Quantum Mechanics

Classical Mechanics has evolved continuously from Newton through Hamilton and
Lagrange and has applied to wide range of dynamical systems including elctromagnetic
field interacting with matter.Simplicity and elegant scheme underlying CM made to think
that they cannot be modified without spoiling its attractive features.
Quantum Mechanics is a scheme more suitable to describe penomena in atomic scale, in
some respect more elegant than CM. All the features of CM can be incorporated in QM
Why to depart from CM? This is due to experimental results . Forces known in
classical electrodynamics are inadequate to expalin remarkable stability of atoms and
molecules leading to definite physical and chemical properties of matter.
Fpr example when an atomic system is disurbed from equilibrium and then left alone, it
will be set in oscillation and this oacillations will be impressed up on the surrounding
EMF so that their frequencies can be may be observed using a spectroscope. Now, we
expect frequencies involved to be fundamentatal and their harmonics. This is not the
case. We have unexpected connection between frequencies called Ritz combination
principle in spectroscopy according to which all frequencies can be expressed as
diffference between certain terms, number of terms being much smaller than the number
of frequencies. This cannot be explained by classical theory.
One can assume that spectroscopically observed frequencies to be fundamental
frequencies with its own degrees of freedom and the law of force is such that harmonics
donot occur. But this doesnot explain the combination law of spectroscopy.
Classical statistical mechanics describes connection between total number of degrees of
freedom of an assembly of vibrating sustem and its specific heat. If all the observed
frequencies are cooresponding to internal degrees of freedom , then one would get
specific heat for any kind of matter vry much grater than the observed value.
To save classical theiry, one can assume that eventhough spectroscopic frequencies are
related to diffetent degrees of freedom, for some reasom they donot contribute to specifix
heat. CT also requires the specific heat corresponding to oscilations in EMF in vacuum to
be infinite , but it is finite by experimental observations.
Now consider the case of light exhibiting dual nature of waves and particles. Interference
and diffraction support wave nature while photoelectric efffect and compton efffects
support particle nature. :ight particles called photons have definite energy and momentum
depending on their frequencies and appear to be as real as electrons or any other
particles. Fraction of a photon is never observed. This is true for matter as well. Matter
exhibits wave properites under suitable conditions. This makes CM to break down and
become inadequate to describe atomic phenomena.
According to CM, matter is madeup of constituent parts and behaviour of these parts will
explain the dynamics of matter. To describe stability we have to assume each constutuent
parts made up of still smaller parts. There is no end to this . So long as big and small are
relative concepts, it doesot help to explain big in terms of small. We may need modified
ideas to give absolute meaning of size.
Science deals with observable things letting object to interact with external influences
leading to disturbances of the object which is observed. If disturbance can be neglected ,
we say that the object is big and it is small if the disturbance cannot be neglected. This
is good description to a certain extent. By careful experimental setup, disturbances can
be made small to any extent so that big and small is relative concept.
There is a limit to the finness of our power of observation and smallness of the
accompanying disturbances.- a limit which is inherent in nature of things and can never
be surpassed by any improved technique or observation or improved skill of the observer.
If the limiting disturbance is negligible then the object is big in absolute sense and
otherwise small in absolute sense. We need a new theory for small objects.
One may also has to revise the priciple of causality. Cuality is applied toa system left
undisturbed. For smaller system, we cannot observe it without producing a series of
disturbances and hence cannot expect any causal connection between results of our
observations. For undisurbed system we can develop equation which will be differential
equation expressing a causal connection between conditions at one time and conditions at
a later time. These equations will be in close correspondence with equations of CM but
they will be connected only indirectly with results of observations.
There is unaviodable indeterminancy in the calculation of observable results enabling us
to calculate in general only probability of our obtaining a particular result when we make
an observation.
Above arguments donot help us to develop quantitative basis for building up of QM For
this we need a new law of nature. One of the most fundamental and not drastic is the
principle od superposition of states. General formulation of this can be made takinf
specific cases like polarization of light.
Plane Polarized light is found to produce photoelctrons with preferentail direction
depending on the nature of polariazation of light and hence polrization is closely related
to the particle nature of light.
Plane polarized light constitutes of photons polarised in that direction. Beam of cicularly
polarized light will constitute of photons which are circularly polarized. Unpolarized light
beam will constitute of photns polarized in random directions. Every photon is said to be
in a certain state of polarization. How to fit these ideas with knowledge of reolition of
light into polarized components and recombination of these components?

Beam of light through tourmaline crystal - we get transmitted light corresponding to

light polarized perpendicular to the optics axis
Light polarized parallel to the optic axis will be absorbed. This is by classical theory
If light is polarized at an angle θ with respect to the optics axis, fraction of sin 2 θ will pass
through and cos2 θ will be absorbed. . How to understand this phenomenon with single
photon?
In the case of single photon we will get out put if photon polarization is perpendicular
and will not get output if photon polarization is parallel to optic axis. If large number of
photons are considered in a beam probability of sin2 θ of total number will pass through
and probability of cos2 θ will be absorbed. This leads to correct classical results for
incident beam with large number of photons and individuality of photons is preserved.
Results of the experiment cannot be determined but can be predicted with a set of
possible results with a probability of occurrence. What decides whether a photon has to
go through or has to be absorbed so that the direction of polarization is changed during
the experiment? This question is outside the domain of science.
Further description is needed to correlate results of this experiment with results of other
experiments fitting into some general laws.
Oblique polarization can be described as superposition of two states parallel and
perpendicular polarization states Tourmaline effect is to make photon into a state parallel
or perpendicular polarization. Photon may jump to any of the two states with definite
probability. Observation causes the collapse of the superposed state to a definite stae.

Let us consider the case of Interference. Photons with definite position in space and
momentum values will interfere. Consider monochromatic beam of light. Location of
photon is known which will be anywhere in space through which the light beam passes
through. Momentum of photon is also known with magnitude hν/c. Information about
location and momentum of photon will be suffiicent to say that photon is in a definite
translation state.
How does QM describe interference phenomenon? Liht is split into two and consequently
made to interfere. Now consider the photon picture. Photon is in a translation state gien
by superposition of two translation states. . Photon is to be in a translation stte and can be
associated to two or more beams of light which are components to which the original
beam of light was split. Each translation state is associated with one of the wave
functions of the ordinary wave optics. Translation states are then superposable in a
similar way to wave functions.
Consider energy in one of the components of the beams. Results will be either the whole
photon or nothing at all. Photon should suddenly change from partly in one beam and
partly in another beam one to being entirely in one of the beams. This sudden change is
due to disurbance in translation state arising from observation. It is impossible to predict
in which beam the photon will be. Only probability can be calculated from the knowledge
of the photon distribution over the two beams. So long as photon is partly in one beam
and partly in another beam, interference can occur when they ovelap. But this possibility
disappears when we force the photon to be ientirely in one of the beams by an
observation. The other beam doesnot come in to the description of the photon sothat it is
entirely in one beam on which further experiment can be performed.
Thus we reconcile with wave and particle nature of light. Each translation state of photon
can be associated with wavefunction of ordinary wave optics. The wave function gives us
the information about the probability of our finding the photon in a particular place when
we make an observation.
Earlier people realized connection between light waves and photons as statistical nature
and the wave function provides probable number of photons. But , in the present context
we describe probability of one photon in a particular place and not in probable number of
photons in that place. Distinction can be made as follows.
Beam of light with large number of photons is split into two components of equal
intensity so that half the number of photons will be in one of the beams. Now when these
two components interfere, photon in one beam has to interfere with photon in the other
beam. This will lead to annihilation of photon ar creation of four photons. This
contradicts conservation of energy.In QM, on describing photon with wave function and
probabilities by making each photon partly going to both beams and interference takes
place with same photon. In other words, photon interferes with itself and not between two
different photons.
The association of waves and particles are not restricted to light alone. Each particle is
associated with matter waves. Thus all particles can interfer like waves and all wave can
exhibit particle behaviour. Why this is not obvious is due to the fact that wave of familiar
frequency will have associated quanta too small and wave associated with material
particles will have so high frequency that it is difficult to demonstrate interference.
One ma object that the dual nature of waves and particles do not help us to get any
picture unlike in the case of light as waves and electrons as particles. But the objective of
physical science is not to give any picture but to provide formulation of laws governing
the phenomena and expectation of these laws to discover new phenomena. In the case of
atomic system no picture in the conventioan sense is to be expected. One can extend the
concept of picture to include any way of looking at fundamental laws which makes their
self consistency obvious. One can have such picture in basic QM as Schrodinger picture,
Heisneberg picture and interaction ( Dirac) picture depending upon the way we describe
the system.
Another criticism is that on deoarting from the determinacy of CT, a great complication
is introducedinto the description of nature which is an undesirable feature. But this
complication can be pushed to background by a great simplification provided by the
principle of superposition of states.
Consider an atomic system composed of particles with specified properties like mass,
momentum etc., interacting with specific laws of force. There will be various possible
motions of particles consistent with laws of force. Each such motion can be called a state
of the system. CT provides numerical values for the states ( velocities and postions with
all components in respect of degees of freedom) while QT has limitation to power of
obsevations. State of the atom to be specified by indefinite data. For example, single
photon is described by given translation state and po;arization state.
State of a system is described as the undisturbed motion when conditions are possible
without mtual interference. This can be made possible by sorting particles to pass
through slits, polarizers , velocity selecteors etc.State is described for the system at one
specific time while state of motion is descibed during a period of time.

Any state can be thought of as superposition of two or more new states or superpostion f
two or more states give new state. Procedure of state expressing as superposition of a
number of other states is a mathematical procedure independent of any reference to
physical conditions like resolving a wave into its Fourier components. Its usefulness will
depend on specific physical conditions of the system.
Nature of relationships which superpostion principle requires to exist between states of
any system is a kind that cannot be explained in termas of features in familiar physical
concpets of CT. An entirely new idea is evolved in terms of which one can build up exact
mathematical theroy without having detailed classical picture.
When a state is formed by superposition of two states, the original state can be thought of
as having the nature of the two componet states. The nature of predominnat character
will depend on the weight factor of each componetn states together with their relative
pahse factor as described by mathematical formulation.
For example describing the supersposition of two orthogonal polarized lights one can
have photons with circular polarisation, elliptical polarisation or plane polarization
depending on the phase difference.
Nonclassical picute of supeposition can be described as follows. Let a system is in a state
S which is the superpotioin of two states A and B. When observation is made on the
system in state A will provide result a and state B will provide result b. What will be the
result of observation when the system is in state S? it will be some time a or some time b
depending on the probability law based on the relative weights of the two states A and
B.It will never be different from both a and b. The intermdiate character of the state
formed by superposition of states expresses itself through the probability of a particular
resultfor an observation being intermediatebetween the corresponding probabilities for
original states and not through result itself being intermediate between the
corresponding results for original states. In this way we see the drastic departure from
ordinary ideas as superposition between the states arises due to recognition of the
importance of disturbances resulting on the system due to observation.and the consequent
indeterminacy in the result of the observation. When an observation is made on an atomic
system in a given state the result in general will not be determinate . We may get several
different results when number of obsrvation is made on the system at identical conditions
we may get a partcular result as a fraction of the total number of observations or as a
probability of it being obtained. Theory calculates this probability and we get determinate
result of the experiment if the probability is unity.
The assumption of superposition relationsships between the states leads to a
mathematical theory in which equations that define the state are linear function of the
unknown variables. Hence people tried to construct analogies with systems in CM like
vibrating strings or membranes whivh are governed by linear differentail equations for
which superposition priciple holds. Such analogies have led to the name Wave
Mechanics given to QM. It is important to remember that the superposition principle in
CM is different from that in QM since the quantum superposition principle demands
indeterminacy in the results of observations so as to get consistent physical
interpretations. Thus the wave mechanical picture may sometimes liable to misleading

Mathematical Foundation of QM

Expermimetal observations made physicists to seek for alternate mathematical treatment

of Physics when dealing with atomic system for which Newtonian mechanics is found to
be insufficient. The departure from Newtonian mechanics lead to introduction of new
mathematical formulism, new axioms and new methods of manipulations while
describing atomic and molecular phenomena and lead to what is called QM. It
interconnects states of a dynamical system and dynamical variables through an
unconventioanl way which is unintelligible with CM. States and dynamical variables
have to be represnted in different way from their use in classical physics. The new
formulation lays down all the axioms and the rules for manipulation governing
mathematical quantities. In addition certain laws are laid to connect physical facts with
mathematical formulism so that from any physical condtions equations between
mathematical quantities and vice versa can be realized .
The mathemtical scheme is constructed by dealing with mathematical relations between
states states of dynamical variables at agiven instant of time. The mathematical relations
come from superposition principle which is an additive process so that states can in some
way added to get new states. The states must connected to mthematical quantities of a
kind in such a way that when two quantities are added we get new quantity of the same
kind. The most obvious such quantities are vectors. Ordinary vectros exist in finite
dimensional space which may not be suffcient to describe a general formulation of QM.
We have to describe vectors in infinite dimension space
We shall name of vectors representing the state of a quantum mechanical system
irrespective of finite or infinite dimensional space as ket vectors or kets represented by
the symbol .