin stratus clouds
produce a corona.
• Nimbostratus (Ns) : They are dense,
shapeless, and often ragged layers of low
clouds, which commonly cause conti-
nuous rainfall.
• Cumulus (Cu) : These are thick, dense
clouds with vertical development. The
upper sur face is dome shaped with a
cauliflower structure, while the base is
nearly horizontal. Most cumulus clouds
are of fair weather type, although towering
cumulus may develop into cumulonimbus
or thunderheads.
• Cumulonimbus (Cs) : Heavy masses of
cloud with great vertical development
whose summits rise like mountains or
towers is called cumulonimbus. An anvil
91
shaped top is its characteristic. It is often
accompanied by heavy showers, squalls,
thunderstorms, and sometimes hail.
Clouds of Large Vertical Extent
The high clouds are composed entirely of ice
crystals, Clouds for med by vertical
development have a water droplet composition
in their lower part, but those with a very large
vertical extent have tops that are composed
entirely of ice crystals.
Precipitation
The word precipitation is derived from a latin
word ‘precipitatio’ meaning a headlong falling
down. In the meterological language it means
condensed or frozen water vapour that falls on
the ground. It not only includes rain or snow
but also hail, sleet and fog. These forms depend
upon the following conditions:
• The temperature at which condensation
takes place.
• The condition encountered as the particles
pass through the air.
• The type of clouds and their height from the
ground.
• The process generating phenomena.
Forms of Precipitation
Precipitation results from the continued
condensation and growth of the moisture
particles until they become too large to remain
suspended in the air. If condensation takes
place at a temperature above 00 C, the resulting
precipitation is in the form of rain. If rain passes
through a layer of colder air on the way down
it may freeze and fall as sleet. In a strong
turbulent currents of thunderstorms, water
drops may be carried upward into freezing
temperatures and eventually fall as hail. In fact,
violent air currents may keep hailstones
shuttling up and down until they grow to
enormous sizes. Snow is not frozen rain, but
forms when moisture crystallises directly from
vapour at a temperature below freezing. If
snowflakes grow without interference they form
beautiful symmetrical, six-sided crystals. Ice
92
storms result when rain, already near the freezing
point, falls on the colder ground and vegetation
and freezes upon contact.
Types of Rainfall
It is now apparent that rainfall is caused by the
cooling of relatively warm, moist air. This could
happen in three ways (Fig. 12.3):
(i) Convectional rainfall occurs when moist
air over the heated ground becomes warmer
than the surrounding air and is forced to rise,
expand, cool, and yield some of its moisture
(Fig.12.3). Convectional rain is common in low
latitudes and on summer days in middle
latitudes, and usually comes in the form of short
heavy showers just after the hottest part of the
day. Thunder and lightning generally,
accompany the showers and, if the convection
Fig.12.3 : Types of Rainfall — Orographic, Frontal and Convection
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
currents are especially strong and turbulent,
hail is formed.
(ii) Orographic rainfall occurs when moist
wind is forced to rise over a mountain or other
elevation in its path. Thus, the windward sides
of many mountain ranges receive heavy
rainfall, whereas the leeward sides, along which
the air moves down receives less rainfall
(Fig.12.4). Such situation occurs widely, along
the western coasts of India, North America and
South America. The moist air from the Arabian
Sea is forced by Sahyadri hills of the Western
Ghats to rise up resulting in expansion, cooling
and rainfall. The amount of precipitation
depends on slope, height of hill, temperature
and moisture content of the air mass. On the
other side of the mountain, the descending
wind is devoid of moisture and hence, does not
give rain. Hence, this region is dry and is known
 ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE

Fig.12.4 : Orographic Rainfall

Ascending and descending of winds may be noted.
93
 94
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Fig.12.5 : Distribution of Precipitation in the World

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
as rain shadow. The eastern slopes of Sahyadri
falls in rain shadow.
(iii) Cyclonic rainfall occurs in low-pressure
areas, where cyclonic winds coming from
various directions converge and force the large
volumes of light air to rise and cause rain.
Distribution of Precipitation
Different places on the earth’s surface receive
different amounts of precipitation in a year, and
in different seasons. Nevertheless, the main
features can be explained with the help of global
pressure and wind systems, distribution of land
and water, and the nature of the relief features.
High latitudes generally, have high pressure
associated with subsiding and diverging winds,
and hence, inherit dry conditions. On the other
hand, the equatorial belt with low pressure and
its converging winds, and ascending air receives
ample precipitation. Besides wind pressure
systems, the inherent nature of the air involved,
is also an important factor in determining the
potential for precipitation. Since, cold air has low
capacity to hold moisture than the warm air, a
general decrease in precipitation is revealed with
the increasing distance of latitude from the
equator towards the poles.
In addition to the latitudinal variation in
precipitation, the distribution of land and water
complicates the global precipitation pattern.
Large land masses in the middle latitudes
generally, experience a decrease in precipitation
towards their interiors. Further, the mountain
barriers alter the ideal precipitation pattern that
one would expect from the global wind systems.
Windward mountain slopes receive abundant
precipitation, while leeward slopes and adjacent
low lands fall in rain shadow.
On the basis of the total amount of annual
precipitation, major precipitation regimes of
the world are as follows:
The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of
the mountains along the western coasts in the cool
95
temperate zone and the coastal areas of the
monsoon lands, receive heavy precipitation of
over 200 centimetres per annum.
Areas adjacent to the high precipitation
regime receive moderate rainfall varying from
100 to 200 centimetres per annum. The coastal
areas in the warm temperate zone also receive
moderate amount of rainfall.
The central parts of the tropical land and the
eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands
receive inadequate precipitation varying
between 50 to 100 centimetres per annum
(Fig. 12.5).
Areas lying in the rain shadows, the interior
of the continents and high latitudes receive low
precipitation of less than 50 centimetres per
annum. The western margins of the continents
in the tropical lands, and the arid deserts come
under this category.
Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides an
important aspect to judge the effectiveness of
precipitation. In some regions, precipitation is
distributed evenly throughout the year such as
in the equatorial belt and the western parts of
cool temperate regions. On contrary, some of the
regions such as monsoon lands and the
Mediterranean regions experience seasonal
rainfall. For example, in our country, too much
of rain in one season is often followed by long dry
season. This leads to the wastage of rain-water
in one season and an appalling scarcity in the
other.
Even if the precipitation is scanty but
concentrates in a short growing season, as in
high latitudes, its maximum utilisation is
possible.
Precipitation even in the form of fog, mist or
dew in certain parts has an appreciable effect on
vegetation. The dense fog nourishes vegetation
in the Kalahari Desert, and dew and mist in
winter nourishes wheat crops in parts of Central
India.
96 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What is sublimation?
(ii) What is the greatest source of atmospheric moisture?
(iii) Why does the amount of water vapour decrease rapidly with altitude?
(iv) What is meant by humidity?
(v) What is condensation and how does it take place?
(vi) What is the common basis of classifying the clouds into three main groups?
(vii) What is precipitation? What conditions determine the form of precipitation?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Specific heat and latent heat;
(ii) Absolute humidity and relative humidity;
(iii) Evaporation and Evapotranspiration;
(iv) Dew and frost;
(v) Cloud and fog;
(vi) Convectional and cyclonic rainfall.
3. Write short notes on:
(i) Condensation;
(ii) Orographic rainfall;
(iii) High clouds;
(iv) Rain shadow.
4. Describe the factors controlling the rate of evaporation and evapotranspiration.
5. How are clouds formed? Describe the three types of clouds based on their average height.
6. Discuss the salient features of the world distribution of precipitation and controlling factors.

!
CHAPTER
C
limate is a mean of daily weather
conditions as expressed by temperature,
precipitation, pressure, winds and
humidity taken over a long time. Temperature
is regarded as basic factor of climate as other
elements are directly or indirectly related to it.
On the basis of temperature, the world has been
divided into Torrid, Frigid and Temperate
Zones. Rainfall patterns are similarly
fundamental in establishing climatic regimes.
As such wet, humid, sub-humid, semiarid and
arid are common climatic description.
Variation in the amount, intensity, and
seasonal distribution of the elements controlling
climate give rise to a great variety of climatic
regions on the earth. A climatic region is defined
as an area on the earth’s surface, where an
approximately homogeneous set of climatic
conditions is produced by the combined effect
of climatic controls. Different sets of climatic
conditions are called climatic types.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE
A classification system consists of arbitrary
rules, which help, in separating, or segregating
various features and phenomena into easily
remembered groups. Hence, the objective or
purpose of grouping is the key in designating
a classification and also in the choice of
criteria.
The ancient Greeks broadly divided the
earth into winterless tropical region, the
summer less polar regions and intermediate
region having both winter and summer.
This classification is too simple to be of
much use, giving only a very generalised
picture of temperature taking no account of
precipitation.
97
WORLD CLIMATE
There are different schemes of classifying
climates of the world. On the basis of grouping,
climate types are: genetic and empirical. Genetic
classification emphasises causes or origin of
their formation based on weather processes. The
empirical classification, on the other hand, is
based on observations related to factors for
climatic differentiation.
Koeppen’s classification is strictly
empirical as it is neither based on weather
process (wind belts, air masses, fronts and
storms) nor does it emphasise causes of
formation of climatic type. The classification
is based upon annual and monthly means of
temperature and precipitation. Native
vegetation is considered best expression of the
totality of climate. Similarly, Thornwaite
followed Koeppen’s principle that plant is a
nature’s meteorological instrument capable of
integrating climatic elements like precipitation
effectiveness and potential evapotranspiration
(evaporation from soil surface plus transpira-
tion from plants).
The climate classification system devised
by Glen T. T rewartha represents a com-
promise between purely empirical and genetic
methods. Besides being simple and
explanatory, it combines the fundamentals of
the empirical as well as genetic classification
schemes. Trewartha, while proposing his
climatic classification, was conscious of the
fact that the classification systems of Koeppen
and Thornwaite, being based on certain
statistical parametres of a few weather
elements, were cumbersome and complex.
The empirical quantitative classification
systems as devised by these authors produced
such a large number of climatic types and sub-
types that it was rather too difficult to
98
remember them. Keeping this aspect in view,
Trewartha recognised only a limited number of
climatic types, usually under 15.
Trewartha’s Classification
The aims and objectives of T rewartha’s
climatic classification were very clear. He
opined that, people such as geographers,
biologists, or agriculturists, who need to
understand and use the climatic environment
for their own purposes, should have the facts
of climate presented realistically, and that any
preconceived genetic structure or scheme of
type location should not be forced. At the same
time he also recognised the merits of the
genetic type of climatic classification.
According to him, “genesis not only increases
interest and adds to the scientific quality of
climatic analysis, but also gives an extra-
dimension of insight to the students’
understanding of the description.”
Trewartha classified world climates in six
great climatic groups, out of which, five (A, C,
D, E, F) are based on temperature criteria, and
the sixth (B) is the dry group based on
precipitation (Table 12.1).
Table 12.1 Simplified Version of Trewartha’s Climatic Classification System
Symbol Climatic Groups
A Tropical humid climate
C Sub-tropical
D Temperate
E Boreal
F Polar
B Dry
Climatic Groups Based on
Temperature Criteria
Tropical Humid (A) Climate
The tropical humid (A) climate stretches along
the equator, in the irregular belt of 200 to 400
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
latitude in both the hemispheres. The
temperature and rainfall are high throughout
the year. In the coastal region the average
temperature of the coldest month is above 180
C. The core of the ‘A’ climatic region is
constituted by wet sub type, the tropical wet
climate (Ar). This climate extends
approximately 50 to 100 on either side of the
equator. Along eastern margins of continents,
this type of climate is under the influence of
inter-tropical convergence zone and the sub-
tropical jetstream. It is also known as tropical
rain forest.
Closer inspection of tropical wet climate
reveals that it widely extends (150 to 200 N and
S) on the eastern margins of continents
because trade winds blow on shore from
northeast and southeast.
The tropical wet and dry climate (Aw)
exhibits winter dry season. It is dominated by
dry trade winds. In this region average
precipitation is less than the one in tropical wet
climate. This type of climate is called savanna
climate because tall grasses that grow between
trees and thor ny bushes, dominate the
vegetation cover.
Climatic Types
Tropical wet (Ar)
Tropical wet and dry/Savana (Aw)
Sub-tropical humid (Cfw)
Sub-tropical dry summer (Cs)
Temperate marine (Do)
Temperate continental (Dc)
Tundra (Ft)
Ice cap (Fi)
Arid/Desert type (BW)
Semi-arid/steppe (BS)
Sub-Tropical (C) Climates
Sub-tropical climates are found between
tropical and temperate climatic zones. In this
type of climate, the temperatures are generally,
above 180 C for nearly 8 months. Winters are
WORLD CLIMATE
mild and short. The coastal areas have rainfall
throughout the year while continental areas
receive less rainfall. On the basis of seasonal
distribution of precipitation, sub-tropical
climates have two sub-types: sub-tropical
humid (Cfw) and sub-tropical dry summer
(Cs).
The sub-tropical humid climate is found on
the eastern sides of continents. In this type,
the rainfall is throughout the year. During
summer, it is under the influence of sub-
tropical anticyclone and in winter under
temperate cyclones. The summer months
receive more rainfall than winter.
Sub-tropical dry summer climate is
characterised by moderate to scanty rainfall.
Rainfall occurs in winter while summers are
dry. This type of climate is found in the interior
of ‘C’ climate region along the tropical margin
of mid latitudes.
Temperate (D) Climates
The micro ther mal (D) climates receive
relatively small amount of heat. It is found in
the vast landmasses of middle latitudes (400
and 650). This climatic band of severe winters
is found between sub-tropical and boreal types
of climate. The two sub types of temperate
climates are temperate marine (Do) and
temperate continental (Dc). They are primarily
demarcated on the bases of summer
temperatures.
Temperate marine climate has mild
winters and fairly war m summers.
Throughout the year, the average temperature
is above 0 o C. The rainfall is experienced
throughout the year. This type of climate is
found on the western sides of continents in
temperate zone.
Temperate continental climate is found in
the interiors of the continents in middle
latitudes. The impact of land is visible as it is
characterised by harsh winters and cool
summers. The extreme cooling of the ground
is associated with anticyclone. Annual
precipitation is low, though it takes place
throughout the year. This type of climate is
found in northeastern Asia, eastern Canada
and Eurasia.
99
Boreal (E) Climates
Boreal climate is found in the higher middle
latitudes. In this climate, summers are short
and cool, winters are long and cold with a very
short frost-free season. Annual temperature
ranges between 0 0 and 10 0 C. Annual
precipitation is meager and most of it occurs
during summers. This type of climate is
noticed in the coniferous forest of the world.
Polar (F) Climates
Polar climates are found in the high latitudes
and higher reaches of the Himalayas and the
Alps. These climates are confined to the
norther n hemisphere only. The average
temperature does not exceed 10 0 C in any
month. There is no summer season. On the
basis of temperature the polar climates are
classified into two types: (i) tundra (Ft); and
(ii) ice cap (Fi).
The tundra climate on land is found only
in the northern hemisphere where it occupies
the coastal fringes of the Arctic Ocean, the ice-
free shores of the northern Iceland, southern
Greenland and higher reaches of the
Himalayas and the Alps. This climate is
characterised by extreme cold in which the
average temperature of the warmest month
does not normally rise above 00 C, but never
above 100 C. It is associated with permanent
frost formation leading to frozen sub-soil.
During the summer, precipitation occurs in
the form of snow and rain.
Icecap climate has average temperature
below freezing point. It is associated with the
phenomena of permanent ice and snow. The
winter and summer are windy and chilly and
precipitation is very meagre. This type of
climate is confined to icecaps of Greenland and
Antarctica.
Climatic Group Based on
Precipitation Criteria
Dry (B) Climates
The dry climates are found on the poleward
margins of ‘A’ group climates on the western
sides of the continents. The most important
100
feature of a dry climate is the higher rate of
moisture-loss through evaporation and
evapotranspiration in relation to the annual
receipt of water gain from precipitation. This
climate is characterised by dry weather with
a high range of temperature –250 to 300 C.
Dry B1 climates are associated with
subsiding air of sub-tropical high pressure zone
which, results in intrusion of arid climate into
continents of both north and south
hemispheres. The extreme seasonal
temperatures cause large annual range of
temperature. The average annual precipitation
is meagre (nearly 0 to 50 cm) and is highly
variable.
On the basis of annual average range of
precipitation, dry climates are sub-divided into
desert (BW) and semiarid (BS) type of climate.
The capital letters ‘S’ and ‘W’ indicate the
degree of aridity in dry (B) climates, with ‘S’
and ‘W’ designating semi arid and fully arid
conditions respectively. The boundaries of
these two sub-climates are set at one half of
the annual rainfall separating dry (arid) from
the semi arid type.
Desert or arid type of climate has driest
climatic variety in sub-tropical belt between
200 and 300 north and south latitudes. This
type of climate is found in coastal deserts of
Peru and Chile in South America, Kalahari
deserts of coastal Angola, south west Africa,
Great Australian desert, Sahara and Arabian
deserts, Thar desert of Pakistan and India and
deserts of northern Mexico. In these regions
stability of air mass leads to extreme dryness
with no rainy days. The influence of cold ocean
currents is also there. These areas receive
lowest annual rainfall in the world despite
their location adjacent to the oceans. This type
of climate is associated with xerophytic
(thorny/spiny) type of vegetation.
The semi arid or steppe type of climate
borders ‘A’ and ‘C’ type of climate and has an
annual rainfall range of 30 to 60 cm. These
areas lie in the heart of the grasslands of
western North America and Eurasia. That is
why they are called steppe type of climate. The
lands of this climatic type are away from the
oceanic influence. It is found in both north and
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
south tropical deserts from Morocco to Tunisia
and from Dakar in Senegal to Ethiopia, deserts
of Afghanistan, large strip of land adjoining Thar
Desert and rain shadow area of peninsular
India.
The arid and semi arid climates are further
divided into tropical to sub-tropical hot desert
(BWh), temperate-boreal cold desert (BWk),
tropical sub-tropical steppes (BSh) and
temperate-boreal-steppe (BSk). BWh and BWk
are constantly dry and are under the influence
of sub-tropical high and dry trades. BSh
climate is characterised by short moist season
both in summer and winter. The BSk type of
climate receives most of the meagre
precipitation during warmer season.
GLOBAL CLIMATIC CHANGE
Atmosphere is well structured and fairly
dynamic in nature. The dynamism is more
complex near the earth’s sur face where
changes take place both spatially and
temporally. These changes may be induced
internally within the earth’s atmospheric
system or externally by extra-terrestrial
factors. Some of these changes are the
results of human intervention and hence,
may be slowed down by human ef forts.
The global warming is one of the changes
caused by man’s continual and growing
introduction of carbon dioxide as well as some
other so called green house gases, like
methane and chlorofluorocarbon into the
atmosphere. It is a cause of concern for the
humankind today.
Global Warming
The atoms and molecules of atmospheric
gases cause absorption and back radiation of
sun light, by the green house gases (discussed
in later part of this chapter) especially water,
carbon dioxide, and methane. The
concentration of water in the atmosphere is
controlled by evaporation from oceans.
Carbon dioxide is introduced in the
atmosphere by volcanism. Equivalent amount
of carbon dioxide is removed by precipitation
as calcium carbonate in oceans. Methane,
WORLD CLIMATE
which is twenty times more effective than carbon
dioxide, is produced by metabolisation of
bacteria in wood/grass eating animals. The
methane rapidly gets oxidised into carbon
dioxide.
Human activities add methane, and
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by burning
fossil fuels and by various agricultural
activities. The carbon dioxide contents of
atmosphere play a dominant role in causing
world wide climatic change. The gas is
transparent to incoming solar radiation, but
absorbs outgoing long-wave terrestrial
radiation. The absorbed terrestrial radiation is
radiated back to the earth’s surface. Thus, it
is clear that any appreciable change in carbon
dioxide content would bring about changes in
the temperature in lower layers of the
atmosphere.
Rapid industrialisation and technological
changes, revolution in agriculture and
transport sectors has resulted in large
supplies of carbon dioxide gas, methane and
chlorofluorocarbon gases to the atmosphere.
Some of these gases are consumed by
vegetation and part of it is dissolved in ocean.
However, about 50 per cent is left over in the
atmosphere. During past 100 years the
concentration of methane has more than
doubled (from 7.0 × 10-7 to 15.5 × 10-7) and
carbon dioxide has increased by 20 per cent
(from 2.90 × 10-4 to 3.49 × 10-4). In 1880-1890
the carbon dioxide content was about 290
parts per million (ppm). It rose to about 315
ppm in 1980, 340 ppm in 1990 and 400 ppm
in 2000. This means that proportion of carbon
dioxide had increased by 9 per cent by 1950
and nearly 17 per cent by 1990. The rate of
increase has become still greater during last
one decade.
Of the many climatic parametres,
temperature is the most affected one due to
urbanisation and industrialisation. The
thermal characteristics of urban areas are in
marked contrast to those of surrounding
countryside. The analysis of temperature data
for last fifty years reveals that there is an
increase of 0.7 o C in winter and 1.4 o C in
summer in India.
101
Man is considered an engine of climatic
change. In support of this, rice farmers, coal
miners, dairy farmers and shifting agriculturists
contribute their mite in global warming.
According to some estimates, rice cultivation in
the world is responsible for 20 per cent methane
being added to atmosphere, and the coal mining
accounts for 6 per cent of methane. The
deforestation is responsible for 20 per cent of the
carbon dioxide gas being added to the
atmosphere. Similarly, industrialisation is
adding 25 per cent of chlorofluorocarbon to the
aerosol of the atmosphere. Consequently, global
temperature increase is by about 1.5oC.
Today, there is much concer n that
continuing addition of carbon dioxide and
methane gases to the atmosphere will increase
atmospheric temperature to an extent that it
will cause ice to melt in the Arctic Ocean and
in Antarctica. As a result, sea level will rise
causing drowning of coastal lowlands and
islands, altering rainfall and evaporation
patterns, creating new plant diseases and pest
problems and enlarging the ozone hole.
With a view to get a dependable picture of
climatic changes in the past, ice-coring
programmes have been undertaken in several
countries particularly in Antarctica and
Greenland Ice caps to analyse the trapped
gases during the last 1,00,000 years. The
results have been fascinating and of fer
glimpses of the earth’s recent history going
beyond the phenomena of global warming.
During last 10,000 years of the earth’s history,
climate regime has been exceptionally stable
compared to earlier history. Study of oxygen
isotope records in Greenland ice core suggests
that cooling trend in the northern hemisphere
started from 1725 to 1920. These were
associated with emissions of volcanic dust at
a regular interval of two to three decades but
after 1945 there has been increase in
temperature globally leading to warming
without any major volcanic eruption and
increase in level of carbon dioxide
concentration in the atmosphere. Scientists
predict that by 2020, temperature all over the
world, would be higher than ever during the
last 1,000 years. As such, it is evident that
102
increasing carbon dioxide content would lead
to rise in global temperature.
Greenhouse Effect
This concept of heating the atmosphere
indirectly from the earth’s surface is called
greenhouse effect or commonly known as
atmospheric effect. Obviously the effect of
atmosphere is analogous to that of a
glass-pane, which lets through most of
incoming short wave solar energy but greatly
retards the outgoing long-wave earth
radiation, thus maintaining sur face
temperatures considerably higher than they
otherwise would be (Fig.13.1). You can build
Fig.13.1 : Trapping of Heat in a Glasshouse
an instantaneous greenhouse. Park your car in
the sun for two hours with the windows closed.
Now, observe the interior temperature. It will be
more than outside temperature. Growing
tomatoes in winter can be accomplished by
capitalising on transparency of glass roof in
greenhouse to short wave.
The Carbon Cycle and Greenhouse Effect
Three of the principal greenhouse gases —
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and the
chloroflorocarbon (CFC) — contain carbon,
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
one of the most common elements in the
environment, and one which plays a major role
in the greenhouse effect. It is present in all
organic substances, and is a constituent of a
great variety of compounds, ranging from
relatively simple gases to very complex
derivatives of petroleum hydrocarbons. The
carbon in the environment is mobile, readily
changing its affiliation with other elements in
response to biological, chemical and physical
processes. This mobility is controlled through
a natural bio-geochemical cycle, which works
to maintain a balance between the release of
carbon compounds from their sources and
their absorption in sinks.
The natural carbon cycle is normally,
considered to be self regulated, but in a time
scale of thousands of years. Over shorter
periods, the cycle appears to be unbalanced,
but that may be a reflection of an incomplete
understanding of the processes involved or
perhaps an indication of the presence of sinks
or reservoirs still to be discovered. The carbon
in the system moves between several major
reservoirs. The atmosphere contains more
than 750 billion tonnes of carbon at any given
time, while 2,000 billion tonnes are stored on
land, and close to 4,000 billion tonnes are
contained in the oceans. Living terrestrial
organic matter is estimated to contain between
450 and 600 billion tonnes, somewhat less
than that stored in the atmosphere.
World fossil fuel reserves also constitute an
important carbon reservoir of some 5,000
billion tonnes. They contain carbon, which has
not been active in the cycle for millions of
years, but is now being reintroduced as a
result of the growing demand for energy in
modern society. The burning of fossil fuel adds
more than 5 billion tonnes of CO 2 to the
atmosphere every year, with more than 90 per
cent originating in North and Central America,
Asia, Europe and the Central Asian Republics.
The use of fossil fuel remains the primary
source of anthropogenic (human) CO 2. It is
augmented by the destruction of natural
vegetation, which reduces the amount
recycled CO 2 during photosynthesis. Such
processes are estimated to be responsible for
WORLD CLIMATE 103

5-20 per cent of current anthropogenic CO2
emissions. This is usually considered a modern
phenomenon, particularly prevalent in the
tropical rainforests of South America, Southeast
Asia, North America, Australia and South
Africa. Between 1850 and 1950 some 120
billion tonnes of carbon were released into the
atmosphere as a result of deforestation and the
destruction of other vegetation by fire.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What is a climatic region?
(ii) Into how many regions was the earth divided by the ancient Greeks?
(iii) What criteria was followed by Koeppen to classify climates?
(iv) Why did Trewartha use only a limited number of climatic types?
(v) How human activities add methane and carbon dioxide to the atmosphere?
(vi) What is ice-coring programme? How do they help us know about the climate of the earth
in the past?
(vii) What is ‘greenhouses effect’ of the atmosphere?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Genetic and empirical classifications of climate;
(ii) ‘Ar’ and ‘Aw’ climates;
(iii) Boreal and polar climates.
3. Write short notes on:
(i) Koeppen’s classification of climate;
(ii) Sub-tropical (C) climate;
(iii) Global climatic changes.
4. Describe the broad climatic groups framed by Trewartha. What are the bases of his
classification?
5. Describe the advantages of Trewartha’s climatic classification over the Keoppen’s
classification.
6. Explain why the tropical humid climate is found in an irregular belt of 200 to 400 latitudes.
7. Describe the atmospheric distribution of carbon and the relationship between the carbon
cycle and the Greenhouse effect.
8. What is global warning? Discuss its causes.
 Unit V

WATER (OCEAN)
"
CHAPTER
P
lanet Earth is often called water planet
or blue planet, because of abundanceof
water on its surface. The water bodies
cover 71 per cent of the earth’s surface. 60.7
per cent of the total area of the northern
hemisphere and 80.9 per cent of the southern
hemisphere are covered with water. If we take
into account only the water surface of the
earth, then 43 per cent lies in the northern
hemisphere and 57 per cent in the southern
hemisphere.
The earth receives essentially pure water
in droplets condensing from the atmosphere.
Different kinds of water are found in different
geological environments. Over 97 per cent of
all the water on the surface of the earth is in
Fig.14.1 : Hydrological Cycle
Arrows indicate the flow of water.
OCEANS
the oceans, and most of the remainder is in
glaciers.
The largest reservoir of water is the ocean.
Of the total expanse of water bodies, about 93
per cent is covered by four oceans: Pacific,
Atlantic, Indian and Arctic (Appendix V).
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
Water from oceans is evaporated and lifted into
the atmosphere. It is eventually condensed
and is returned back to the earth’s surface in
the form of rain, hail, dew, snow or sleet.
Some of the precipitation, after wetting the
foliage and ground, runs off over the surface
to the streams. It is the water that sometimes
causes erosion and is the main contributor to
108
floods. Of the precipitation that soaks into the
ground, some is available for growing plants
and for evaporation. Some reaches the deeper
zones and percolates through springs and
seeps to maintain the streams during dry
period. The streams, in turn, eventually, return
the water back to the oceans where it
originated. It is because of this never ending
circulation that the process has come to be
known as hydrological cycle.
The hydrological cycle is sometimes
expressed mathematically as:
RF = RO + ET
Where RF includes all types of
precipitation, RO is runof f and ET is
evapotranspiration.
Runoff occurs when precipitation, that does
not have an opportunity to infiltrate into soil,
flows across the land surface. However, most
of it enters the stream channel untimately,
which carries it to the oceans. A part of the
precipitation that infiltrates the soil percolates
downward to the water table through springs.
Broadly speaking, runoff is composed of water
from both surface flow and seepage flow. It is
an extremely important segment of
hydrological cycle. Rainwater that reaches the
soil surface is wholly or partly absorbed by
the soil in the process of infiltration. The amount
of rainfall entering the soil depends upon the
rate of rainfall and the infiltration rate of the
soil.
About 4,23,000 cubic kilometres of water
is evaporated each year from the oceans.
About 73,000 cubic kilometres is evaporated
from lakes and land surfaces of the
continents. Most of the water precipitates
back onto the ocean but excess falls on the
land. Because, more snow and rain falls every
year than can be evaporated, about 37,000
cubic kilometres of water drips, seeps and
flows from the land to the sea annually. The
water evaporated from the land is not only
from exposed surfaces of lakes and
streams but also from plants and animals.
Some evaporation and absorption of
water is carried by plant roots which is
transpirated through leaves, termed as
evapotranspiration. The total evaporation is
equalled by total precipitation, of which
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
about1,10,000 cubic kilometres of precipi-
tation falls on the land surface annually,
which if distributed evenly on the entire earth
is 117 cm thick (Table 14.1).
Table 14.1: Fluxes (Amount of Water Involved)
in Hydrological Cycle
Process Km3/Yr Cm/Yr
Precipitation on land 1,10,300 74
Evaporation from land 72,900 49
Runoff from land
(river runoff and direct
ground water discharge to
the ocean: 6 per cent of total
precipitation on the earth) 37,400 25
Precipitation on the oceans 3,85,700 07
Evaporation from the oceans 4,23,100 17
Total precipitaion on the earth 4,96,000 97
Total evaporation on the earth 4,96,000 97
Source : Berner and Berner (1987).
RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
Continents and ocean basins are the first
order relief features of the earth. A detailed
relief map of the earth and its oceans shows
immediately that the natural limits of the
continents are much larger and more regular
than a conventional map shows. Modern
study of the topography of the ocean floors was
greatly advanced through the work of Bruce
C. Heezen of the Lamont-Doherty Geological
Observatory at Columbia University. Heezen,
in 1959, set up a system of submarine
landform classification. According to him, the
topographic features of the ocean basins fall
into three major divisions : (i) the continental
margins; (ii) the ocean-basin floors; and (iii) the
mid-oceanic ridges.
The Continental Margins
The continental margins consist of two major
submarine features, the continental shelf
and the continental slope (Fig.14.2). The
continental shelf fringes the continents in
widths from a few kilometres to 300
kilometres. Major rivers after meeting the sea
continue to maintain their flow in the
OCEANS
Fig.14.2 : Features of the Coastal Ocean Floor
Observe the location of delta and canyon formation.
continental shelf after mixing with the sea
water. The flow of water excavates the shelf.
This results in the formation of submarine
canyons which can be compared to the deep
gullies on the land surface. Sediments carried
from the steeper slopes of the continental shelf
in the vicinity of a river delta built up a
submarine fan or cone. Along their seaward
margins, the continental shelves give way to
continental slopes. The slope is abruptly
replaced by the continental rise, a surface of
much gentler slope decreasing in steepness
toward the ocean-basin floor. The continental
rise generally, has a moderate to low relief.
The continental shelf with depths upto 200
m occupies about 7.6 per cent of the ocean’s
area. The continental slope spreads from 200
m to 2,500 m deep. With a complex relief, it
comprises 15 per cent of the ocean area.
Submarine canyons are striking features of
the continental shelf and the continental slope.
They are deep valleys with steep slopes that
form long concave profiles. Some canyons are
dendritic in appearance. The continental
margins are characterised by some small
marine features, namely banks, shoals and
reefs. A bank is more or less a flat topped
elevation. Because of relatively shallow depth,
it is used for fishing. A reef is an organic
deposit made by living or dead coral
organisms.
The Ocean-Basin Floor
The ocean basin is an extensive region of the
basin floor, generally, lying at a depth ranging
109
between 2,500 and 6,000 m. It covers about
76.2 per cent of the ocean’s area. The ocean-
basin floor contains three types of features — (i)
abyssal plain and hills; (ii) oceanic rise; and
(iii) seamounts.
An abyssal plain is an area of the deep
ocean floor having a flat bottom with a very
faint slope. Characteristically, situated at the
foot of the continental rise, the abyssal plain
is present in all ocean basins. Abyssal plains
are sur faces for med by long continued
deposition of very fine sediments and,
therefore, has a nearly per fect flatness.
Abyssal hills are small hills rising to heights
of a few tens of metres to a few hundred metres
above the ocean-basin floor.
The Oceanic rise is an area hundreds of
kilometres in breadth over which the surface
rises several hundred metres above the
surrounding abyssal plains. Within the rise,
the relief may range from subdued to very
rugged. The Bermuda is a good example of
oceanic rise. Seamounts are the isolated peaks
that rise 1,000 m or more above the sea floor.
Many of the seamounts are conspicuously flat
topped and extremely steep sided, named as
guyot.
The Mid-Oceanic Ridge
One of the most remarkable of the major
discoveries coming out of oceanographic
explorations of the mid-twentieth century was
the charting of a great submarine mountain
chain extending for a total length of some
64,000 km, known as the mid-oceanic ridge.
The ridge runs down the middle of the North
and the South Atlantic ocean basins, into the
Indian ocean basin, then passes between
Australia and Antarctica to enter the South
Pacific basin. The ridge in its entirety is a belt,
2,000 to 2,400 km wide in which the surface
rises through a series of steps from abyssal
plains on each side.
The parts of the ocean, deeper than 6,000 m,
form trenches. They occur here and there, but
most of them are confined to the margins of the
Pacific Ocean. They occupy only 1.2 per cent
area of the ocean.
110
TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE OF OCEANS
Temperature of water determines its density
and also influences the availability of various
species of marine organisms that could live
suspended in the upper water layers. The
study of surface and sub-surface water
temperature is important both for plant and
500 m
1000 m
(1000 to
1500 m)
Fig.14.3 : Schematic Diagram of Vertical
Changes in Sea Temperature and Salinity
N S
Fig.14.4 : Typical Changes in Temperature and Salinity in Oceans in Low and Middle Latitudes
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
animal lives in coastal areas as well as in
oceans. The temperature structure of oceans
over middle and low latitudes can be described
as a three-layer system from surface to the
bottom (Fig.14.3).
The first layer represents the top layer of
warm oceanic water and it is about 500 m thick
with temperature ranging between 20 o and
25o C. This layer within the tropics is present
throughout the year but in mid latitudes it
develops only during summer. The second layer
called thermocline layer (Fig.14.4) lies below the
first layer and is characterised by rapid
decrease in temperature with increasing depth.
The thermocline is 500 to 1,000 m thick. In low
latitudes, temperature declines gradually, from
5° C below the thermocline to about 1° C at
depths of around 4,000 m. The third layer is
very cold and extends up to the deep ocean
floor. In the Arctic and Antarctic latitudes, the
surface water temperatures are close to 0o C
and so the temperature change with depth is
very slight. Here, only one layer of cold water
exists, which is present from surface to deep
ocean floor.
The major source of temperature of the
oceanic water is the sun. The following factors
affect the distribution of temperature of the
ocean water: latitude, unequal distribution of
land and water, prevailing wind, ocean
currents, and minor factors like submarine
ridges, local weather conditions, and shape
and size of the sea.
On an average, the temperature of the
surface water of the oceans is 26.7 o C; it
OCEANS
decreases gradually from the equator to the
poles. The oceans in the northern hemisphere
record relatively high average temperature
than in the southern hemisphere. The highest
temperature is not recorded at the equator,
but a little north of it (Fig. 14.5). The average
annual temperature of all the oceans is
17.2o C. The average annual temperature for
the northern hemisphere is 19.4o C and for the
southern hemisphere is 16.1o C.
The Pacific Ocean
The Pacific is the largest ocean. It covers about
one-third of area of the earth, which is more
than the entire land area of the world. Though
the average depth of the Pacific Ocean is
4,572 m only, it is the deepest of all the oceans.
The Mariana trench is 11,034 m deep from sea
level. It is dotted with over 20,000 islands,
which are mostly of coral and volcanic origin.
The floor of the Pacific Ocean is fairly
uniform with broad rises and depressions
(Fig.14.6). There is a significant difference in
the extent and characteristics of the
continental shelves on the easter n and
western coasts of the Pacific. Along the eastern
coast of Australia and Asia, the shelves are
broad and extensive, from 160 to 1,600 km
Fig.14.5 : Distribution of Surface Temperature in Oceans
111
in width. Several islands like Kuriles, Japan,
Philippines, Indonesia, New Zealand, etc are
located on the continental shelves. The
continental shelves on the western coasts of
Americas are less extensive, about 80 km only
on an average.
The Pacific Ocean does not have a mid
oceanic ridge, but there are a few scattered
ridges of local importance. Some of them are
the East Pacific Rise called the Albatross
Plateau, the South East Pacific Plateau, the
Pacific — Antarctic Ridge, the Chile Rise, the
Lord Howo Rise, the Hawaiian Ridge etc. Some
important ocean basins of the Pacific are the
Philippine basin, the Figi basin, the East
Australian basin, the Peru basin, the South-
western Pacific basin, the Central Pacific basin
etc. Some of the trenches of this ocean are the
Aleutian, the Kuril, the Japan, the Bonin, the
Mindanao, the Mariana, the Tonga, the
Kermadec, and the Atacama.
The Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic is about half the size of the Pacific
Ocean and covers about one-sixth of the
earth’s area. Resembling ‘S’ in shape, the
ocean is bounded on the west by North
America and South America, and on the east
112 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Bering Sea

Aieutian
Kuril Trench
Trench

Japan Trench Mendocino

Seascarp
Bonin Trench
Hawaiian
Ridge
Mindanao Mariana
South Trench Trench
China Central Pacific
Basin East
Basin Pacific Albatross
Basin Plateau
Equator

Austral
Seamount
Coral Sea Chain

Tonga South East

Trench Pacific Plateau Atacama
Lord
Trench
Howe
Rise Kermadec Albatross
Trench Cordillera
Chile
Tasman Ridge
Pacfic
Basin South Western
Below 3600m. Antarctic
Pacific Basin Ridge
Ocean deep

Fig.14.6 : Major Relief Features of the Pacific Ocean

by Europe and Africa (Fig. 14.7). To the south it
extends upto Antarctica and in the north it is
bounded by Greenland and Iceland.
The continental shelf spreads all around the
Atlantic Ocean, though its width varies greatly.
Off the coast of Africa, it is 80-160 km wide but
off the north east coast of North America and
northwest Europe, it is 250-400 km in width.
A number of marginal seas like the Gulf of
Mexico, the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, the
Norwegian, the Hudson Bay, the Baltic and the
North Seas are located in the Atlantic Ocean.
The mid-Atlantic ridge, running from north
to south in ‘S’ form is about 14,450 km long
and about 4,000 metres high. The ridge has a
broad fracture in the middle and slopes on
both sides gently. The mid oceanic ridge in the
North Atlantic is known as the Dolphin ridge,
and that in the South Atlantic as the Challenger
ridge. A number of islands are located on the
ridge.
The mid-Atlantic ridge divides the ocean into
two major basins, namely the East and the West
Atlantic basins. Some other basins in the
Atlantic are the North American basin, the
Labrador basin, the Guiana basin, the Brazil
basin, the Argentina basin, the Agulhas basin,
the Angola basin, the West European basin
etc. The important trenches of the Atlantic
ocean are the Cayman, the Puerto Rico, and
the South Sandwich.
The Indian Ocean
Smaller than the Pacific and the Atlantic, the
Indian Ocean is bounded on the north by
Asia, on the west by Africa, on the east by Asia
and Australia and on the south by Antarctica
(Fig.14.8). The average depth of the ocean is
4,000 m. The continental shelves of the
Indian Ocean have a wide variation. It is
extensive along the margins of the Arabian Sea
OCEANS 113

Wyville
Thomson
Ridge

→
Telegraph
Plateau

→
West
European
Grand
Basin
Banks

Dolphin Azores
North
Ridge Is
American
Basin Madeiro
Bermuda
Canary Is
Cayman Puerto
Trench Rico
Trench
Cape Verde
Is

Guiana
Basin

Equator
Romanche
Deep

Ascension Angola
Is St.Helena
Basin
Brazil
Basin
Challenger
Ridge

Tristan
da Walvis
Cunna Ridge
Argentine
Basin
Agulhas
Basin

Falk
Below 3600m. land South
Is Sandwich
Ocean deeps Trench

Fig.14.7 : Major Relief Features of the Atlantic Ocean

114 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Andaman-Nicobar
Ridge
Arabian
Basin

Socotra
Chagos
Ridge Sri Lanka
Carlsberg
Ridge
Zanzibar
Lakshadweep
Seychelles
Chagos Ridge
Ridge Sunda
Central Basin Trench
Mauritius
Madagascar
Reunion
Mascarene Basin
West
South Australian
Madagascar
Basin
Ridge

Prince
Edward South
Crozet Ridge Australian
Amstardam-St. Paul Basin
Plateau

South Indian Basin

Below 3600m.
Ocean deep

Fig.14.8 : Major Relief Features of the Indian Ocean

and the Bay of Bengal. It is also extensive along
the eastern coast of Africa and around,
Madagascar. Here it is about 640 km wide, but
along the coast of Java and Sumatra it is
comparatively narrow (160km). It is also
narr ow along the norther n coast of
Antarctica. In comparison to the Pacific and
the Atlantic Oceans the marginal seas in the
Indian Ocean are less in number. Some
significant marginal seas are the Mozambique
Channel, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, the
Andaman Sea, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of
Bengal etc. The mid-Indian Oceanic ridge
extends from the southern tip of the Indian
Peninsula in the north to Antarctica in the
south. It forms a continuous chain of
highlands. The central ridge near the Indian
Peninsula has a width of about 320 km and
in the south between 30 o S and 50 o S, it is
1,600 km. The important ridges of the Indian
Ocean are the Socotra-Chagos ridge, the
Lakshadweep Chagos ridge, Seychelles ridge,
Andaman – Nicobar ridge and the Prince
Edward Crozet ridge.
OCEANS
The mid-Indian Oceanic and other ridges
divide the Indian Ocean into a number of
ocean basins. They are the Oman basin, the
Arabian basin, the Somali basin, the
Agulhas–Natal basin, the Atlantic–Indian–
Antar ctic basin, the Easter n Indian-
Antarctic basin, the west Australian basin
etc.
There are very few trenches in the Indian
Ocean. The Java or Sunda trench (7,450 m)
is the deepest. The important deep sea plains
of the Indian Ocean are the Somali, the Sri
Lankan and the Indian abyssal plains. Sixty
per cent of the abyssal plains in this ocean
range in height from 3,600 to 5,400 m.
SALINITY OF SEA WATER
The sea water is saline. The total weight of salt
dissolved in the sea is 48,000 million million
tones (mmt). Of these, sodium chloride, or
common salt, accounts for 38,000mmt,
sulphate for 3,000 mmt, magnesium for 1,600
mmt, potassium for 480 mmt and bromide for
83 mmt. The amazing thing about this
solution is not the quantities of salts but the
consistency of their ratio. The sea water may
be less saline or more saline depending upon
the extent of evaporation, river discharge and
precipitation, but the salt composition
remains invariable.
Dittmar during his Challenger Expedition
(1884) reported the existence of 47 types of
salts in sea water, out of which seven are most
important (Table 14.2).
Chlorine, sulphate, carbonic acid, bromine
and boric acid are among the volatile
Table 14.2 Significant Salt in Sea Water
Salts
1. Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
2. Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2)
3. Magnesium Sulphate (MgSo4)
4. Calcium Sulphate (CaSo4)
5. Potassium Sulphate (K2So4)
6. Calcuim carbonate (CaCo3)
7. Magnesium Bromide (MgBr2)
Total
115
substances that are thought to have entered the
atmosphere and the hydrosphere. Sodium,
magnesium, calcium and potassium have
been derived from igneous rocks. The average
time that an element remains dissolved in the
ocean before removal is known as residence
time. Sodium has very low rate of chemical
reaction in the marine environment and
remains longer in the oceans than other
elements. Thus, it is reflected in its predominant
concentration. Calcium enters the oceans in the
largest percentage but is relatively easily
removed as calcium carbonate to become
sedimentary deposit. Silicon, released in large
amounts has an extremely short residence
time. The silicon, therefore, is present in small
amounts in sea water.
The proportions in which various chemical
elements are present in relation to one another
in sea water are remarkably, constant
throughout all oceans. The salinity of water
which is the total weight of dissolved solids to
weight of water, is a variable quantity, differing
in value from place to place over the oceans and
at various depths. The average salinity is 35 per
thousand , i.e. 35 grams of salt per 1,000 grams
of sea water. The relationship of salinity to
depth is analogous with the three layer
temperature system. A shallow surface layer
of uniformly high salinity (35.0 to 36.5 per
thousand) corresponds with the uniformly
warm layer. Below this layer is a zone of rapid
decrease in salinity, the halocline (Fig. 14.3)
which corresponds with the thermocline.
Below the halocline, differences in salinity are
very small and salinity lies in the range of 34.6
Amount (per thousand gm.) Percentage
27.213 77.8
3.807 10.9
1.658 4.7
1.260 3.6
0.863 2.5
0.123 0.3
0.076 0.2
35.000 100.0
116
to 34.9 per thousand for most of the ocean
body. Thus, the salinity decreases with
increasing depth.
There is a wide range of variation in the
spatial distribution of salinity in the oceans
and seas. The factors that control distribution
of salinity in oceans are the rate of
evaporation, precipitation, discharge of rivers,
atmospheric pressure, wind direction and
circulation of oceanic water.
Salinity in seawater varies from place to
place and also temporally. At the equator, the
salinity is somewhat lower due to abundant
rains, greater cloudiness and low rate of
evaporation. In latitudes about 20o in both the
hemispheres, where evaporation is more
intense and precipitation is lower, salinity is
greater. In the temperate latitudes, where
evaporation is less and rains are more
abundant, salinity is lower (Fig. 14.9). In the
Red Sea where no river flows, the salinity is
from 40 to 41 per thousand. In the Black Sea
in which numerous rivers discharge, the
salinity is 17 to 18 per thousand. In the White
Sea, it is between 25 and 26 per thousand,
Fig.14.9 : Distribution of Surface Water Salinity in Oceans
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
while in the Baltic Sea it is 3 to 4 per thousand
on an average.
The salinity of inland seas and lakes is very
high because of regular supply of salt by rivers
flowing into them. Evaporation makes them
more saline as it carries very little salt with it.
Very high salinity is found in Lake Van, Turkey
(330 per thousand), Dead Sea (240 per
thousand) and Great Salt lake, USA (220 per
thousand).
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF OCEANS
The marine environment provides rich source
of animal and plant life. The coastal
inhabitants depend mostly on the marine
animal life for trade and sustenance. The plant
and animal life is also used in the preparation
of medicines and cosmetics. Besides, the
continental margins are being exploited for
mineral production. The shallow continental
shelves and inland seas are best known for
placer deposits (economic minerals
transported as sediment by river action) of
platinum, gold and tin. The continental
shelves are also exploited for petroleum
OCEANS 117

resources. Exploration of the deep ocean floor
as a source of minerals is still in an early stage.
The manganese nodules found on ocean floors
are regarded as the major source of this
mineral in future. The nodules will also be the
source of nickel, copper and cobalt.
• The deepest part of the ocean is the
Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. It is
11,034 m deep below the sea level.
• The tallest sea mount is situated between
Samoa and New Zealand which is 8,690 m
high from the surrounding ocean floor.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) Why is the earth called blue planet?
(ii) Define continental shelf.
(iii) What are oceanic deeps?
(iv) How is hydrological cycle expressed mathematically?
(v) What are seamounts?
(vi) What is an abyssal plain?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Continental shelf and continental slope;
(ii) Bank and reef;
(iii) First and third layers of the oceanic water;
(iv) Thermocline and halocline.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Continental rise;
(ii) Mid oceanic ridge;
(iii) Ocean basins;
(iv) Submarine canyons.
4. Describe relief of the Indian Ocean floor.
5. Prepare a map of the Atlantic ocean floor, mentioning ocean basins and mid–Atlantic ridges.

Project work
On maps of different oceans show major relief features and colour them. Also prepare a list of
different features under the following heads:
• Mid-oceanic ridges;
• Ocean basins;
• Seamounts;
• Trenches.
118
#
CHAPTER
OCEAN CURRENTS, WAVES
T
he world of the oceans and seas has
sometimes been called ‘inner space’.
Humans have made use of the sea for
thousands of years — for food, transport or as
a waste dump. The sea also has a considerable
effect upon the land and the life forms found
there. Water heats and cools quite slowly and
the oceans moderate the world’s climate.
OCEAN CURRENTS
The ocean current is the general movement of
a mass of water in a fairly defined direction
over great distances. Currents can range in
scale from ocean wide flow systems to local
currents of small extent and can be generated
by several mechanisms. The most important
mechanisms for the great ocean currents are
(i) the drag of winds over the ocean surface;
and (ii) unequal forces set up by differences in
water density.
Ocean currents are broadly of two types:
warm and cold currents. The warm currents
flow from the low latitudes in tropical zones
towards the high latitudes in the temperate
and sub-polar zones. The cold currents flow
from high latitudes to low latitudes. The ocean
currents flow like extensive rivers in the ocean.
The rate of flow and the width of the currents,
however, are not uniform. The Gulf Stream, for
example, is 80 km wide and 1.6 km deep. The
Florida Current has a velocity of 10 km per
hour at the surface and 3.5 km at a depth of
200m.
Wind flowing over the water surface exerts
a dragging force upon that surface, setting the
surface water layer in motion. Prevailing
winds, such as the tropical easterlies (trade
winds), blowing from east to west, and the
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
AND TIDES
middle-latitude westerlies, blowing from west
to east, exert a one-way drag on sea surface
over vast expanse of oceans. This drag
produces a system of drift currents. Because
of the Coriolis effect — the effect of the earth’s
rotation — the direction of water drift in the
northern hemisphere is in a compass direction
about 450 to the right of the direction of
prevailing wind.
Differences in water density can also set
currents in motion and these are described as
thermocline currents. A surface water layer in
one place may be less dense because it is
warmer or lower in density than the water
layer in adjacent place that is either colder or
has higher density. The water then moves
gently from the region of less to the higher
density. Due to Coriolis effect, the moving
water turns and follows elliptical path, known
as gyre. The water circulation in these gyres
is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
counter clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
The westward drift of water in equatorial
region is referred to as the North Equatorial
Current and the South Equatorial Current.
These are separated by the Equatorial
Countercurrent that moves eastward and is
caused by the return of lighter surface water,
which has been piled up on the western side
of the ocean basin by the Equatorial Currents.
The souther n part of the Pacific Ocean,
Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean, in the region
of fiftieth and sixtieth parallel, for ms a
continuous circular ribbon of ocean, scarcely
interrupted by land. Here, the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current flows eastward in an
uninterrupted path following the parallel of
latitudes.
OCEAN CURRENTS, WAVES AND TIDES
Besides the horizontal movement discussed
above, vertical circulation of ocean water is also
an important phenomenon. Ocean surface is
marked with sinking (surges) and upwelling
(swales) caused by wind action, evaporation of
surface water, addition of surface water by
rainfall and changes in density due to cooling
or warming of the surface layer. Most important
cause of sinking of ocean water on a large scale
is cooling of surface layer by loss of heat to the
overlying atmosphere in high latitudes. During
long winters, much heat is lost to space than is
gained by solar radiation, thereby relatively
warm surface waters brought poleward by
ocean currents are chilled and increase in
density. This water may be close to the freezing
point and therefore, sinks to the ocean floor.
Thus, a surface called convergence zone, is
created in both the Arctic and Antarctic
latitudes.
Currents of the Pacific Ocean
The North Equatorial Current from the west
coast of Central America reaches the
Philippine Island, flowing across from east to
west in the North Pacific Ocean (Fig.15.1).
Turning northward, the North Equatorial
Current flows along Taiwan and Japan to form
Kuro Shio Current. The currents are influenced
by the westerlies from south-east coast of
Japan and tend to flow from west to east as
the North Pacific Current. The current gets
bifurcated into the northern and the southern
branches, called the Alaska and the California
Currents, respectively after reaching the west
coast of North America. The Alaska Current
flows anticlockwise along the coast of British
Columbia and Alaska whereas the Californian
Current flows along the coast of California. The
cold current, the Oya Shio, flows in the north
of the Pacific. Another cold current, named the
Okhotsk Current, flows in the North Pacific and
merges with the Oya Shio Current which
finally, sinks beneath the warmer waters of the
Kuro Shio. The South Equatorial Current flows
in the South Pacific Ocean. It flows southward
as the East Australian Current before meeting
the cold South Pacific Current near Tasmania
119
which flows west to east. Near the south-western
coast of South America it turns north as the Peru
Current. It is a cold current that feeds the South
Equatorial Current, thus completing the circle.
The North and the South Equatorial Currents
cause disturbance in the surface levels due to
accumulation of waters in the western parts.
This gives rise to the Counter Equatorial
Currents that flow eastward.
Currents of the Atlantic Ocean
To the north and the south of the equator,
steady trade winds give rise to two streams of
surface water that flows westward. They are
known as the North and the South Equatorial
Currents (Fig. 15.2). In order to replace the
removal of water from eastern side, return
currents are generated that flows west to east
as the Equatorial Counter Current. This
current is known as the Guinea Current off
the west African coast. The South Equatorial
Current bifurcates into two branches near the
coast of Brazil. The northern branch reinforces
the North Equatorial Current. A part of this
current enters the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf
of Mexico whereas the remainder passes along
the eastern side of the West Indies as the
Antilles Current. The currents bring in bulk
of warm water in the Gulf of Mexico raising
the water level in the Gulf. The current that
moves along the southeastern coast of United
States from the Cape of Florida to the Cape
Hatteras is known as the Florida Current.
Beyond the Cape Hatteras it is known as the
Gulf Stream. From the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland, the Gulf Stream flows
eastward across the Atlantic as the North
Atlantic Drift. The main current of the drift
after reaching the British Isles flows along the
coast of Norway as the Norwegian Current
and enters the Arctic Ocean. The southerly
branch of the drift flows between Spain and
Azores as the cold Canaries Current. The East
Greenland and the Labrador Currents flow
from the Arctic Ocean into the Atlantic Ocean.
The Labrador Current flows along the east
coast of Canada and meets the warm Gulf
Stream. The confluence of warm and cold
120 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

currents produce fogs around Newfound-
land.
The South Equatorial Current in the South
Atlantic Ocean flows from east to west and
bifurcates into two branches near Brazil. The
northern branch joins the North Equatorial
Current. The southern branch, known as the
Brazil Current, flows along the South American
coast and meets the South Atlantic Current. The
Benguela Current branches out from the South
Atlantic Current and flows along the west coast
of South Africa before finally joining the South
Equatorial Current and completing the circuit.
The Falkland Current, a cold current, flows along
the south-eastern coast of South America from
south to north.
Currents of the Indian Ocean
The circulation of currents in the Indian Ocean
is characteristically, different from the Atlantic
and the Pacific Oceans because the Indian
Ocean is land locked in the north. The
circulation pattern in the northern portion of
the Indian Ocean changes its direction in
response to seasonal rhythm of the monsoons.

Alaska
o

Fig.15.1 : Currents of the Pacific Ocean

Note the location and direction of warm and cold ocean currents.
OCEAN CURRENTS, WAVES AND TIDES 121

C. C.
nd i an
la eg
e en w
Gr N or
st
Ea

0°

Fig.15.2 : Currents of the Atlantic Ocean

Examine the effect of the North Atlantic Drift on Norway’s coastline.
122 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Fig.15.3 : Currents of the Indian Ocean (Winter)

Observe the effect of North East Monsoon on the directions of the North East Monsoon Drift.

Fig.15.4 : Currents of the Indian Ocean (Summer)

Compare this figure with Fig. 15.3.
OCEAN CURRENTS, WAVES AND TIDES
Fig.15.5 : Wave Parameters
Compare the wave height and wave length.
There is clear reversal of currents between
winter (Fig. 15.3), and summer (Fig. 15.4). The
north-east monsoon drives water along the
coast of the Bay of Bengal to circulate in anti-
clockwise direction. Similarly, along the coasts
of the Arabian Sea, an anticlockwise circulation
of currents develop. The circulation of water in
the northern part of ocean is clockwise in
summer. This is due to the effect of strong
south-west monsoon and absence of north-
east trades. The southern part of the Indian
Ocean has the circulation pattern similar to
that of other southern oceans, in anticlockwise
direction and it is less marked by the seasonal
changes. The circulation pattern is simple. The
South Equatorial Current moves westward.
Along the coast of Africa, it bifurcates. The
major part turns to the south as the
Mozambique and the Agulhas Currents,
which turn to the east as the West Wind Drift.
Along the west coast of Australia, it flows
northwards as the West Australian Current
and then joins the South Equatorial Current.
In winter, the North East Monsoon Current
flows south of the equator as the Counter
Current in easterly direction.
WAVES
Waves are oscillatory movements in water,
where its particles move in a vertical plane, up
and down. The upper part of a wave is called
the crest, and the lower part the trough. Each
wave has a wave length, velocity, height and
wave period. The distance between two
successive crests or two successive troughs is
the wave length. The time taken by a wave length
to pass a fixed point is known as the wave
123
period. The vertical distance between a
trough and a crest is the wave height
(Fig. 15.5).
The velocity of a moving wave can be
determined as follows:
Wave Length (L)
Velocity of Wave (V) =
Wave Period (T)
The mechanism of the origin of sea waves
is not precisely known but it is commonly
believed that they are generated due to friction
on water surface caused by winds. The height
of sea waves depends on (i) the wind speed; (ii)
the duration of wind from a particular
direction; and (iii) the fetch or the expanse of
water surface over which the wind blows. Where
the water is deep, the winds are fast and blow
over a long period of time, and the bottom
does not interfere with the undulatory
movement of water, the formation of waves is
high. A wind speed of 160 km per hour,
blowing for about 50 hours, over a fetch of
1,600 km has produced waves of 15 metres
height. In high seas, a wave height of 1.5 metres
to 4.5 metres is common which increases to
12 to 15 metres during strong storms. With
such heights the wave length varies between
60 and 210 metres and the velocity from 30 to
100 metres per hour.
It should be noted that in wave motion there
is no shifting of the mass of water. Ocean waves
produced by winds belong to a class described
as progressive waves, because the wave form
moves rapidly through the water. The
progressive waves produced by the wind are of
a type called oscillatory waves. In oscillatory
waves each wave passes a fixed reference point,
124
Fig.15.6 : Circular Orbit in a Low Sea Wave
Note the direction of arrow in circular orbits on the crest
and trough.
the water particles travel through a vertical cycle
of motion and return approximately to their
original position.
On the wave crest, the water particles move
forward in the direction the wave travels while
in the trough they move backward, opposite
to the direction the wave travels (Fig.15.6).
When a train of ocean waves arrives at the
coast of a continent or island, it encounters
shallow water. The configuration of coast
interferes the progress of the wave. Waves in
shallow water are modified into ellipses that
become progressively flatter as the coast is
approached.
As the steepening wave continues to travel
shoreward, encountering still shallower water,
the crest height increases sharply and the
forward slope of the wave becomes greatly
steepened. At a critical point, the wave form
disintegrates into a mass of turbulent water
called the breaker. Thereafter, it becomes a
landward moving sheet of highly turbulent
water known as the swash or uprush. The water
then begins to pour seaward, down the slope in
a reverse flow termed the backwash or
backrush.
TIDES
Tides are the periodic rise and fall in the level
of water in seas and oceans caused by
differential attraction of the moon and the sun.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Twice a day, about every 12 hours and 26
minutes, the sea level rises and twice a day it
falls. The rise of sea level is called the flood tide
and the fall is called the ebb tide. These
fluctuations are not easily noticeable on the
high seas, and these do not exceed a few metres.
In the region of the shelf and in the estuaries
of big rivers, the fluctuations are considerably
high, from six or seven metres to fifteen or
twenty metres.
The mechanism of the tides was explained
by Issac Newton. He demonstrated that the
phenomenon was caused by the attraction of
the moon and the sun (Fig.15.7). According to
the universal law of gravitation, the side of the
earth facing the moon has a force of attraction
and the side which is farthest from the moon
has a centrifugal force, almost equal to the
force of attraction. The force of attraction
between physical particles is proportional to
their mass and inversely proportional to the
square of distance between them. The sun,
Fig.15.7 : Effect of Tide Producing Forces
on the Earth
Compare the length of arrows in attractive and
centrifugal force.
being bigger, has more attractive force than the
moon, but the moon being nearer has more
attractive force than the sun. As the sun is far
away from the earth, its force of attraction is
very small — the reason, ‘inversely proportional
to square of distance’ from the earth (Fig. 15.8).
The mass of the sun is 30 million times larger
than that of the moon but the sun is 300 times
farther from the earth than the moon. The tide
producing force of the moon is thus, 2.17 times
greater than that of the sun. On the earth (land)
OCEAN CURRENTS, WAVES AND TIDES
Fig.15.8 : Decrease in Gravitational Force
with Distance
Observe how the gravitational force decreases inversely
proportionate to square of distance.
near Moscow, the tidal oscillation is 50 cm, in
ocean waters it is one metre. Near the shore it
is 10-18 metres high or more.
Because of the earth’s rotation each
meridian has a high and a low tide at an interval
of 12 hours and 26 minutes, or two high tides
and two low tides in 24 hours and 52 minutes,
one caused by the attractive force and the other
by the centrifugal force (in case of high tide). The
sun affects tides to a much smaller extent.
As the moon revolves round the earth in
about 29 days, the moon on the earth’s surface
does not appear every day at the same time. It
is delayed by 52 minutes every day, that is in
24 hours (Fig. 15.9). Twice a month, when the
earth, the moon and the sun are in a straight
line, that happens on the new moon or the full
moonday, the tides attain maximum height,
and it is called the spring tide. On the first and
Fig.15.9 : Moon’s Revolution and the
Interval of Tides
125
last quarters of the lunar month, the sun, the
earth and the moon occupy a right angular
position and hence, the attraction and
centrifugal forces of the moon and the sun do
not combine. This reduces the height of the
tides to the minimum which is called the neap
tide.
The height of tidal waves vary from place
to place because of the following : relative
position of the moon and the sun with respect
to the earth, distribution of land and ocean on
the earth’s surface, and irregularities in the
configuration of oceans. At Okha, in Gujarat,
the tidal waves have a height of 2.5 metres
only, but in the Bay of Fundy it is between 15
and 18 metres.
The tidal waves follow the direction of the
moon. In certain inland seas where tidal waves
reach from different directions, one can find a
number of high tides and low tides as it is in the
North Sea between European mainland and the
British Isles. When such waves enter the gulfs
or river mouths, the tidal crests look like a vertical
wall of water rushing upstream, which is known
as the tidal bore.
Tides and tidal bores serve human beings
in several ways. The tides clear away the
sediments brought down by rivers and thus,
reduce the process of delta formation. The tidal
waves increase water level in rivers to allow ships
to enter the inland ports.
Tides are used for fishing and generation of
electricity. The energy of the tides is estimated
to have a potential of 1,000 million kw, which is
more than all the rivers of the world put together.
However, its use at present is limited. France and
Japan have power stations based on tidal
energy.
• The Sargasso in the wester n North
Atlantic is surrounded by the Florida
Current. It is often windless and is choked
with seaweed. It is the birthplace of
common eels.
• Sunlight penetrates water to about 900 m,
but only in top 100 m is there enough light
for plants to photosynthesise.
126 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What are ocean currents?
(ii) Name the factors that control the origin of ocean currents.
(iii) How can velocity of a wave be determined?
(iv) What are tides?
(v) What is a tidal bore?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Cold and warm ocean currents;
(ii) Spring tide and neap tide;
(iii) Swash and back wash.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Ocean currents of the Indian Ocean;
(ii) Origin of tides.
4. If there were no ocean currents, what would have happened to the world. Discuss.
5. How can velocity of the ocean currents be measured?

Project Work
Prepare a chart showing ocean currents of the Atlantic Ocean. Name cold and warm ocean
currents. Mention the effect of these currents on the climate of the surrounding areas.
 127

Unit VI

LIFE ON THE EARTH

$
CHAPTER
O
rganically, biosphere is the most active
sphere of the earth in comparison to
the lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere. It is a shallow zone at the earth
surface, both on land and in water. All living
organisms together with the environment with
which they interact for m the biosphere.
Whether they belong to the plant or animal
kingdom, they all interact with each other. The
study of these interactions between life forms
and the environment is called ecology. All the
components which enter into interactions with
a group of organisms is called ecosystem.
The earth is full of diversities. There is
diversity in soils and minerals, diversity in
plants and animals, and diversity in cultures
and civilisations. Charaka, the father of
Ayurveda, who lived in the first century A.D.,
listed over 200 kinds of animals and about 340
kinds of plants in his book of Indian medicine
titled Charaka Samhita. Carolus Linnaeus, the
eighteenth century Swedish naturalist,
identified about 5,900 species of plants and
4,200 species of animals. Since then some 1.7
million species have been given scientific
names; of these, over a million are animal
species and the rest plant species. According
to an estimate, over 5 million species of living
organisms exist in the world today, and over
half of these are believed to be found in the
unexplored tropical rain forests of the world.
The rain forests constitute less than 8 per cent
of the total land area of the world but support
a very rich diversity of life.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
Scientists can identify many kinds of
organisms with scientific names because they
DIVERSITY OF LIFE
have been described and ordered by a system
of classification which has been internatio-
nally accepted. The science of classification of
organisms is called taxonomy. Earlier, all
organisms used to be broadly grouped into two
categories — the plant kingdom and the
animal kingdom. Under each category there
used to be several species. Whittaker, in 1969,
divided dif ferent organisms into five
kingdoms, namely:
(i) Monera (single cell microscopic
organisms);
(ii) Protista (unicellular, primarily aquatic
organisms);
(iii) Plantae (multicellular photosynthetic
plants);
(iv) Fungi (multicellular decomposers) and;
(v) Animalia (multicellular animal consumers).
The above classification into five kingdoms
is made on the following criteria: complexity
of cell structure, complexity of organism’s
body, and mode of obtaining nutrition.
Bacteria belong to the monera kingdom. Its
cells are microscopic and do not contain a
nucleus. It prepares its own food by reducing
carbondioxide and using light energy or energy
derived from chemical reactions.
Protistan organisms are mostly unicellu-
lar. Many are photosynthetic autotrophs and
chief producers in oceans and fresh water
environments. They are collectively called
phytoplankton, microscopic, floating photo-
synthetic organisms.
Plantae includes all the coloured,
multicellular, photosynthetic plants which we
all see on land, on sea shores, in lakes and in
streams. Main groups are the sea weeds
consisting of algae, mosses, ferns, and seed
plants with or without flowers.
130
Fungi includes diverse kinds of multi-
cellular heterotrophic organisms. There are over
100,000 species of fungi. Some are unicellular
like yeasts, others complex like mushrooms. The
fungi are the major decomposers and their
activity is essential for the recycling of inorganic
resources in the biosphere.
Members of the animal kingdom are
multicellular. This includes sponges, snails,
insects, star fishes, amphibians, birds,
mammals etc. Under each kingdom, there are
several species.
Human beings belong to one of the species
of the animal kingdom. But because of their
unique characteristics, they are called Homo
sapiens (homo= man; sapiens = wise). At the
biological level, the human beings are not unique
for strength, ability, speed or endurance. They
have a poorer sense of hearing, smell and vision
than many other animals, but their brains are
large and highly developed, and they have skilled
hands. They can change themselves according
to environment and need and hence, more
powerful than other animals.
ORGANISATION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
The biotic community along with the physical
environment forms an interacting system
called the ecosystem. An ecosystem can be
natural or artificial, temporary or permanent.
A large grassland or a forest, a small tract in a
forest or a single log, an edge of pond, a village,
an aquarium or a manned spaceship can all
be regarded as ecosystems. Thus, any
structural and functional unit of the
environment that can be identified and studied
is called ecosystem.
The study of an ecosystem is not merely a
description of the biotic community and its
abiotic environment. It involves the
understanding of a whole network of
relationships comprising the various
exchanges and interactions between the living
and the non-living. Various structural
components of an ecosystem are classified
into two main groups: (i) biotic or living; and
(ii) abiotic or non-living.
The biotic component of an ecosytem
comprises the kinds, numbers and
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
distribution of living organisms. The abiotic
component consists of the kinds, quantity and
distribution of physical and chemical factors
such as light, temperature, water, oxygen,
carbon, nitrogen and minerals. The study of
the functional aspect of an ecosystem involves
the volume and the rate at which various
materials circulate and the rate at which
energy flows through it. The study also
includes the processes by which living
organisms change the abiotic environment,
the processes by which non-living
environment affect living organisms and the
events by which population levels of organisms
are regulated.
Biotic Components
All organisms require energy for their life
processes and materials for the formation and
maintenance of body structures. Food
supplies both energy and materials for the
sustenance of life. Green plants produce
carbohydrates by photosynthesis and also
synthesise proteins and fats. The green
plants, therefore, are called producers. The
animals that consume this energy as food are
called consumers. The non-green organisms
like the fungi and some bacteria, which do not
produce their own food, live on the dead
and decaying plants or animals and are
consumers of a special type, called
decomposers (Fig. 16.1).
The herbivores like cattle, deer and goat
derive their food (or energy) directly from
plants (the producers) and are called the first
order consumers. The carnivorous organisms
like the tiger and the lion are the second order
consumers. The food relation in its simplest
form — grass-deer-tiger-microorganisms —
representing a producer, a primary consumer,
a secondary consumer and a decomposer is
called a food chain (Fig.16.2). Each step in the
food chain represents a trophic level.
Energy Flow in the Biosphere
Energy from the sun enters the living world
through photosynthetic organisms and passes
on from one organism to another in the form
DIVERSITY OF LIFE 131

Fig.16.1 : Cycle of Energy and Nutrient Flow in an Ecosystem

Note the direction of flow of energy and that of the nutrients.

of food. The organisms which trap solar energy their own life processes. Only a portion of the
and act as producers also use some energy for energy trapped is taken up by the primary

Fig.16.2 : Food Chain

Note how energy received from the sun is transferred to other organisms.
132
consumers. Animals being more active than
plants use much of the energy acquired before
they are consumed by the next trophic level.
At each stage of energy transfer, some amount
of energy is lost from the food chain. The
amount of energy transferred to the next
higher level thus, gradually decreases. The
decomposition of dead organisms also releases
chemical energy. Eventually, all the solar
energy that entered the living system through
the producers goes back into the non-living
world, not as light but as heat.
In nature the food relationships cannot be
explained only in terms of a single food chain.
A herbivore consumes many types of plant or
plant products. Many kinds of animals other
than the tiger derive food from herbivorous
animals. Ticks and mites, leeches and blood-
sucking insects are dependent on herbivores
and even on carnivores. Thus, food chains are
not isolated linear chains of trophic levels.
Depending upon the availability and choice of
food, different organisms at each level have
food relationship with more than one organism
at the lower levels. A rat, for example, feeds
on various kinds of stems, roots, fruits and
grains. In turn, it is consumed by a snake
which is eaten by a falcon. The snakes feed on
both frogs and rats. Thus, a network of food
Fig.16.3 : Food Pyramid (Pyramid of Numbers)
Note the organism who is at the top level and why is it so.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
chains exists, which is called a food web. The
food web becomes more complicated when
taste and preference, availability and
compulsion are involved. In the Sunderbans,
tigers are forced to feed on fish or crabs.
In a food chain the members at the
successive higher levels become smaller in
number. In a forest, the small herbivorous
insects are more abundant than the
insectivorous birds. The preying birds like
hawks are fewer than insectivorous birds.
Thus. the number of organisms in one trophic
level is higher than that at the next higher
level. When the number at successive levels
are plotted, they assume the shape of a
pyramid. (Fig.16.3). This is called a pyramid of
numbers.
The number of organisms at any trophic
level depends upon the availability of
organisms which serve as food at the lower
level. Thus, the number of a particular
herbivorous insect would increase if more
plant food was available to them.
Consequently, plenty of food would be
available not only to its prey, but also to other
animals like a bird which feeds on that insect
even as a second choice leading to an increase
in their number. As a result of this increased
predation the number of herbivorous insects
DIVERSITY OF LIFE
is decreased and this in turn would lead to a
reduction in the number of their predators.
Thus, availability of food is the main factor
which maintains the grand balance of nature.
This balance is dynamic and fluctuates within
certain limits.
No organism exists in isolation but in
company with others of similar or differing
type, and its actual or ecological range will
depend on the suitability of the biotic
environment. The biotic environment is a
product of the interactions between organisms
and their abiotic habitat vis-à-vis interactions
between organisms of the same or different
species living together. Competition is a
negative interaction in which both competing
species suffer. It is the struggle of two or more
organisms to exploit the same resources. For
example, green plants compete each other for
sunlight. The creation of shade and the
consequent reduction in light intensity is the
most common way in which one type of plant
may suppress or prevent the growth of other
plants. The process of intra and inter-specific
competition between animals is more complex
than that between plants. Competition among
animals is primarily for living space, food and
breeding partners.
In contrast to the preceding negative biotic
interactions, mutualism and communalism are
the two positive biotic interactions. Mutualism
or symbiosis is the mutually beneficial
association of two dissimilar organisms.
Communalism occurs when one of the two
species benefits from an association while the
other is unaffected as in the case of plants or
animals growing on shells of marine animals.
Abiotic Components
Among the abiotic factors the most important
are climatic and edaphic factors. The climatic
factors include temperature, humidity, rain
and snowfall. The edaphic factors comprise
the soil and substratum. The ability of
organisms to utilise, tolerate or combat the
various abotic factors are different and it may
limit their distribution, behaviour and
relationship with other organisms. Some of
133
the most important abiotic factors are
described below :
Temperature: Living organisms can
survive only in a narrow range of temperature
which allows their metabolism. Wherever they
live the organisms must develop physiological
and behavioural adaptations to withstand
extremes of temperature. The polar bear can
live in very cold regions and hibernate during
winter. Some birds and mammals migrate to
warmer places in winter to avoid extreme cold.
Some desert animals live inside burrows to
avoid the intense heat of the desert. Water is
an essential requirement of life. A large
number of organisms live only in water. The
requirement of water varies from organism to
organism. The distribution of organisms
depends upon the extent of the need and
special adaptations for conserving water. Light
is essential for photosynthetic organisms for
the preparation of food, on which the rest of
the living world depends. Plants show various
adaptations for obtaining optimum light. Most
animals are sensitive to light. Many animals
have special photoreceptors.
Humidity : The atmospheric humidity
directly regulates the rate at which water
evaporates from the earth’s surface, and the
body of organisms by transpiration,
perspiration and other means. Plants and
animals have different levels of adaptations to
withstand dry conditions. Wind determines
the rate of transpiration where wind velocity
is very high, the plants with strong root system
and tough stems only survive. Most organisms
thrive in an optimal pH range. Some plants
and aquatic animals require acidic conditions,
others need neutral or alkaline conditions. The
pH of the soil and water has a strong influence
on the distribution of organisms.
Mineral elements: Availability and
concentration of essential mineral elements
control the distribution of microbes and plants
and animals. Plants living in soil deficient in
nitrogen have developed special adaptations
for obtaining it, such as, harbouring nitrogen-
fixing bacteria and the carnivorous habit.
Salinity in soil or in water greatly affects the
distribution of organisms. Fresh water species
134 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

usually, cannot survive in a marine habitat.
Animals inhabiting an estuary have special
physiological or behavioural adaptations to
withstand fluctuations in salinity caused by
tidal rhythms. Topography or sur face
configuration of an area influences distribution
of organisms as much as wide geographic
separation. Topographical effect may be direct
as well as indirect. Indirectly, it affects other
factors like wind, water current, light or wave
action. The background of the habitat also
determines the distribution of animals by
enabling them to camouflage against the colour,
general texture and pattern. Desert animals
like the lion and the camel are sand-coloured.
Most of the jelly fishes, sea cucumbers are
glassy. The chameleon changes its colour
according to its background.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) Define biosphere.
(ii) How does humidity affect plant life?
(iii) Mention five kingdoms into which different organisms are divided.
(iv) What are the functions of fungi?
(v) What is an ecosystem?
(vi) What is a food chain?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) First order consumers and second order consumers;
(ii) Biotic and abiotic factors;
(iii) Food chain and food web;
(iv) Mutualism and competition.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Taxonomy of organism;
(ii) Pyramid of numbers;
(iii) Balance of nature;
(iv) Energy flow in biosphere.
4. Describe the importance of abiotic factors in biosphere.
5. Mention various kinds of diversities which you observe in the world today.

Project Work
Divide organisms into five kingdoms. Write about their characteristics, types and functions. Also
draw their sketches.