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Basics
Effective writing begins with the single word when the primary purpose is to
communicate. Hence, SPELLING, WORD CHOICE (DICTION), and VOCABULARY are
essential, primary skills that need mastering throughout a writer’s life. This is a never-
ending process for the truly dedicated writer who wants to achieve success. Of course,
there are other important skills as well.
Writing Essentials
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Subordination: Since I am hungry, I will eat a sandwich.
I will eat a sandwich since I am hungry.
Note: These indefinite pronouns all look at the subject individually and so are
singular in number. This is often problematic for many writers.
• Active and passive verb use, also known as “voice,” is another issue. Active voice
means the subject is the “doer”; passive voice means the subject is the “receiver”
of the action. Thus in English, particularly, use of the active verb receives
preference because it sounds more alive and by being less wordy.
Active verb: The dog eats its food each morning and night.
Passive verb: The food is eaten by the dog each morning and
night.
• Effective writing also takes into account the point of view of the writer. First and
third person point of view is permissible, for the most part, but second person
point of view needs to be avoided.
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First person point of view: I liked the novel that we just read.
Second person point of view: You liked the novel that you just
read.
Third person point of view: He liked the novel that they just
read.
• Mechanics is an umbrella term for yet another category of sentence skill errors.
First is the comma and semicolon. The former is used with opening expressions,
listing, further description, and simple coordination, which uses shorter
conjunctions (three letters or fewer).
The latter replaces the period and is used when multiple commas are present and
in certain coordination situations using longer conjunctions (greater than three
letters).
• Correct use of the apostrophe is essential. Apostrophes are words used chiefly to
denote ownership and to denote letter omission in contractions.
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Contractions: We can’t do it. (We cannot do it.)
I’ll be ready, shortly. (I will be ready, shortly.)
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¾ Once sentence skills are mastered, the next step is SUPPORT. This means that all
words in sentences, all sentences in paragraphs, and all paragraphs in essays and longer
works are adequately supported. Once the support is manifested, there must be UNITY.
As the name implies, ideas and thoughts must be related and connected. This is
established through COHERENCE. Two types of coherence are Order and Related
Sentences. Order consists of three types: ordering according to the way events occur,
ordering in relation to the proximity of objects, and ordering based on importance. These
help organize ideas and signal proper placement. Related sentences mean sentences that
connect.
• Three methods to help sentences relate are through the use of repeated words,
pronouns, and synonyms.
Note: A fourth method is to use specific transitional words, some of which are
listed below:
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¾ Effective writing next focuses on Sentence Variety, which produces zest
and vitality. There are several techniques to follow in order to be successful when
writing:
¾ Rhetorical Modes come last and are types of writing that students need to
know exist and which fit the varied demands of the classroom. Each one serves its
own purpose:
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An Introduction to Academic Writing
There are many different reasons why people write, and there are also many styles
of writing.
• All writing has an audience - the person who is going to read the writing.
• All writing has a purpose that determines what kind of sentence structure,
vocabulary, transitions, and tone to use.
Thesis statement
After brainstorming, the writer must answer the prompt by focusing on a chosen
argument in the form of a thesis statement. Ordinarily, this main idea statement appears at
the end of the introductory paragraph. Traditionally, thesis statements are compound-
complex sentence structures that include both the subject of the essay and the controlling
idea.
Beowulf, an epic poem, tells of a warrior who is called to save the Danes.
An effective thesis has several varieties. Although many students are comfortable
writing a traditional three-prong thesis statement in which the points to be developed or
controlling ideas are listed, there are other creative methods by which a student may
present a thesis.
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Writers who choose to avoid the traditional three-prong method may encounter
difficulty when spreading the controlling ideas throughout the thesis statement. Example
4, below, demonstrates the use of several grammatical structures within one sentence that
presents the thesis.
Through the use of heightened language, minstrels characterize Beowulf, the courageous
appositive
leader of the Geats, as an intelligent leader [who compassionately rescues the Danes
adjective + noun adjective clause
from the threats of Grendel and his mother].
The controlling ideas stated in the thesis statement must be developed in the body
paragraphs.
Paragraph Development:
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The body of an academic paragraph does not have a minimum or maximum
number of sentences. A paragraph’s body needs to completely explicate the controlling
idea. The following is an example of an academic paragraph with a topic sentence, body,
and conclusion.
1. The topic sentence has only one focused topic (this names the person, place or
thing the writer will write about).
2. The topic sentence has only one controlling idea (this tells the reader what the
writer will say about a focused topic).
3. The controlling idea is essential to the topic sentence because it reveals what
the writer will explain about the topic.
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Step 1. Selecting the Controlling Idea
When selecting the controlling idea, the writer needs to limit that idea so that the
writing will be meaningful and interesting. If the argument is not focused, the body
paragraph will be too general. Remember that the controlling idea, or claim, points to the
part of the claim that will be developed.
In telling their epic, minstrels used exaggerated speech to portray Beowulf as courageous.
controlling idea
In telling their epic, minstrels used exaggerated speech to portray Beowulf as the most
courageous Geat called to rescue the Danes.
controlling idea
The Body
1. The body paragraph contains supporting details that may be in the form of an
example, quotation, or paraphrase.
2. The body paragraph only includes details that support the controlling idea and
avoids details that do not directly support the controlling idea.
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Step 2. Selecting the Supporting Details
Now that a topic sentence has been created, the next step is to plan the supporting details
that develop the topic sentence. These supporting details comprise the body of the
paragraph. An effective academic paragraph requires that the writer ask three questions:
how, why, and so what?
How?
- Select an example, quotation, or paraphrase from the text to support the
controlling idea or claim.
Why?
- Explain how the example or evidence supports the controlling idea or claim.
So What?
- Analyze why the point being made is relevant.
- Discuss why this point is important.
In the following example, the writer must develop the controlling idea. To do so, the
writer must ask how, why, and so what.
In telling their epic, minstrels used exaggerated speech to portray Beowulf as the most
courageous Geat called to rescue the Danes.
controlling idea
Why?
- Q: How do these quotations support my controlling idea?
- A: Despite the possibility of death, Beowulf uses his physical power to free the
Danes from Grendel and his evil mother. The words “ripped” and “doubled”
are examples of heightened language.
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So What?
- Q: Why is this point relevant?
- A: Minstrels understood the importance of portraying Beowulf as a strong hero
because his image as a savior offered a sense of security to the people living
during a violent time.
1. Repeat or restate the topic sentence, but NOT using the exact same words.
Example 1:
In telling their epic, minstrels used exaggerated speech to portray Beowulf as the
strongest Geat called to rescue the Danes. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. >>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
Whether through truth or hyperbole, orators illustrate Beowulf as the physically
superior who is the only warrior who possesses strength great enough to save a
country.
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Example 2:
Example 1:
Topic sentence>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
To exaggerate Grendel’s mother’s physical strength, orators describe the monster as
having “ripped and tore and clawed at him” (614). Moreover, bards embellished
Beowulf’s courage when the leader of the Geats “doubled his strength” to defeat
Grendel’s mother (614). >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
Conclusion >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
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2. Across paragraph transitions are transitional words or expressions that hold
together controlling ideas between paragraphs. This type of transition bridges the
controlling idea of the first paragraph to the controlling idea of the second
paragraph.
Example 2:
Body 1:
In telling their epic, minstrels used exaggerated speech to portray Beowulf as the
most courageous Geat called to rescue the Danes. Body >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. >>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. Conclusion >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
Body 2:
Bards not only used exaggerated speech to portray Beowulf’s physical strength,
but also glorified his intelligence. Body >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
.>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>.>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
Conclusion >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
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The Research Paper: A Guide
1. Choose a topic
2. Gather data
3. Take notes
4. Compile note cards with parenthetical references
5. Make an outline
5. Write the first draft of the paper
6. Proofread, revise, and edit the paper
7. Write the final draft
There are two types of resources used in research: primary sources and secondary
sources.
I. Primary Sources
• A primary source is an original document written or produced during a
particular time period. Examples of primary sources include:
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II. Secondary Sources
A secondary source provides analysis and interpretation of primary
sources.
o Encyclopedias
o Literary Criticisms on novels, plays, poems, or short stories
o Textbooks
Note Cards
Instead of flipping through the different sources, note cards allow easy access to
quotations and main arguments for the research paper. A note card should contain
the following information:
Cisneros, Sandra. The House on Mango Street. New York: Vintage, 1984.
“My great-grandmother. I would’ve liked to have known her, a wild horse of a woman, so wild
she wouldn’t marry. Until my great-grandfather threw a sack over her head and carried her off.
Just like that, as if she were a fancy chandelier. That’s the way he did it.” ( 10)
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(Note card cont.)
“And the story goes she never forgave him. She looked out the window her whole life, the way
so many women sit their sadness on an elbow. I wonder if she made the best with what she got or
was she sorry because she couldn’t be all the things she wanted to be. Esperanza. I have
inherited her name, but I don’t want to inherit her place by the window.” (11)
Summary: Esperanza does not want to inherit her grandmother’s life. She resists the traditional
role of woman as wife and mother. She envisions a different future for herself, where she is free
to make her own choices.
Thesis:___________________________________________________
A. First sub-topic
B. Second sub-topic
A. First sub-topic
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(Outline cont.)
B. Second subtopic
C. Third subtopic
1. First supporting detail
a. Example
b. Example
c. Example
2. Second supporting detail
a. Example
b. Example
Thesis: Beowulf exhibits the heroic qualities of courage, strength, and self-sacrifice
throughout the poem.
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(Outline – Incomplete Sample cont.)
III. Beowulf demonstrates willingness to sacrifice himself for the good of the
community
A. Knowing he will lose, Beowulf chooses to battle the dragon to save his
kingdom.
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MLA Documentation
Works Cited
All essays requiring supplemental material are asked to provide a “Works Cited”
page, in accordance with MLA standards. The following examples demonstrate proper
citation of books:
One Author
McCarthy, Cormac. Blood Meridian. New York: Vintage International Books, 1985.
McCarthy, Cormac, Dave Eggers, and Jonathan Lethem. Writing in America Today.
New York: Vintage Books, 2007.
Anthology
Arp, Thomas R. Perrine’s Literature: Structure, Sound, and Sense. New York: Thomson
Wadsworth, 2006.
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Work Taken from an Anthology
Nova, Juan. “Wit and Witticisms.” The New York Times. 12 Dec. 2007. 13 Dec. 2007
<http://nytimes.com/id/12345/>.
Note: The date “12 Dec. 2007” refers to the article’s publication on the Internet; the
secondary date is the date of access by the writer.
In Text Citations
The following are some examples of how to incorporate parenthetical references within a
given text.
Bloom explains that Shakespeare might very well have “believed in paganism” (234).
Note: There is no need to cite the author’s name inside the parenthetical when he/she is
mentioned within the phrase.
Note: When an author is not mentioned within the phrase, his/her name is placed within
the parenthetical, and there are no punctuation marks between the author’s name and the
page number(s).
Bloom believes Shakespeare’s plays are “an encounter with genius,” in the words of
Shapiro (par. 3).
Note: A writer is required to provide the correct paragraph number within the original
document from which the cited material is taken. Furthermore, when using citations
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within the writer’s own sentence, proper syntax and grammar must be maintained;
therefore, a comma would be placed within the quotation marks.
Annotated Bibliography
Books
The book offers critical readings to all of Malamud’s major novels and short stories.
Helterman contends that unlike Philip Roth, whose characters appear to be familiar to the
point of being uncanny, Malamud presents characters who initially appear foreign to the
reader: “We’ve never met his characters before, and yet the shock of recognition is much
deeper.” It is as if, claims Helterman, Malamud intends for both reader and character to
partake in the journey of self-discovery simultaneously. Regarding “The German
Refugee,” Martin Goldberg learns to bond with his pupil Oskar Gassner and share in the
idea of brotherhood. Gassner is, nevertheless, unable to reconcile with the mad world
and decides it is best to die, leaving Goldberg and the reader with the responsibility
(Oskar’s inheritance) to perpetuate the ideal of brotherhood, and somehow instill this
faith in others.
Articles
Blythe, Hal. “The Narrator in Malamud’s ‘The German Refugee’.” American Notes and
Queries, 1983 Nov-Dec; 22 (3-4): 47-49.
Blythe contends that the vast majority of Malamud’s work concerns itself with the theme
of Brudermensch (brotherhood): its failure to appear or be recognized by society and/or
the individual. In past readings of “The German Refugee,” Goldberg is rarely scrutinized
for his inability to achieve and understand the concept Brudermensch; critics have
focused their attention to Oskar Gassner’s reevaluation of his German heritage and his
failure to reconcile with the loss of his homeland and family. Blythe believes that upon
closer inspection, Goldberg’s narrative reveals his myopic comprehension to the depths
of Oskar’s loss.
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Revising and Editing
There are several steps to revising and editing MLA style essays. In taking each
step, the writer must consider both correct grammatical structure and appropriate
expression of the essay content. This guide will outline and provide questions to reinforce
the necessary focus for revising and editing.
I. Grammar:
1. Make certain every sentence has a clear subject and predicate. What is
the focus of the sentence and how is that focus being described?
2. Avoid comma splices.
3. Check for proper use of semicolons and hyphens.
4. Check to make sure there are no sentence fragments. Are all of the
statements phrased as a complete thought?
5. Make sure there are no run-on sentences.
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2. Avoid overtly lengthy sentences. Make sure the argument is clearly
stated with reasonable justification.
3. Be certain to apply proper methods of citation for direct or
paraphrased quotations.
a. Make sure all subjects agree with the tense of their verbs. For
example, if the essay is written in past tense, all of the verbs and
adjectives must remain in past tense.
II. Content:
A. Be certain that the overall paper has a consistent sense of purpose and
argument.
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1. Introductory paragraphs must contain a thesis statement.
a. The thesis must address the central argument of the paper.
b. Thesis statements should provide an answer to the essay
prompt.
c. Feature the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph.
Then reinforce it through each body paragraph, and
restate it in the conclusion.
d. Does the introduction to the paper effectively answer the
question: What is this paper about?
2. The body paragraphs must reinforce the thesis and provide
justification for the argument.
a. Limit the number of examples and quotations per paragraph
in order to focus on justification of their usage. A
paragraph should mostly contain the argument, followed
by a reference or example, and then a justification for its
usage.
b. Limit the number of quotations and their length—the paper
is meant to primarily reflect the ideas of its author, not the
references the author has chosen to cite.
c. Be certain each paragraph addresses the thesis argument.
Do not get distracted by excessive summary or needless
repetition. The purpose of the argument, as stated in the
topic sentence, should be developed until the conclusion.
d. Does each paragraph answer the essay prompt?
e. Does each paragraph address the arguments presented in
the thesis?
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d. The essay should not read like a discussion between
friends, an email, or a text message.
A. Try using the following methods when drafting and revising material:
1. Set the format standards on the word processor to 10 point, single-
spaced font. Begin writing material without thinking about length
requirements. After the argument has been addressed and clarified,
change the format to its appropriate 12 point, double-spaced font and
check the length of the essay. Make the appropriate adjustments based
on the essay’s requirements. Note: Gulliver Preparatory School
requires a 12 point, double spaced font—Times New Roman
2. Try reading the material aloud as it is being written. Revise any
material that sounds awkward or unclear.
3. Keep bibliography cards and reference materials on-hand and in the
order of the outline. Check these and remove them in the order they
have been used to ensure the essay content reflects its outline.
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3. Keep a checklist of the argument intended to be covered, the material
meant to reinforce it, and the examples reserved for support. Make
certain that the paper attends to each detail.
Plagiarism
Direct Quotation:
Plagiarize: to steal and pass off (the words and ideas of another) as one’s own:
use (a created production) without crediting the source: to commit literary theft:
present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source.
(Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, tenth edition)
Paraphrase:
Summary:
When we fail to document the source of our ideas, thoughts, or facts, we are
committing an act of cheating, also known as “literary theft” (Webster’s
Collegiate Dictionary, tenth edition).
Note: A good rule to follow is that when a writer does research on any topic or writes
about subject matter in general, if another source of any kind is used, that writer should
be prepared to cite and document. Writing “off the top of one’s head” is usually safe;
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once another source is consulted, though, then sources need to be identified. Plagiarism is
a serious offense and always damages a writer’s reputation. It is always better to over-
document one’s writing than to be dishonest, either knowingly or by accident.
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