1.1.

1 Classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral

Acids
An acid is a substance which in
solution produces hydrogen ions,
H+ or more strictly H3O+, sometimes
called the hydronium ion.
Common properties of all acids
are:
• Acids have a sour taste
• Acids sting or burn the skin
• In solution, acids conduct
electricity
• Acids turn blue litmus (a
vegetable dye) red
Bases
- A base is a substance which
either contains the oxide O2- or
hydroxide ion OH- or which in
solution produces the hydroxide
ion. A soluble base is called an
alkali.
Common properties of alkalis are:
• Alkalis have a soapy feel
• Alkalis have a bitter taste
• In solution, alkalis are good
conductors of electricity
• Alkalies turn red litmus blue

Examples of Acidic Substances Example of Basic Substances

• Orange – Citric Acid
• Vinegar – Acetic Acid
• Soft Drink – Carbonic Acid
• Stomach Acid –
Hydrochloric Acid
• Car Battery Acid – Sulfuric
Acid
• Baking Soda - Sodium
hydrogen carbonate Drain
Cleaner – Sodium Hydroxide
• Window Cleaner – Ammonia
• Toothpaste, Soap

Common examples of Neutral Substances

• Pure Water
• Sugar Solution
• Sodium Chloride Solution
• Pure Alcohol Solution

1.1.2 Identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl

orange and bromothymol blue can be used to determine the acidic
or basic nature of a material over a range, and that the range is
identified by change in indicator colour

Indicator Colour change pH range

Methyl orange Red – Yellow pH 3.1 – 4.4
Bromophenol Blue Yellow – Blue pH 3.0 – 4.6
Bromocresol Blue Yellow – Blue pH 3.8 – 5.4
Methyl Red Pink – Yellow pH 4.4 – 6.0
Bromothymol Blue Yellow – Blue pH 6.2 – 7.6
Phenol Red Yellow – Red pH 6.8 – 8.4
Thymol Blue Yellow – Blue pH 8.0 – 9.6
Phenolphthalein Colourless – Red pH 8.3 – 10
1.1.3 Identify and describes some everyday uses of indicators
including testing of soil

Soil Testing
Some plants need an acidic soil while others need an alkaline soil Acidity is usually difficult
to measure with indicator due to the darkness
Soil is moistened with water and universal indicator added
White barium sulfate powder places on surface of soil
White powder absorbs soil water so that color can be seen against white background
Chemical Analysis
Chemists routinely use indicators in analytical work
Used in titrations to signal point when the acid neutralizes the base
Visible signal as most of these solutions are colorless
Monitoring Pool Acidity
Acidity levels need to be carefully controlled at 7.4 to reduce skin and eye irritation
Regularly tested with indicator with a color range similar to that of universal indicator
Monitoring wastes from photographic processing (discharges to the sewerage system must
be nearly neutral: photographic solutions are often highly alkaline).

1.2.1 Perform a first-hand investigation to prepare and test a natural

indicator

Aim: to prepare and test a natural indicator (red cabbage)

Method: Obtain a small handful of red cabbage

Heat the cabbage in a 250ml baker with about 80ml of hot water
Allow the water to boil
Decant the solution into a clear beaker
Test the solution with the following substances, HCl, Ammonia solution, acetic acid, NaOH
Tabulate observations

Results:
Substance Acid/Base Indicator Colour
HCl Acid Red/pink
Ammonia solution Base Dark green
Acetic Acid Acid Dark Pink
NaOH Base Green

Conclusions: the red cabbage produced a purple solution which was tested and found to
be read in an acid solution and green in a basic solution.
1.2.2 Identify data and choose resources to gather information
about the colour changes of a range of indicators
Aim: To find the colours of various indicators in acidic basic and neutral solutions

Materials: Indicators – litmus, methyl orange, bromomethyl blue, phenolphthalein.

Method: Test each indicator by adding 2-3 drops to 1ml of HCl, NaOH, Na2CO3 and H2O
respectively
Tabulate colours of indicators in each solution

Results:
Reaction with Substances
Substance L M.O B.B P U.I
HCl Orange red Green colourless Red
NaOH, Blue Orange Blue Red Purple
Na2CO3 Purple Orange blue Red Purple
H2O L. purple orange green colourless Green

Conclusion:
HCl is acidic, NaOH, Na2CO3 basic, H2O neutral

1.2.3 Solve problems by applying information about the colour

changes of indicators to classify some household substances as
acidic, neutral or basic
Aim: To measure the pH range of various common substances using a pH meter and
universal indicator.

Method:
1. Check pH meter is correctly calibrated and review instructions for use. Ensure pH
meter is properly handled and rinsed during testing.
2. Place a small amount of solution to be tested in a beaker (about 3cm depth). Insert
the pH meter electrode and record the pH.
3. Measure the pH by adding a couple of drops of universal indicator to the beaker
and record the results.
4. Repeat the process with all samples being sure to clean the pH meter electrode and
beaker between samples.

Results:
Sample Universal pH Meter Acidic/Alkaline/
Indicator Reading Neutral
Colour and
pH
Distilled water Green 7 6.9 Neutral/Acidic

0.1Mol solution Dark purple 12.0 Alkaline

 NaOH 11

Ammonia Purple 11.2 Alkaline

solution 9.5
NH4OH
Pale Green 8.3 Alkaline
Dishwashing 7.5
Liquid
Purple 9.5 Alkaline
Sodium 10
Hydrogen
Carbonate
Green 7 7.4 Neutral/Alkaline
NaCl solution
Yellow 6.2 Acidic
Effervescent 6.5
Aspirin
Pink 2.9 Acidic
Carbonated 4
Lemonade
Pink 4 3.8 Acidic
Apple Juice
These 2.8 Acidic
Lemon Juice substances
went pink and 2.7 Acidic
Vinegar read as 4, but
if the scale 1.7 Acidic
Hydrochloric kept going
Acid HCl readings
would have
been lower.

2.1.1 Identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe

the conditions under which they act as acids
Background Information
Acid react with hydroxides to for salt and water
HCl + NaOH Na2Cl + H2O

Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water

2HCl + MgO MgCl2 +H2O

Acids react with NH3 to form a salt

HCl + NH3 NH4Cl

Acids react with reactive metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas
2HCl + Mg MgCl2 + H2
Acids react with carbonates to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water
2HCl + 2Na2CO3 2NaCl +CO2 +H2O

Oxides of Non-Metals
Acidic Oxides Basic Oxides
Reacts with water to form an acid or Reacts with acids to form salt
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
SO2 + H2O H2SO3 Does not react with alkali solutions
SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (such as NaOH or KOH).
2NO2 + H2O HNO3 + HNO2
Are oxides of metal and their ionic
Reacts with bases to form salts (or does both) compounds

are oxides of non-metals Common basic oxides are Na2O,

MgO, CuO
Common acidic oxides are CO2, SO2, SO3,
and NO2

2.1.2 Analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic Table

and outline the relationship between position of elements in the
Periodic Table and acidity/basicity of oxides.
The basic oxides are oxides of metal and their ionic compounds. Elements to form basic
oxides appear towards the left of the periodic table. Acidic oxides are generally oxides of
non-metals. Hey are all covalent compounds. Elements that form acidic oxides appear
towards the right and top of the periodic table. As the elements became more and more
non-metallic in character, their oxides became more and more acidic. Aluminium oxide is
classed as amphoteric because t shows acidic properties as well as basic properties.

3rd Period

2.1.3 Define Le Chatelier’s Principle

Equilibrium - When reactions are reversible reactions. The reaction can go in the forward
direction or in the reverse direction
Characteristics - of a chemical systematic equilibrium.
1-It is a closed system
2-the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate for the reverse reaction
3- the concentration of each reactant remains constant, but not necessarily equal.
4- the system has constant macroscopic properties(eg. Color, temperature, and pressure)
Le Chatelier’s Principle
If a systematic equilibrium is disturbed, then the system adjusts to minimize the disturbance.
This means that either the forward or reverse reaction proceeds at a faster rate until
equilibrium is re-established. A system is in equilibrium when the forward and reverse
reactions are occurring at the same rate and therefore does not go to completion. For
equilibrium to be established the system must be closed because the relative amount of
the products and reactants at equilibrium can be affected by shifting the equilibrium in
order to favor one side.

2.1.4 Identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible

reaction
Factors that can affect equilibrium are
• Temperature change
• Pressure increase
• Addition of Reactant or Product

How an equilibrium system responds to changes.

• Temp increase - shifts in direction of ENDO
• Temp decrease – shifts in direction of EXO
• Reactant conclusion increases – shifts towards products RHS
• Reactant conclusion decreases – shifts towards reactants LHS
• Product conclusion increases – shifts towards reactants LHS
• Product conclusion decreases – shifts towards products LHS
• Pressure increases – shifts towards side with lower no. of moles of gas
• Pressure decreases– shifts towards side with higher no. of moles of gas
• Changes in amount of solid and liquid substance have no effect

2.1.5 Describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various

conditions as an equilibrium process and explain in terms of Le
Chatelier’s principle
CO2 dissolves in water producing carbonic acid (exothermic reaction) as shown in the
equation
CO2 (g) CO2 (aq) + heat
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq) H+ + HCO3- + heat
Disturbance Effect on equilibrium (right means inc. solubility)
Change in pressure Increased pressure – shifts to the right – solubility increased -
more dissolved CO2
Decreased pressure – shifts to the left – solubility decreased
- more CO2 gas.
Change in concentration of Increased concentration of CO2- shifts right – solubility
CO2 in system increased - more dissolved CO2.
Decrease in concentration of CO2 – shifts left – solubility
decreased - more CO2 gas
Change in temperature
Changing pH
Increased temp – shifts left – solubility decreased - more
CO2 gas
Decreased temp – shifts right – solubility increased – more
dissolved CO2.
Adding NaOH to equilibrium- neutralizes carbonic acid-
moves to the right
Adding H+ shifts to the left

2.1.6 Identify natural and industrial sources of sulphur dioxide and

oxides of nitrogen
Sources Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Natural • Geothermal hot springs
• Volcanoes
industrial • Processing or burning fossil fuels
S compounds + O2(g) SO2(g)
• Extracting metals from sulfide ores
2ZnS(g) + 3O2(g) 3ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g))

Sources Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Natural • Action of sunlight on NO and O2
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
industrial • Combustion of fuel in motor vehicles
• Power Stations

Sources Dinitrogen monoxide (N2O)

Natural • Produced by bacteria in soil
industrial • Fuel for racing cars

Sources Nitrogen Monoxide (NO)

Natural • Produced by bacteria in soil
• Lighting
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
industrial • Combustion of fuel in motor vehicles
• Burning of Biomass

2.1.7 Asses evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric

concentration of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen.
The evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric concentrations of these gases
have been gathered from measurements on bubbles of ancient air trapped in ice sheets
of Antarctica and Greenland. This is then compared to more modern levels. This evidence
successfully shows the increase in the atmospheric oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. The
burning of coal and petroleum products as well as the smelting of minerals has led to a
significant increase in the levels of acidic oxides in the atmosphere. This is particularly true
for heavily industrialized nations, such as the USA. The annual average concentration of
SO2 and NO2 in most large cities around the world is about 0.01 for each gas. This is about
ten times the value for clean air. In Sydney and Melbourne there is some concern about
the number of days per year that the safe levels for these gases are exceeded.
Globally, because SO2 and NO2 are washed out of the atmosphere by rain, there appears
not have been any significant build-up of their concentrations over the last century or so
(unlike CO2 which there has been a 30% increase and N2O increased as well).

2.1.9 Explain the formation and effects of acid rain

The presence of acidic oxides into the atmosphere leads to the production of acids rain.
Acidic oxides dissolve in water droplets in the atmosphere and these droplets fall to earth
as rain

Weak sulfurous acids (H3SO4) is formed when SO2 dissolves in water

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)

Strong sulfuric acids (H2SO4) can form if the sulfurous acid is catalytically oxidized in the air
2H2O(l) + H2SO3(aq) 2H2SO4(aq)

A mixture of weak nitrous and strong nitric acids is formed when NO2 dissolves in water
droplets
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO2 (aq) + HNO3(aq)

Nitrous acid is unstable and can decompose to form nitric acid and nitric oxide or it can be
catalytically oxidised to form nitric acid
HNO2 HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)

HNO2 + O2 HNO3

2.2.2 Analyze information from secondary sources to summarise the

industrial origins of sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen and
evaluate reasons for concern about their release into the
environment
Oxides released make acid rain. Acid rain causes
Weathering and erosion to marble and sandstone buildings
Destroys forest by taking the waxy cuticle on the surface of the leaves, as well as
damaging roots
Increased soil acids
Acidification of lakes and waterway causes fish and organism to die or prevents them from
reproducing.

Sulfur dioxide itself is a toxic gas.

It irritates eyes, respiratory tract and causes lung damage and asthma
Nitric oxides is also damaging
Is harmful to respiratory system, causing decreased lung function, susceptibility to
respiratory infections and increased sensitivity to asthma triggers.

2.1.8 Calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substances

in reactions, and calculate masses of substances given gaseous
volumes, in reactions involving gases at 0˚C and 100kPa or 25˚C and
100kPa
Gay Lussacs Law
The volumes of reacting gases and the resulting products are always in simple number
ratios.
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Mole Ratio: 1 : 2 : 1 : 2

Avogadro’s Law
Equal Volumes of equal gases at the same temp and pressure contain the same number of
moles.

Moles of Solids:
Moles = Mass _
Molar Mass

Moles of Gases:
Moles = Volume _
Molar Volume
Or
Volume = Moles X Molar Volume

Molar Volume is the same for all gases

S.T.P - 0 oC (273 oK) and 100 kPa - Molar Volume = 22.71 L
S.L.C -25 oC (298 oK) and 100 kPa - Molar Volume = 24.79 L

Concentration Formula:
Moles = Concentration
Volume

Dilution Formula: C1V1 = C2V2

2.2.1 Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to
decarbonate soft drink and gather data to measure the mass
changes involved and calculate the volume of gas released at 25˚C
and 100kPa

Aim: To calculate the volume of carbon dioxide released from a can of soft drink

Materials: can of soda water, NaCl, electronic balance

Method:
1. Find the mass of a can of soda water
2. Finds the mass of a 500ml beaker
3. Pour the drink into the beaker
4. Find the mass of the empty can
5. Add a known mass of sodium chloride (e.g. 25g)
6. Stir the salt and drink mixture until no more gas is released
7. Find the final mass of the beaker and the drink (by minus-ing the weight of the salt)

Results
Closed Can : 265.73g
Empty Can: 15.2g
Salt: 25.02g
Beaker: 199.79g
Mass of soda water: 250.53
Beaker + water +salt: 439.44
Soda water after CO2 release: 234.63
CO2 loss: 15.9

N(CO2)= 15.9 = .36

44
Volume = .36 X 24.79
= 8.96

3.1.1 Define Acids as proton donors and describe the ionization of

acids in water

Ionisation is the process of the formation of ions

When an acid dissolves in water it ionizes as follows

HA + H2O H3O+ + A-
any acid hydronium ion any ion

During ionization, the acid molecule donates a proton (H+) to the water forming and
hydronium ion H3O+ Eg.
H2O + H+ H3O+
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl –
3.1.2 Identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2-
hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic), hydrochloric and sulfuric acid
Acid Formula
acetic (ethanoic), CH3COOH(aq)

found in vinegar
citric (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-
tricarboxylic)
(COOH)CH2CH(OH)(COOH)CH2COOH(aq)
found in citrus
fruits
hydrochloric HCl found in stomach juices
sulfuric H2SO4(aq) found in volcanic springs

3.1.4 Describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of
the terms strong, weak, concentrated and dilute
A strong acid is one which completely ionises in solution to form H+. Eg. HCl , H2SO4, HNO3.

A weak acid is one which is only partially ionized in solution. Acetic acid, CH3COOH, nitrous
acid H2NO3, carbonic acid H2CO3, sulfurous acid H2SO3

Concentrated acid is one which has a high number of moles per litre (molarity).

Dilute acid is one which has a low number of moles per litre.

3.1.7 Describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in

terms of an equilibrium between the intact molecule and its ions
Strong acids completely ionise and the hydrogen ion released joins with water molecules to
create the hydronium ion (H3O+) there is no equilibrium in the ionisation reaction for strong
acids and if there were it would lie completely to the right.

Weak acids only partially ionise and thus an equilibrium is formed, this occurs with all weak
acids like ethanoic acid. In the equilibrium of the weak acid, the equation lies mostly on
the left (partial ionisation). The molecule of the weak acid is in solution with few of its ions.

CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO–(aq)

3.1.6 Compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of
citric, acetic and hydrochloric acids and explain in terms of the
degree of ionisation of their molecules
The strength of an acid is related to the degree of ionization. The strengths of acids can be
compared by measuring the pH of different acids at the same concentration.

Strengths of acids can also be compared by measuring their electrical conductivity at the
same concentration.

Acids ionise in water and become proton donors, forming [H+] ions in water. The greater the
concentration of [H+], the greater is the strength of the acid. Hydrochloric acid ionises more
completely than citric acid which ionises more than acetic acid.

Hydrochloric > citric acetic > acetic

3.1.3/5 Describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and

bases and identify pH as -log10 [H+] and explain that a change in
pH of 1 means a ten-fold change in [H+]
The pH is the Potential (p) Hydrogen (H) or H3O+ concentration of a solution. It is a
logarithmic scale that includes numbers 1 to 14 (the logarithm indicates that a change of 1
unit on the pH scale is a change to a power of ten in actual H3O+ concentration).
A reading of more than 7 on the pH scale indicates the solution is basic, and a number
below 7 is acid (7 is neutral).

pH [H+] [OH-] [H+] × [OH-]

0 100 = 1 10-14 10-14
1 10-1 10-13 10-14
2 10-2 10-12 10-14
3 10-3 10-11 10-14
4 10-4 10-10 10-14
5 10-5 10-9 10-14
6 10-6 10-8 10-14
7 10-7 10-7 10-14
8 10-8 10-6 10-14
9 10-9 10-5 10-14
10 10-10 10-4 10-14
11 10-11 10-3 10-14
12 10-12 10-2 10-14
13 10-13 10-1 10-14
14 10-14 100 = 1 10-14

From the table, the 0.1mol L-1 has a pH of 1, and an H+ concentration [H+] of 10-1mol L-1.
The 0.01 mol L-1 has a pH of 2, but an [H+] of 10-2 mol L-1.
The difference between the two in only one pH value, but the concentration has changed
by a power of ten. This is the logarithmic relationship between pH value, and the
corresponding [H+] value.

Basically a change of one in the pH scale means a ten fold change in the concentration of
hydrogen ions because pH is based on a logarithmic scale (base 10).

To work out [H+] from a known pH or to work out pH from a known [H+]:

Self ionization of water

H20 OH- + H+
H20 + H20 OH- + H3O+

In pure water at 25 oC -7
[H3O+] = [OH-] = 1 X 10 molL-1
[H3O+] X [OH-] = 1 X 10-14
[H3O+] > [OH-] = acidic
[H3O+] < [OH-] = basic

Note: the number of decimal places for pH should equal the number of significant figures
for [H3O+]

3.2.1 Solve problems and perform a first-hand investigation to use pH

meters/probes and indicators to distinguish between acidic, basic
and neutral chemicals
pH meters can be used to measure pH they give fairly accurate values but are relatively
expensive.
A cheaper way of estimating the pH of solutions I s the use of indicators
A pH meter is a non destructive way of testing whether a solution is acidic, basic or neutral,
the solutions tested are unaffected, and using indicator solution is a destructive way of
testing. Indicator will contaminate a portion of the solution tested.
3.2.2 Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the pH
of identical concentrations of strong and weak acids
Aim: To determine the pH of identical concentrations of weak and strong
acids.
Method: 1. Use known weak (CH3COOH) and strong (HCl) acids.
2. Pour equal quantities of each into equal quantities of
distilled water in separate beakers, to form .1 mol/L
3. Use a pH probe to determine the pH in the beakers.
4. Change the concentrations by removing 25ml of acid
solutions with a pipette and adding to 250mL of distilled
water forming .01mol/L

Results: Substance pH
CH3COOH 0.1 L-1 3
HCl 0.1mol L-1 1

3.2.3 Gather and process information from secondary sources to

write ionic equations to represent the ionisation of acids
HCl(l) + H2O(l) Æ H3O+(aq) + Cl-
H2SO4(l) + H2O(l) Æ H3O+(aq) + HSO4-(aq)
HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l) Æ H3O+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l) CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
CO2(g) + H2O(l) CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq)
2H+(aq) + H2O(l) 2H3O+(aq)

3.2.4 Use available evidence to model the molecular nature of acids

and simulate the ionisation of strong and weak acids
To model ionization, transfer the appropriate hydrogen atom form an acid molecular
model to a water model (hydronium ion)
Advantages & Disadvantages
Models help to visualize and understand the concepts involved, eg model are 3D and
clearly show bonding. Constructing a model reinforces understanding of structure and
formulae.
Models however have limitation- they are simplifications which are not to scale, do not
show eg, electrons and give no indication of concentration.

3.2.5 Gather and process information from secondary sources to

explain the use of acids as food additives
Food preservatives can be divided into two categories: those which stop the growth of
micro organisms, and those which prevent food being spoiled by exposure to oxygen.
• Citric & tartaric acids are often added to jam to give a sharp taste. There acidity also
prevents the growth of micro organisms
• Acetic acid in vinegar heaps preserve chutneys
• Acidic sulphur dioxide is used in dried fruit and white wine to stop attacks from
microbes.
• Ascorbic acid is an antioxidant thus is added to food to prevent spoilage by
oxidation.

3.2.6 Identify data, gather and process information from secondary

sources to identify examples of naturally occurring acids and bases
and their chemical composition

• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is produced by glands in the lining of our stomachs to form an
acidic environment for the efficient operation of the enzymes that break complex food
molecules into easily transportable small molecules that are absorbed into the blood
stream when they pass into the intestine
• Acetic acid (systematic name ethanoic acid), CH3-COOH. Acetic acid is present in
vinegar which is commonly made from wine by oxidation of ethanol.
• Citric acid (systematic name 2-hydroxypropane-1, 2, 3-tricarboxylic acid with molecular
formula C6H8O7). It occurs in citrus fruit.
• Vitamin C or ascorbic acid which has the molecular formula, C6H8O6. It occurs widely in
fruits and vegetables and is an essential part of our diet.
• Uracil C4H2OON2H2 is a base

3.2.7 Process information from secondary sources to calculate pH of

strong acids, given appropriate hydrogen ion concentrations.

You can use the formulae

You can use pH meters or indicators
You can measure electrical conductivity-strong acids are ore conductive as they fully
ionise and have more charge carriers
4.1.1 Outline the historical development of ideas about acids
including those of:
Lavoisier
Davy
Arrhenius
Lavoisier
Was called father of chemistry. He showed that combustion involves oxygen. His
combustion experiments led him to believe that acids were made of 2 substances, one of
which was oxygen. He believed that oxygen was present in all acids and caused their
acidity.

Davy
Demonstrated that muratic acid (HCl) was a compound of hydrogen and chlorine and did
not contain oxygen. He observed that metals could displace hydrogen form acids and
concluded that acids contain hydrogen

Arrhenius
Suggested that acids are neural substances that dissolve in water and dissociate to give
positive hydrogen ions
and negative ions. Positive ions are called cations and negative ions are called anions
According to this theory
-an acid is a substance that ionises in water to produce H ions, as the only positive ions
-a base is a substance that ionises in water to produce OH ions, as the only negative ions
His theory has limitations
-it applies only to aqueous solutions
-does not account for why salts act as acids or bases
- does not include amphoteric substances (ZNO) which can act as acids and bases.

4.1.2 Outline the Brönsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases

An acid base reaction involves proton transfer from acid to the base

Acid is a proton donor.

Base is a proton acceptor

An acid looses its proton to form its conjugate base.

The base accepts a proton to form its conjugate acid
A substance which can act as a proton donor and acceptor is amphoteric

4.1.3 Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate

base and a base and its conjugate acid
An acid gives up a proton(H ion) to form its conjugate base.
A base accepts a proton to form its conjugate acid.
A conjugate base of a weak acid is a strong base
A conjugate base of a strong acid is a weak base

HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl–(aq)

ACID BASE CONJUGATE ACID CONJUGATE BASE

4.1.4 Identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral

solutions and explain their acidic, neutral or basic nature
Find the Sheet you lost.

Identify Conjugate acid/base pairs.

Conjugate base
Acid + water → H3O+ + conjugate base
HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-
CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO-

Conjugate acid
Base + water → conjugate acid + OH-
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-
CO32- + H2O HCO3- + OH-

4.1.6 Identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to

describe their behaviour in acidic and basic solutions
Amphoteric substance- general term which refers to any substance displaying both acid
and base behaviour.
Amphiprotic substance -A substance which can act both as a proton donor and a proton
acceptor. H2O, and HCO3 are examples.

HCO3 is an amphiprotic substance

As a base (accepts proton)
HCO3–(aq) + H3O+ (aq) → H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)

As a acid (donates proton)

HCO3–(aq) + OH–(aq) → CO32–(aq) + H2O (l)

4.1.7 Identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is

exothermic
Neutralization is a proton transfer reaction (protons are transferred from one species to
another to form a salt). All neutralization reactions are exothermic.
HNO3 (aq) + NH3 (aq) NH4+ (aq) + NO3-(aq)
The acid transfers a proton to ammonia (to form the NH4+ ion)

HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq) Na Cl(aq) + H2O(l)

HCl (aq) + OH- (aq) Cl- (aq) + H2O(l)
HCl transfers a proton to the base Oh to form water

Net ionic equation of neutralisation reactions are

H+ OH- H2O(l)

General equation is
Acid + Base Water + Salt + Heat

4.1.8 Describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and

preparation of standard solutions
A standard solution must
• Be available in pure form
• Accurately know chemical formulae
• Mass must not change when exposed to air(rules out all chemical that lose or gain
water or react with chemicals in the air)
• Its molar mass should be relatively high. This minimising weighing errors
• Must be soluble

Common solutions are Na2CO3(base) anhydrous sodium carbonate, H2C2O4.2H2O(acid)

hydrated oxalic acid.

PHOTOCOPY
4.1.9 Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a
specific example in a natural system
A buffer solution resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or alkali are added to it
An acidic buffer solution can be made by mixing a weak acid by its conjugate base. An
example is a solution of ethanoic acid and ethanoate.

1. CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
2. CH3COOH Na CH3COO- + Na+
When H+ are added the equib shifts left
When OH- are added equib shifts right

A basic buffer solution is made by mixing a weak base with its conjugate acid.Eg.
NH3/NH4Cl

Carbonic acid and hydrogen carbonate buffer-

This buffer system occurs naturally in lakes and rivers, due to the dissolution of CO2 from the
air and CO32- minerals (limestone) into the water.
1. CO2 + H2O H2CO3
2. CaCO3 + H20 CaOH + HCO3-

1+2. H2CO3 + H2O H3O+ HCO3-

Carbonic acid ionisation counteracts the addition of acid by reacting it with H+ to form
H2CO3, the equib shifts to the left, where there is already H2CO3 so the equib shifts back to
normal maintaining the pH. The CO3 acid ionisation counteracts any pH changes when
bases are added to the buffer. The equib shifts to the right to produce more H3O+ ions. It
was the absence of this buffering action in lakes in Scandinavia that resulted in the first
detection of falling pH from acid rain.

A buffer solution is a solution which contains comparable amounts of a weak aid and is
conjugate base which is therefore able to maintain an approximately constant pH even
when significant amounts of strong acid or strong base are added to it.

4.1.3 Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate

base and a base and its conjugate acid
An acid gives up a proton(H ion) to form its conjugate base.
A base accepts a proton to form its conjugate acid.
A conjugate base of a weak acid is a strong base
A conjugate base of a strong acid is a weak base

HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl–(aq)

ACID BASE CONJUGATE ACID CONJUGATE BASE

4.1.4 Identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral
solutions and explain their acidic, neutral or basic nature
Find the Sheet you lost.

Identify Conjugate acid/base pairs.

Conjugate base
Acid + water → H3O+ + conjugate base
HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-
CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO-

Conjugate acid
Base + water → conjugate acid + OH-
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-
CO32- + H2O HCO3- + OH-

4.1.6 Identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to

describe their behaviour in acidic and basic solutions
Amphoteric substance- general term which refers to any substance displaying both acid
and base behaviour.
Amphiprotic substance -A substance which can act both as a proton donor and a proton
acceptor. H2O, and HCO3 are examples.

HCO3 is an amphiprotic substance

As a base (accepts proton)
HCO3–(aq) + H3O+ (aq) → H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)

As a acid (donates proton)

HCO3–(aq) + OH–(aq) → CO32–(aq) + H2O (l)

4.1.7 Identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is

exothermic
Neutralization is a proton transfer reaction (protons are transferred from one species to
another to form a salt). All neutralization reactions are exothermic.

HNO3 (aq) + NH3 (aq) NH4+ (aq) + NO3-(aq)

The acid transfers a proton to ammonia (to form the NH4+ ion)

HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq) Na Cl(aq) + H2O(l)

HCl (aq) + OH- (aq) Cl- (aq) + H2O(l)
HCl transfers a proton to the base Oh to form water

Net ionic equation of neutralisation reactions are

H+ OH- H2O(l)

General equation is
Acid + Base Water + Salt + Heat

4.1.8 Describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and

preparation of standard solutions
A standard solution must
• Be available in pure form
• Accurately know chemical formulae
• Mass must not change when exposed to air(rules out all chemical that lose or gain
water or react with chemicals in the air)
• Its molar mass should be relatively high. This minimising weighing errors
• Must be soluble

Common solutions are Na2CO3(base) anhydrous sodium carbonate, H2C2O4.2H2O(acid)

hydrated oxalic acid.

PHOTOCOPY

4.1.9 Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a

specific example in a natural system
A buffer solution resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or alkali are added to it
An acidic buffer solution can be made by mixing a weak acid by its conjugate base. An
example is a solution of ethanoic acid and ethanoate.

1. CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
2. CH3COOH Na CH3COO- + Na+
When H+ are added the equib shifts left
When OH- are added equib shifts right
A basic buffer solution is made by mixing a weak base with its conjugate acid.Eg.
NH3/NH4Cl

Carbonic acid and hydrogen carbonate buffer-

This buffer system occurs naturally in lakes and rivers, due to the dissolution of CO2 from the
air and CO32- minerals (limestone) into the water.
1. CO2 + H2O H2CO3
2. CaCO3 + H20 CaOH + HCO3-

1+2. H2CO3 + H2O H3O+ HCO3-

Carbonic acid ionisation counteracts the addition of acid by reacting it with H+ to form
H2CO3, the equib shifts to the left, where there is already H2CO3 so the equib shifts back to
normal maintaining the pH. The CO3 acid ionisation counteracts any pH changes when
bases are added to the buffer. The equib shifts to the right to produce more H3O+ ions. It
was the absence of this buffering action in lakes in Scandinavia that resulted in the first
detection of falling pH from acid rain.

A buffer solution is a solution which contains comparable amounts of a weak aid and is
conjugate base which is therefore able to maintain an approximately constant pH even
when significant amounts of strong acid or strong base are added to it.

4.2.1 Gather and process information from secondary sources to

trace developments in understanding and describing acid/base
reactions

4.2.2 Choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to

identify the pH of a range of salt solutions

4.2.3 Perform a first-hand investigation and solve problems using

titrations and including the preparation of standard solutions, and
use available evidence to quantitatively and qualitatively describe
the reaction between selected acids and bases

4.2.4 Perform a first-hand investigation to determine the

concentration of a domestic acidic substance using computer-
based technologies
4.2.5 Analyze information from secondary sources to assess the use
of neutralisation reactions as a safety measure or to minimise
damage in accidents or chemical spills

Acids and base used in industry can often be determined as they are corrosive.
Neutralization reactions are therefore widely used in laboratories and factories were acids
and bases need to be discarded, this is hazardous to the environment due to varying pH
levels and to individuals working with these chemicals. Neutralization is employed to ensure
that chemicals which are spilled are neither acidic or basic.
Amphiprotic substances are useful for neutralizing chemical spills. These substances contain
amphiprotic ions. Such as the hydrogen carbonate ion in NaHCO3.

If the chemical spill contains an acid.

If the chemical spill contains a base

This amphiprotic substance is used due to its stable state as a solid easy to store and
handle. It is also cheap and does not cause major problems when used excessively. It is
also found in solid form and hence can easily soak up toxin without spreading it. It is also a
weak base and so will not heat up excessively with its exothermic reaction.

The use of neutralization reactions a safety measure is effective. It is successful in making

the acid or base less harmful. This also protects individuals involved around the toxin.
Through the use of neutralization management of accident can be safely controlled.

5.1.1 Describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic

acid functional groups in carbon compounds.
Alkanols
The functional group in alkanols in the hydroxyl-group (OH) – alcohol group
The general formula is. There are some isomers of alcohols
Alkanoic Acids.
The functional group in Alkanoic acids is the carboxyl-group
The general formula is, this is applicable only after methanoic acid.

Alkanoic acids have no isomers

Polarity
Both C-O and O-H bonds are polar this means Alkanols and Alkanoic acids are polar
molecules
However the C=O bond is Alkanoic acids is also polar so with these 3 polar bonds Alkanoic
acids are the even more polar.
The O-H bonds make hydrogen bonds, consequently there are strong intermolecular
forces, in Alkanols and Alkanoic acids.

5.1.2 Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters

produced by reactions of straight-chained Alkanoic acids from C1
to C8 and straight-chained primary Alkanols from C1 to C8
The alcohol (ending in yl without the ol) alkanoic acid-(ending with noate without ic)

# of C Alkanol # of C Alkanoic Acid Ester Formed

1 Methanol 2 Ethanoic Acid
3 Propanol 4 Butanoic Acid
5 Pentanol 6 Hexanoic Acid
7 Septanol 8 Octanoic Acid
9 Nonanol 10 Decanoic Acid
Methyl Ethanoate
Propyl Butanoate
Pentyl Hexanoate
Septyl Octanoate
Nonyl Decanoate

5.1.3 Explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused
by straight-chained alkanoic acid and straight-chained primary
Alkanols structures
Alkanoic acids like Alkanols have hydrogen bonding between molecules. Alkanols contain
the hydroxyl group (-OH) but alkanoic acids contain the carboxyl group (-COOH) thus in
alkanoic acids in addition to the (-OH) group there is another polar group (-C=O) which
contributes further to the strength of the intermolecular forces between the acid
molecules. The hydrogen bonding is stronger in alkanoic acids to the presence of this
functional polar group.
Thus Alkanoic acids have a higher melting and moiling points than the corresponding
Alkanols, due to the more extensive hydrogen bonding and an increase in dipole-dipole
interactions.

Hydrogen bonding in Alkanols: Hydrogen bonding in Alkanoic Acid:

Photocopy Picture from Fosters notes

5.1.4 Identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an

Alkanol and describe, using equations, examples of esterification
Esters are formed when alkanoic acids react with Alkanols.

ALKANOL + ALKANOIC ACID ESTER + WATER

Eg. Methanol + Ethanoic Acid MethylEthanoate + Water

5.1.5 Describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis
Esterification is reversible and des not go to completion. That is it reaches equilibrium.
Concentrate H2SO4 is used as a catalyse to increase the rate of reaction by lowering the
activation energy. It also absorbs the product water and so forces the equib. to the right.
The minimization of water present and an excess of one reactant will favor the formation of
the ester.

5.1.6 Explain the need for refluxing during esterification

Reflux is the process of heating a reaction mixture in a vessel attached to a cooling
condenser which prevents any loss of vapor. The reaction mixture continuously boils and
vaporizes. The vapors recondense and return to the reaction flask. Molecules that return
to the reaction flash continue to react and so the system will ultimately achieve equilibrium
without the loss of hot vapors. This speeds the whole process of producing esters. The
alternative is to use a closed system but the pressure would be to high.

So basically
1. To prevent loss of volatile liquids.
2. To allow the reaction to be carried out at higher temps.

5.1.7 Outline some example so the occurrence, production and uses

of esters.
Flavours
Octyl Ethanoate (orange flavour)
Butyl Butanoate (pineapple flavour)
Perfumes
Be
Processed foods
Cosmetics
Esters occur naturally in the form of flavourings and scents. The odours and flavours of fruits
are caused by the presence of esters. Animal fats and plant oils are also esters. Some esters
are used in industry as solvents or thinners as they are able to dissolve many polar and non
polar substances. Manufactured esters are used for flavouring food and colouring and
flavouring cosmetics. Ethyl acetate is nail polish remover.
Esters have pleasant odours, occurring in perfumes and flavouring, naturally in fruits, plants.
They are manufactured as synthetic flavours and perfumes, often to mimic the flavours of
plants (by first identifying the main esters present in a substance). Produced, these are
much cheaper than natural extraction. Eg pentyl ethanoate = banana flavouring, octyl
ethanoate = orange flavouring

Esters also are used as solvents (eg Ethyl acetate) for polar and non-polar compounds and
soaps. Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is an example of an ester used in medicine. Due to their
dissolving tendencies towards polar and non-polar organic substances, esters are used in
varnishes, lacquers and paints and some are used as plasticisers (eg. for PVC).

Flavour Main Esters present

Apricot Ethyl butanoate
Banana Pentyl ethanoate
Rum Ethyl methanoate
Orange Octyl ethanoate

Esters occur naturally. The presence of esters gives flavour to fruits and vegetables, and
scents to anything between flowers and rancid butter. Solid animal fats and plant oils are
also natural esters. Mixing common natural and synthetic esters can produce scents in
cosmetics, and colour and flavouring for food. Some esters are also used in industry as
solvents or thinners as they are able to dissolve many polar and non-polar substances.
Some examples of the use of esters: