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Notes on Construction Part 2

Stresses on Ships
STATIC: weight of ship—down force, weight of buoyancy—upforce

HYDRO-STATIC—side force on shell plating below waterline

VIBRATION

DRY DOCK

DYNAMIC: 6 DEGREES OF FREEDOM

Consider fore & aft axis the X axis& left to right axis the
Y axis

1. Moving up and down (heaving);


2. Moving left and right (swaying);
3. Moving forward and backward (surging);
4. Tilting forward and backward (pitching);
5. Turning left and right (yawing);
6. Tilting side to side (rolling).

LONGITUDINAL:
HOGGING

SAGGING

SHEAR FORCES due to Buoyancy & weight of ship &/or cargo,

BENDING MOMENTS

POUNDING, severe local stresses occur in the btm shell and framing forward when a v/l is driven into
head seas.

TORSION, when a body is subject to a twisting movement eg. When a ship is 45° to the waves, v/l
subject to righting moments of opposite directions at it’s ends twisting thew hull and putting it in
torsion.

PANTING, : tendency for the shell plating to “work in & out” in a bellows like fashion, caused by
fluctuation pressure on the hull. Greatest when in large seas, pitching heavily and punching into seas.

TRANSVERSE STRESSES
RACKING; when a v/l is rolling the accelerations on the ships structure are liable to cause distortions
in the transverse sections. Greatest effect when the ship is under lightship conditions.

HYDROSTATIC STRESSES, due to the pressure of the water on the outside shell, the deeper the draft
the greater the pressure/ stress
Ships structures- to withstand stress

a) Shell plating, compensates for all ships stresses. Plating is thickened about the keel area in the
garboard strake and in the sheer strake. Also increased thickness to combat localised stresses,
eg. Shell door openings
b) Frames, compensate for water pressure, panting effects and dry dock stresses. Ships may be
constructed with longitudinal or Transverse framing re-inforcing the outer hull of the v/l.
c) Longitudinal girders, compensate for hogging & sagging effects. Dry docking and pounding
stresses together with localised shear9ng forces.
d) Beams, compensate for racking stresses and influence from water pressure. Local stress from
heavy weights.
e) Pillars, extensively found in general cargo v/l’s in lower hold structures to compensate for
stresses caused by heavy weights, racking, dry-docking and water pressure influences.
f) Bulkheads, tend to compensate for most stresses, inc racking, hogging & sagging, shear forces,
dry docking and from heavy concentrated weights.
g) Beam knees, compensate for heavy weights and localised stresses as well as racking.
h) Floors, compensate for pounding and vibration, dry dock stresses and localised stress from
water pressure, heavy weights and racking.
i) Decks, compensate for hogging, sagging, shearing, bending, water pressure. Decks & deck
stringers provide compensation to stresses incurred from heavy loading.
j) Water pressure, water pressure acts perpendicular to shell platingand all forces are
considered to act through the ships C o Buoyancy. Fluctuates more with increased pitching
and rolling in a seaway. Causes panting.
k) Vibration, due to propellers and ships machinery. A real killer in increasing fatigue in ships
metal plates and beams.

Resistance to Transverse Stresses

Bulkheads
Floors of double bottoms
Beam knees-joining deck beams & side frames
Tank side brackets-connecting floors to frames
Pillars in holds and tween decks
Pillars in E/R

Resistance to Longitudinal Stresses

Keels
Deck plates
Sheer strakes
Bilge strakes
Keel strakes
Frames
Intercostals
LONGITUDINAL FRAMING IS REQUIRED FOR V/LS OVER 120M LENGTH.

INTERCOSTALS—A longitudinal strength member of the ships bottom structure. It tends to tie
together the athwartships floors. It is first and foremost a steel girder used in way of the plate keel as
a centre-line intercostals, running from forward to aft. Centre line and side intercostals are generally
interspersed with secondary longitudinal but of a smaller depth size and are considered to be a lesser
strength member.

 Ships length >120m longitudinal framing is adopted


 A system of longitudinal in the DB’s and under the deck to provide strength in the high stress
regions.
 Solid plate floors are fitted at every frame space under the M/E’s and at alternate frames
outboard of the engine seating.
 One intercostal side girder is fitted port & stb if the ship’s breadth exceeds 14 m, and if >21m 2
intercostals are fitted.
 These side girders always extend as far forward and aft as possible.
 Additional side girders are provided in the E/R and under the main machinery, and should run
full length of E/R
 Elsewhere the spacing of solid plate floors does not exceed 3.8m, except in pounding region
(30% of length from FP) where there are at every frame space as additional stiffening
 In the pounding region there will be additional intercostal side girders.
 Longitudinal are NMT 750mm apart
 Horizontal distance b’w ISG should be at least 3 x the max transverse floor space
 Plate floors are fitted every frame space under the M/E and every alternate frame outboard of
the engine beds
 Solid plate floors are also fitted under boiler seats, transverse bulkheads

TR
A
N
SV
> ER for ships <120m
Usually
> SE girder fitted as keel
Centre
> SolidFR
plate floors fitted, NMT 3m lengthwise
> A
To reduce the span of the t’verse framing, vertical angles/ struts are fitted NLT 2.5m apart
> Side girders will be fitted either side of the centre girder
> BRACKET FLOOR-Large flanged brackets are welded to t’verse frames and attached to centre
girder inboard and to margin plate (outboard)
> Side girders will be fitted either side of the centre girder
> Pounding region 30% of ships length from FP has solid floors at alternate frames
> Solid floors at every frame in E/R & under boilers
> Bulkies have solid floors every frame under the cargo hold where grabs operate
> Solid floors are fitted under Watertight Bulkheads to provide water tightness b’w tanks in a
longitudinal direction.
>
C
A
N
TI
LE
VE
RE
D A curved frame set b’w the shell plate and the underside of deck stringers,
common to continer
FR stringers. Common to container v/ls as they lent towards the construction of the
under deck construction of the under deck through passageway.

They are fitted to compensate for the loss of transverse strength.

Hatch-end beams are increased in size as are the sheer strake plating.

CONSTUCTION OF DOUBLE BOTTOM

KEELS

Flat plate, heavier flat keel plate with a vertical centre girder plate

Bar keel, on smaller ships-boats, heavy flat bar on edge

Duct keel, hollow watertight fabricated duct no more than 2m wide and usually about 1 to 1.5m high.
Used to house pipework and electic cable runs, These run from E/R to the collision bulkhead. Pipes are
accessible when cargo is loaded thru manhole, usually in E/R.

FUNCTION OF A DOUBLE BOTTOM TANK

Increases the longitudinal strength of a ship


It provides for additional safety in the event a bottom plate is punctured by limiting the extent
of flooding
Tank top provides a good platform for cargo & machinery
DB tanks can be used for carriage of fuel.FW and BW
Provides additional protection against environmental pollution for oil and chemical tankers in
their holds in the event that the bottom shell plating is damaged
Makes it easier to clean cargo spaces in bulkies, where there is no tank top
Aids lowering GM due to the location of the DB, which can hold FO, PW & BW if necessary

DEPTH OF A DOUBLE BOTTOM

1-1.5m but NLT 630mm depends on CS rules & regs for depth of centre girder
Depends on the operational requirements for FW, BW and fuel to be carried for ships intended
BULK
operations
Depth of HEADS
DB below the machinery space depends on the size of prop & level of prop shaft
&

SHELL
FUNCTION OF SHELL PLATING
PLATI
NG >Keep water outside the hull ie., watertight skin
>Contributes to longitudinal strength
> Aids in resisting vertical shear forces, high tensile
sheer strake

WELDING OF THE PLATING

Where stiffeners are connected to the shell plating it is by continuous welds in the areas;

o Aft peak
o 30% of for’ard region due to panting stress
o When high tensile steel is used
o At the end of stiffeners
o Where the stiffener crosses butt or seam welds then the stiffener will be scalloped to ensure the
bar sits hard up against shell

Intermittent welding is used for welds attaching stiffeners to shell in other areas.

BOTTOM PLATING

Sheer strake

Bilge strake

Keel strake

o Thickness of the keel strake shall remain constant and shall never be less than the adjoining shell
plates.
o Strakes b’w the keel & bilge have their greatest thickness over 40% of ships length, about
midships. Ie 20% either side where bending moments are greatest
o Bottom plating tapers to lesser thickness towards the ends, except through the pounding area

SIDE SHELL PLATING

o Like bottom shell the side shell has increased thickness over the 40% of midship region
o This helps to counter vertical shear forces
o Thickness and high stress areas eg, hawse pipe, stern frame, shaft brackets and panting region
o Sheer strake is usually same thickness of surrounding plating, however it will be high tensile
steel
o Due to the high tensile steel in use, there can be no welded components of ship structure eg.
Bulwarks, scuppers or hand rails
o Radius of gunnel area has to be min 15 x plate thickness, eg 20mm plate = 100mm radius

VERTICAL FRAMES

o Longitudinal framed v/l’s have transverse web frames to support the side shell
o T’verse webs to support the side longitudinal are to be nmt 3.8m apart
o Peaks (aft & frd) the spacing is 2.5m max
o Transverse webs are in line with the floors in the double bottom
Transverse section of bulk carrier

STIFFENING in the PANTING AREA

o Side stringers (horizontal plane) are 2m apart vertically


o Panting beams are connected to the frames by brackets
o Partial wash bulkheads are at the centreline or
o Side stringers are supported by web frames or
FUNCTIONS OF BULKHEADS

To subdivide a ships hull into a number of watertight compartments, transversely & longitudinally
To help withstand bending forces-tranverse
To carry the vertical load of the cargo on decks
To act as an effective fire barrier
To enhance a ships reserve buoyancy

# of BULKHEADS

Minimum # depends on the location of the E/R


MANDATORY are; COLLISION –AFT PEAK, B’H either side of E/R
Used to separate cargo spaces/tanks

Collision bulkhead

Positioned approx 5-8% of ships length from FP


If fore B/H is too far aft, it may cause excessive trim by the head if flooded
With an aft E/R the aft side of E/R B/H will be the aft collision bulkhead therefore a min of 3 is required
Midship E/R would have a min of 4

A “MARGIN LINE” a theoretical line 76mm below the deck line. POTENTAIL ORALS Q

MCA INFO
 Margin line
2.1.2.1    For a ship which has a continuous bulkhead deck, the margin line is to be taken as a line drawn not less than
76 mm below the upper surface of the bulkhead deck at side, except that where there is a variation in the thickness of the
bulkhead deck at side the upper surface of the deck should be taken at the least thickness of deck at side above the
beam. If desired however, the upper surface of the deck may be taken at the mean thickness of the deck at side above
the beam as calculated for the whole length of the deck, provided that the thickness is no greater than the least thickness
plus 50 mm.

CONSTRUCTION OF BULKHEADS

Horizontally straked, with thinner plates up top, thicker at base due to increase hydrostatic pressure
when compartments are full of liquid
Vertical stiffeners (offset bulb sections, angle iron) are welded to offset deflection
Corrugated bulkheads are fabricated to do without stiffeners
Top & btm of bulkheads are connected to the deck/tank tops with brackets, or with bulkies with
bulkhead stools which are fitted with shedder plates
Ordinary bulkheads are only tested by hose test.
Collision & aft peak b’head are to be tested by filling the peaks with water to the level of the load
waterline
The boundaries of watertight b’heads are double continuously fillet welded directly to the shell, decks
and tank top
Watertight Doors

> Openings are to be kept as small as possible


> W’t doors below the w/l must be of a sliding type
> Sliding doors must be capable of operation when the ship is listed 15°
> Must be able to be opened/closed locally as well as from a position above the b’head deck
> At the remote control position an indicator shall be provided to show whether the door is
opened or closed
> When in place all w/t doors are given a hose test, those on pax ships are required to be tested
under a head of water extending to bulkhead deck. This may be done before fitting to ship, but
thay will be required to be hose tested once in place
> Are to be kept shut during navigation

Pillars

Prime function is to carry the loads of the decks & weights on the decks vertically down to the ships
bottom structure

Secondary function is to tie together the structure in a vertical direction (E/R)

Hold pillars are not bracketed—E/R are

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