Contents

Preface ................................................................................ ix

List of Spreadsheet Programs ............................................. xiii

Spreadsheet Programs and Functions ................................ xiv

List of Nomenclature ........................................................... xv

1. Introduction ................................................................. 1
1.1 What Is Natural Gas? ...................................................... 1
1.2 Utilization of Natural Gas ................................................ 2
1.3 Natural Gas Industry ....................................................... 4
1.4 Natural Gas Reserves ..................................................... 5
1.5 Types of Natural Gas Resources .................................... 6
1.6 Future of the Natural Gas Industry ................................. 7

2. Properties of Natural Gas .......................................... 13

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 13
2.2 Specific Gravity ............................................................... 13
2.3 Pseudocritical Properties ................................................ 14
Table 2.1 Results Given by MixingRule.xls ............... 16
2.4 Viscosity .......................................................................... 17
2.5 Compressibility Factor ..................................................... 20
Table 2.2 Results Given by Carr-Kobayashi-
Burrows Viscosity.xls ...................................... 21
Table 2.3 Results Given by Brill-Beggs-Z.xls ............ 23

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Table 2.4 Results Given by

Hall-Yarborogh-z.xls ....................................... 25
2.6 Gas Density ..................................................................... 26
2.7 Formation Volume Factor and Expansion Factor ........... 26
2.8 Compressibility of Natural Gas ....................................... 27
2.9 Real Gas Pseudopressure .............................................. 28
Table 2.5 Input Data and Calculated
Parameters Given by PseudoP.xls ................. 29
2.10 Real Gas Normalized Pressure ...................................... 30
Table 2.6 Partial Output Given by PseudoP.xls ......... 31

3. Gas Reservoir Deliverability ...................................... 35

3.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 35
3.2 Analytical Methods .......................................................... 35
Table 3.1 The First Section of Theoretical
Deliverability.xls .............................................. 37
Table 3.2 Results Given by Theoretical
Deliverability.xls .............................................. 38
3.3 Empirical Methods ........................................................... 38
Table 3.3 The First Section of Empirical
Deliverability.xls .............................................. 41
Table 3.4 Results Given by Empirical
Deliverability.xls .............................................. 41
3.4 Construction of Inflow Performance Relationship
Curve ............................................................................... 43
Table 3.5 Input Data Given by Theoretical
IPR.xls ............................................................ 44
Table 3.6 Solution Given by Theoretical
IPR.xls ............................................................ 44
Table 3.7 Input Data and Solution Given by
Empirical IPR.xls ............................................ 47
Table 3.8 Results Given by Empirical IPR.xls ........... 48

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4. Wellbore Performance ................................................ 51

4.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 51
4.2 Single-phase Gas Well ................................................... 52
4.2.1 The Average Temperature and
Compressibility Factor Method ....................... 52
Table 4.1 Input Data and Results Given by
AverageTZ.xls ................................................ 55
4.2.2 The Cullender and Smith Method ................... 56
4.3 Mist Flow in Gas Wells .................................................... 58
Table 4.2 Input Data and Results Given by
Cullender-Smith.xls ......................................... 59
Table 4.3 Input Data and Results Sections for
MistFlow.xls .................................................... 62

5. Choke Performance .................................................... 65

5.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 65
5.2 Sonic and Subsonic Flow ................................................ 65
5.3 Dry Gas Flow through Chokes ........................................ 66
5.3.1 Subsonic Flow ................................................ 66
5.3.2 Sonic Flow ...................................................... 69
5.3.3 Temperature at Choke .................................... 69
5.3.4 Applications .................................................... 70
Table 5.1 Solution Given by
DryGasUpchoke.xls ........................................ 75
5.4 Wet Gas Flow through Chokes ....................................... 76
Table 5.2 Solution Given by
DryGasDownChoke.xls ................................... 77

6. Well Deliverability ....................................................... 81

6.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 81
6.2 Nodal Analysis ................................................................ 81
6.2.1 Analysis with the Bottom Hole Node ............... 82

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Table 6.1 Input Data and Results Given by

BottomHoleNodal.xls ...................................... 84
6.2.2 Analysis with Wellhead Node .......................... 85
Table 6.2 Input Data and Solution Given by
WellheadNodal.xls .......................................... 88
Table 6.3 Results Section of
WellheadNodal.xls .......................................... 89

7. Separation ................................................................... 93
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 93
7.2 Separation of Gas and Liquids ....................................... 93
7.2.1 Principles of Separation .................................. 94
7.2.2 Types of Separators ....................................... 95
7.2.3 Factors Affecting Separation ........................... 98
7.2.4 Separator Design ............................................ 100
7.3 Stage Separation ............................................................ 109
7.4 Flash Calculation ............................................................. 111
7.5 Low-temperature Separation .......................................... 118

8. Dehydration ................................................................. 123

8.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 123
8.2 Dehydration of Natural Gas ............................................ 123
8.2.1 Water Content of Natural Gas
Streams .......................................................... 124
8.2.2 Dehydration Systems ...................................... 126
8.2.3 Glycol Dehydrator Design ............................... 135
8.3 Removal of Acid Gases .................................................. 147
8.3.1 Iron-sponge Sweetening ................................. 148
8.3.2 Alkanolamine Sweetening ............................... 148
8.3.3 Glycol/Amine Process ..................................... 149
8.3.4 Sulfinol Process .............................................. 150

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 Contents ix

9. Compression and Cooling ......................................... 153

9.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 153
9.2 Types of Compressors .................................................... 154
9.3 Selection of Reciprocating Compressors ....................... 156
9.3.1 Volumetric Efficiency ...................................... 158
9.3.2 Stage Compression ........................................ 159
9.3.3 Isentropic Horsepower .................................... 161
9.4 Selection of Centrifugal Compressors ............................ 169
9.5 Selection of Rotary Blowers ............................................ 174

10. Volumetric Measurement ........................................... 179

10.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 179
10.2 Measurement with Orifice Meters ................................... 179
10.2.1 Orifice Equation .............................................. 181
10.2.2 Recording Charts ............................................ 186
10.2.3 Computation of Volumes ................................. 189
10.2.4 Selection of Orifice Meter ............................... 192
10.3 Other Methods of Measurement ..................................... 192
10.3.1 Displacement Metering ................................... 192
10.3.2 Turbine Meter ................................................. 194
10.3.3 Elbow Meter .................................................... 194
10.4 Natural Gas Liquid Measurement ................................... 195

11. Transportation ............................................................ 199

11.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 199
11.2 Pipeline Design ............................................................... 199
11.2.1 Sizing Pipelines .............................................. 200
Table 11.1 Input Data and Results Given by
PipeCapacity.xls ............................................. 215
Table 11.5 Input Data and Solution Given by
LoopedLines.xls .............................................. 229

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11.2.2 Pipeline Wall Thickness .................................. 230

12. Special Problems ........................................................ 241

12.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 241
12.2 Liquid Loading on Gas Wells .......................................... 241
12.2.1 Turner’s Method ............................................. 242
12.2.2 Guo’s Method ................................................. 245
Table 12.1 Turner Velocity and the Minimum
Unloading Gas Flow Rate Given by
TumerLoading.xls ........................................... 246
12.2.3 Comparison of Methods .................................. 251
Table 12.2 Input Data and Solution Given by
GasWellLoading.xls ........................................ 252
12.2.4 Solutions to the Liquid Loading
Problem .......................................................... 253
12.3 Hydrate Control ............................................................... 254
12.3.1 Hydrate-forming Conditions ............................ 255
12.3.2 Preventing Hydrate Formation ........................ 259
Table 12.4 Glycol Inhibition Input Data Given by
Glycollnjection.xls ........................................... 264
Table 12.5 Glycol Inhibition Calculations and
Results Given by Glycollnjection.xls ............... 264
Table 12.6 Methanol Inhibition Input Data and
Calculations Given by
Methanollnjection.xls ...................................... 265
12.4 Pipeline Cleaning ............................................................ 267
12.4.1 Pigging System ............................................... 268
12.4.2 Selection of Pigs ............................................. 275
12.4.3 Major Applications .......................................... 283
12.4.4 Pigging Procedure .......................................... 287

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Appendices
Appendix A: Pseudopressures of Sweet Natural
Gases .............................................................................. 295
Appendix B: Normalized Pressures of Sweet Natural
Gases .............................................................................. 299
Appendix C: Orifice Meter Tables for Natural Gas ................. 303
Appendix D: The Minimum Gas Production Rate for
Water Removal in Gas Wells .......................................... 339
Figure D-1 to Figure D-48 .......................................... 340
Figure D-49 to Figure D-100 ...................................... 364
Appendix E: The Minimum Gas Production Rate for
Condensate Removal in Gas Wells ................................ 391
Figure E-1 to Figure E-48 ........................................... 392
Figure E-49 to Figure E-100 ....................................... 416

Index ................................................................................... 443

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