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Glossary

Chapter 6
Acquisition The formation of a new conditioned response tendency.
Avoidance Learning that has occurred when an organism engages in a response that
learning prevents aversive stimulation from occurring.
Behavior A systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of
modification the principles of conditioning.
Behavioral A written agreement outlining a promise to adhere to the contingencies of
contract a behavior modification program.
Classical A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to
conditioning evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated
reinforcers with primary reinforcers. See Secondary reinforcers.
Conditioned A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of
response (CR) previous conditioning.
Conditioned A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the
stimulus (CS) capacity to evoke a conditioned response.
Continuous
Reinforcing every instance of a designated response.
reinforcement
Cumulative A graphic record of reinforcement and responding in a Skinner box as a
recorder function of time.
Discriminative Cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable
stimuli consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.
Elicit To draw out or bring forth.
Escape A type of learning in which an organism acquires a response that
learning decreases or ends some aversive stimulation.
Evaluative
Efforts to transfer the emotion attached to a UCS to a new CS.
conditioning
Extinction The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response
tendency.
Fixed-interval A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given for the first
(FI) schedule response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed.
Fixed-ratio A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given after a fixed
(FR) schedule number of nonreinforced responses.
Higher-order A type of conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus functions as if it
conditioning were an unconditioned stimulus.
Intermittent A reinforcement schedule in which a designated response is reinforced
reinforcement only some of the time.
Latent
Learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs.
learning
Learning A relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to
experience.
Negative The strengthening of a response because it is followed by the removal of
reinforcement an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.
Observational A type of learning that occurs when an organism’s responding is
learning influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.
Operant A form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by
conditioning their consequences.
Pavlovian A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to
conditioning evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. See
Classical conditioning.
Positive Reinforcement that occurs when a response is strengthened because it is
reinforcement followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus.
Preparedness Species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not
others.
Primary Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological
reinforcers needs.
Punishment An event that follows a response that weakens or suppresses the tendency
to make that response.
Reinforcement An event following a response that strengthens the tendency to make that
response.
Reinforcement The circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the
contingencies presentation of reinforcers.
Renewal effect Referring to the phenomenon that occurs if a response is extinguished in a
different environment than it was acquired; the extinguished response will
reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where
acquisition took place.
Resistance to In operant conditioning, the phenomenon that occurs when an organism
extinction continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer for it has
been terminated.
Schedule of
A specific presentation of reinforcers over time.
reinforcement
Secondary
Stimulus events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated
(conditioned)
with primary reinforcers.
reinforcers
Shaping The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired
response.
Skinner box A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is
systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are
controlled.
Spontaneous In classical conditioning, the reappearance of an extinguished response
recovery after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus The phenomenon that occurs when an organism that has learned a
discrimination response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to
stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.
Stimulus The phenomenon that occurs when an organism that has learned a
generalization response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli
that are similar to the original stimulus.
Trial In classical conditioning, any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli.
Unconditioned
An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without
response
previous conditioning.
(UCR)
Unconditioned
A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous
stimulus
conditioning.
(UCS)
Variable-
A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given for the first
interval (VI)
response after a variable time interval has elapsed.
schedule
Variable-ratio A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given after a variable
(VR) schedule number of nonreinforced responses.

Chapter 7

Amnesia- Loss of memories for events that occur after a head injury. See Anterograde amnesia,
Retrograde amnesia.

Anterograde amnesia- Loss of memories for events that occur after a head injury.

Attention Focusing- awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events.

Chunk- A group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit.

Connectionist models- Models of memory that assume cognitive processes depend on patterns
of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks.
Also called connectionist models.. See Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models.
Consolidation- A hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into
durable memory codes stored in long-term memory.

Decay theory- The idea that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time.

Declarative memory system- Memory for factual information.

Dual-coding theory - Paivio’s theory that memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual
codes, since either can lead to recall.

Elaboration Linking- a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding. Encoding


Forming a memory code.

Encoding specificity principle - The idea that the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well
it corresponds to the memory code.

Episodic memory system - Chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal


experiences.

Flashbulb memories - Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events.

Forgetting curve- A graph showing retention and forgetting over time. Hindsight bias The
tendency to mold one’s interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out.

Interference theory- The idea that people forget information because of competition from other
material.

Levels-of-processing theory - The theory holding that deeper levels of mental processing result
in longer-lasting memory codes.

Link method - Forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them
together.

Long-term memory (LTM) - An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over
lengthy periods of time.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)- A long-lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along


a specific neural pathway.

Method of loci - A mnemonic device that involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar
path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations.

Misinformation effect - Phenomenon that occurs when participants’ recall of an event they
witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information.

Mnemonic devices - Strategies for enhancing memory.


Neurogenesis - The formation of new neurons.

Nondeclarative memory system- The repository for memories for actions, skills, conditioned
responses, and emotional memories. Also called procedural memory.

Nonsense syllables- Consonant-vowel-consonant arrangements that do not correspond to words.

Overlearning - Continued rehearsal of material after one first appears to have mastered it.

Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models - Models of memory that assume cognitive
processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that
resemble neural networks. Also called connectionist models.

Proactive interference- A memory problem that occurs when previously learned information
interferes with the retention of new information.

Procedural memory system - The repository for memories for actions, skills, conditioned
responses, and emotional memories. Also called procedural memory. See Nondeclarative
memory system.

Prospective memory - The ability to remember to perform actions in the future.

Recall measure - A memory test that requires subjects to reproduce information on their own
without any cues.

Recognition measure - A memory test that requires subjects to select previously learned
information from an array of options.

Rehearsal - The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information to be stored in


memory.

Relearning measure- A memory test that requires a subject to memorize information a second
time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned it before.

Repression- Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious.

Retention - The proportion of material retained (remembered). Retrieval Recovering


information from memory stores.

Retroactive interference - A memory problem that occurs when new information impairs the
retention of previously learned information.

Retrograde amnesia- Loss of memories for events that occurred prior to a head injury.

Retrospective memory - The ability to remember events from the past or previously learned
information.
Schema - An organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or sequence of events.

Semantic memory system - General knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information
was learned.

Semantic network - Concepts joined together by links that show how the concepts are related.

Sensory memory - The preservation of information in its original sensory form for a brief time,
usually only a fraction of a second.

Serial-position effect - In memory tests, the fact that subjects show better recall for items at the
beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle.

Short-term memory (STM) - A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed


information for about 20 to 30 seconds.

Source monitoring - The process of making attributions about the origins of memories.

Source-monitoring error- An error that occurs when a memory derived from one source is
misattributed to another source.

Storage Maintaining- encoded information in memory over time.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon - The temporary inability to remember something you know,


accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach.

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